LAW

Research Methodology
Data Analysis
Role Name Affiliation
Principal Investigator Prof. (Dr.) Ranbir Singh Vice Chancellor, National
Law University, Delhi
Co-Principal Investigator Prof. (Dr.) G.S. Bajpai Registrar, National Law
University Delhi
Paper Coordinator Prof. (Dr.) G.S. Bajpai Registrar, National Law
University Delhi
Content Writer/Author Prof. (Dr.) G.S. Bajpai Registrar, National Law
University Delhi
Ms Deepika Prakash National Law University
Delhi
Content Reviewer Prof. V.K.Srivastva Department of
Anthropology , University
of Delhi

DESCRIPTION OF MODULE

Items Description of Module

Subject Name Law
Paper Name Research Methodology
Module Name/Title Data Analysis
Module Id XIII
Objectives To study the concept and method of analyzing data in a
research
Key words Data processing, tabulation, graphical representation,
analysis , statistics, statistical software, interpretation

LEARNING OUTCOME
This module will elaborate on the meaning and utility of data analysis. It will provide
a brief understanding of data processing, analysis and interpretation in the research
process. The major focus of the module is to guide data analysis -how to plan, collect
and mange the data so collected in a quantitative research for a meaningful research
outcome.

1. OVERVIEW OF THE STEPS IN RESEARCH

In every research, following are the general steps involved:

 Defining problem
 Reviewing the available literature
 Formulation of hypothesis or research questions
 Creating a research design
 Collection of data with the help of various research tools
 Processing of the data collected
 Analysis and interpretation of the data
 Report writing
The present module seeks to understand how to handle the data which has been
collected in the research process in order to come up with some concrete findings in a
scientific and systematic manner. The data analysis in this module refers to data
collected only in a quantitative study. In such a study numerical data which has been
gathered by the researcher presents quantities and variables which have been collected
using tools such as structured observations, questionnaire and various tests.

2. MEANING OF DATA ANALYSIS

In any research, the step of analysis of the data is one of the most crucial tasks
requiring proficient knowledge to handle the data collected as per the pre decided
research design of the project.
Analysis of data is defined by Prof Wilkinson and Bhandarkar as-
A number of closely related operations that are performed with the
purpose of summarizing the collected data and organizing these in such a
manner that they will yield answers to the research questions or suggest
hypothesis or questions if no such questions or hypothesis had initiated the
study.
According to Goode , Barr and Scales,
analysis is a process which enters into research in one form or another form
the very beginning…It may be fair to say that research consists in general of
two larger steps –the gathering of data, but no amount of analysis can validly
extract from the data factors which are not present.
In his book on research methodology, C. R. Kothari explains that the term analysis
refers to the computation of certain measures along with searching for patterns of
relationship that exist among data-groups. He quotes G.B.Giles to further elaborate
the concept as “in the process of analysis, relationships or differences supporting or
conflicting with original or new hypotheses should be subjected to statistical tests of
significance to determine with what validity data can be said to indicate any
conclusions”

Hence, whether it is a qualitative or quantitative research even if the data is sufficient

and valid, it will not serve any purpose unless it is carefully processed and
scientifically analyzed and interpreted.

3. DIFFERENCE BETWEEN DATA ANALYSIS, PROCESSING AND

INTERPRETATION

The general understanding is that data analysis and processing are one and the same.
However a number of researchers and authors are of the opinion that both of them are
two very distinct steps in the research process where data processing leads to data
analysis. Lets us understand the difference between the two in more detail.

Prof. John Gauing is of the opinion that processing of data refers to concentrating,
recasting and dealing
with the data so that they are as responsive to analysis, while analysis of data refers to
seeing the data in the light of hypothesis of research questions and the prevailing
theories and drawing conclusions that are as amenable to theory formation as
possible. 1

According to Francis Rummel, “the analysis and interpretation of data involve the
objective material in the possession of the researcher and his subjective reaction and
desires to derive from the data the inherent meaning in their relation to the problem.
To avoid making conclusions or interpretations from insufficient or invalid data, the
final analysis must be anticipated in detail when plans are being made for collecting
information.

3.1 Data Processing

Once the data is collected, following steps are taken to process the data into more
measurable and concise manner:

a. Editing
In the stage of editing all the raw data that is collected is checked for errors,
omissions sometimes legibility and consistency as well. This ensure basic
standard in the data collected and facilitate further processing.
b. Coding
Coding refers to the process of assigning numerals or other symbols to
answers so that responses can be put into a limited number of categories or
classes. Such classes should be appropriate to the research problem under
consideration. They must also be exhaustive (i.e., there must be a class for
every data item) and also that of mutual exclusively which means that a
specific answer can be placed in one and only one cell in a given category
set. 2 Coding can also be pre or post. Pre coding meaning codes being
assigned while the questionnaire or interview schedule is being prepared. In
the case of post coding, codes are assigned to the answers after they are
collected.
c. Classification
Once the data is collected it is to be divided into homogeneous groups for
further analysis on the basis of common characteristics.
d. Tabulation
Tabulation is the process of summarizing raw data and displaying the same in
compact form (i.e., in the form of statistical tables) for further analysis. In a
broader sense, tabulation is an orderly arrangement of data in columns and
rows.

Tabulation is essential because of the following reasons-

1. It conserves space and reduces explanatory and descriptive statement to a
minimum.
2. It facilitates the process of comparison.
3. It facilitates the summation of items and the detection of errors and
omissions.
4. It provides the basis for various statistical computations.

1 Dr. Y.K.Singh and Dr. R.B Bajpai, Research Methodology: Data Presentation, p 151, APH
Publishing Corporation, ed 2012.
2 C.R.Kothari, Research Methodology- Methods and Techniques, P 123, new age international

limited publisher, 2nd ed.

 Tabulation can be done by hand or by mechanical or electronic devices. The
choice depends on the size and type of study, cost considerations, time
pressures and the availability of tabulating machines or computers. In
relatively large inquiries, we may use mechanical or computer tabulation if
other factors are favorable and necessary facilities are available.3

Tabulation may be a very effective way of making legal research

manageable, readable and understandable.

Types of table
There are generally two types of tables simple and complex. They are
discussed following:

(i) Simple table/ frequency distribution

Under it , the different attribute are stated in the left hand column and
the frequency or extend of occurrence of each of theses classed are
written in another column. In this three things are essential) the
classes made must be mutually exclusive, b) the tabulation must have
internal logic and order, and c) the class intervals must carefully and
reasonably selected.4 Following is an illustration of the same.

Table 1- Univariate5
Age of the Frequency Percentage
respondents
Below 10 14 10.8

11-20 18 13.8

21-30 22 16.9

31-40 42 32.3

41-50 26 20

Above 50 8 6.2

Total 130 100

In the above table the only variant is age.

(ii) Complex or cross table

3 Supra note 2.
4 Dr R. Kumar, Methodology of social Science Research, p223, Book Enclave , Jaipur, 2002.
5 R.Ahuja, Research Methods,
 In a complex table, bi or multivariate are used. These have become
more popular in the research representation in recent years.
Following is an example of the same.
Table 2- Multivariate
Income SEX Total
(Rupees) Male Female
Rural Urban Rural Urban
Below 100 20 23 8 12 63

101-500 18 30 10 36 94

501-1000 10 28 5 21 64

Above 1000 5 15 2 14 36

Above 5000 2 10 0 8 20

Above10000 1 8 0 5 14

In the above table there are three variants i.e income, residence and
sex are being studied and tabulated.

Preparation of a table
Following are certain guidelines to be kept in mind while preparing a
table:
1. Title of the table - give suitable heading to each table which
should be short and appropriate
2. Sub headings and captions - subheadings to different columns
and rows must be given. Captions are given to the various
classifications made like income, age, sex etc.
3. Size of the column- each column must have the correct size
which make them look more attractive
4. Arrangement of items in rows and columns - items must be
arranged in one order like alphabetically, chronologically etc.
5. Totals - the total for different columns must be different.
6. Demarcation of columns - If columns have been divided further
into sub groups, they should be in an suitable order and sub
headings
7. Footnotes - If there is anything special about the table or figures
which need to be bought attention to, the same should be
mentioned in a footnote.

3.2 Data Interpretation

Once the data has been processed and analyzed, the final step required in the research
process is interpretation of the data. The line between analysis and interpretation is
very thin. Through interpretation one understands what the given research findings
really mean and what is the underlying generalization which is manifested thought
the data collected. This can be descriptive or analytical or theoretical. The data is
 interpreted from the point of the research questions and hypothesis is tested. While
interpretation is being done, generalizations are drawn. Thus, interpretation consists
of conclusion s that the researcher has reached after the data has been processed and
analyzed.

It is interesting to mention that Bloom’s taxonomy has laid down a structure on data
presentation6:
1. Describe - Pen down the ‘facts’ observed/ heard after filtering the non relevant data.
2. Classify - Group the material based similarities, categorize, and make headings.
3. Interpret - identify important features and patterns in the light of the research
questions or hypothesis and then represent them.

4. TYPES OF DATA ANALYSIS

Data analysis depends upon the nature of research that the researcher is undertaking.
Types of data analysis vary depending upon whether the research is qualitative or
quantitative in nature. In the present module, as earlier stated we will be studying
various types of data analysis from the stand point of quantitative research only.

Data
analysis

Descriptive Inferential
analysis analysis

4.1 Descriptive analysis

According to C Emory, “descriptive analysis is largely the study of distribution of
one variable. This study provides us with profiles of companies, work groups, persons
and other subjects on any multiple characteristics such as size, composition,
efficiency, preferences, etc.”7

Illustration: The researcher is collecting data from various law colleges in India to
map the job preferences of the students in the final year of LL.B. In such a research
job preferences like litigation, corporate, further studies, judiciary etc becomes the
variable.

6 G. Guthrie, Basic Research Methods an entry to social science research, p 158, Sage publication ,
3rd edition 2012
7 C. William Emory, Business Research Methods, p. 356.
Under it statistical tools like percentage and means are used and the data is then
represented through a graph. The data analysis may be having one variable also
known as one-dimensional analysis or two variables/ bivariate analysis or more than
two variables also described as multivariate analysis.

4.2 Inferential analysis

Inferential analysis is concerned with the various tests of significance for testing
hypotheses in order to determine with what validity data can be said to indicate some
conclusion or conclusions. It is also concerned with the estimation of population
values. It is mainly on the basis of inferential analysis that the task of interpretation
(i.e., the task of drawing inferences and conclusions) is performed.
Illustration:
The researcher is studying the access to justice system in India and his hypothesis
beings that the India justice delivery system favors the haves and marginalizes the
have not’s. The data collected is from various stages in the delivery system like police
station, courts of justice, litigants etc. Once the data is collected, proceeded then the
researcher does inferential analysis to test the validity of the hypotheses.

5. GENERAL CHARATERISTICS OF ANALYSIS OF THE DATA

1. The researcher should keep in mind that the analysis of data will vary depending
upon the type of study i.e. qualitative or quantitative or mixed in nature.
2. The researcher should posses thorough knowledge of the area of research as well as
the data collected by him which will help in the analysis of data.
3. The data to be analyzed and interpreted should:
a. Be reproducible,
b. Be readily disposed to quantitative treatment
c. Have significance for some systematic theory, and can serve as broad
generalization.
4. The researcher should keep a clear set of hypothesis formulated at the very start of
the research which will lead to clearer actions and better data collection as well as
analysis.
5. In case the data collected is from vague clues rather than according to the specific
hypothesis, in such cases the data are analyzed inductively or investigated during the
process and not by means of any prescribed set of rules.
6. For a successful study, the task of analysis and interpretation should be designed
before the data is actually collected.

6. STATISTICAL ANALYSIS OF DATA

Statistics is an important tool in the hands of a researcher for a good research.

Croxton and Cowden, two well known statisticians have introduced a simple,
definition of statistics. In their words, “statistics may be defined as the science of
collection, presenting and analysis and interpretation of numerical data.” 8
Statistics is not merely a device for collecting numerical data but also a means of
sound techniques for their handling, analysis and drawing value inferences from them.

8S Gupta, Research Methodology and Statistical techniques, p 200, Deep and Deep Publication,
2007.
When the data are collected, edited, classified, tabulated, it is analyzed and interpreted
with the help of various statistical techniques and tools depending upon the nature of
the investigation.
6.1 Uses of statistics
Statistics is useful in all fields of research and study. One of the greatest advantages
of the use of statistics is that in a research with large data, it helps in reducing such
data into a more manageable size for the purpose of analysis and interpretation. It also
helps in comparing two or more series as well as draw inferences and conclusions of
the research.
Illustration- The researcher is doing an impact analysis of the National Food Security
Act, 2013 in the National Capital Territory. The universe of the researcher in such a
case is Delhi, and the population is all the segments of people who are eligible for the
food under the said Act. The tool of data collection chosen by the researcher is survey
method. Once the data is collected, the size of the data would be big. Here, statistical
tools would be of great assistance to the researcher to achieve his research objective.
6.2 Limitations of statistics
Though statistical methods are of great value to a researcher, they carry with
themselves certain limitations which must be kept in mind while deciding a tool of
data analysis. They are:
1. Qualitative values like subjective perceptions, qualities and attributes are not
considered under statistics. It only considers quantities. This by far is the greatest
limitation of statistics.
2. Statistics studies and analysis group attributes rather than individual characteristics
and values.
3. Statistical analysis is mostly based on average; hence the inferences drawn through
them are only approximate and not exact like that of mathematics.
4. Statistics only help discover, analyze certain characteristics. It does not explain the
picture. Hence, it only forms a part of the inference and interpretation.

6.3 Tools of statistical analysis

There are various statistical tools which are available for the researcher’s assistance.

data analysis
tools

measure
measure of measure of mesaure of other
central
dispersion asymmetry relationship measures
tendency

1. Measure central tendency

The term central tendency connotes the average. The most common central tendency
tools are average or mean, median, mode, geometric mean and harmonic mean.
2. Measure of dispersion
The measure of dispersion or variability is the most common corrective measure for
the concept of average. The most common method of the same is standard deviation.
Others are mean deviation and range.
3. Measure of asymmetry
 The tools used under it are skewness and kurtosis. Skewness is a measure that refers
to the extent of symmetry or asymmetry in a distribution. It is used to describe the
shape of a distribution. Kurtosis is a measure that indicates the degree to which a
curve of a frequency distribution is peaked or flat-topped.
4. Measure of relationship
Correlation and coefficient is commonly used to measure the relationship. It is mostly
used for prediction. Higher the degree of correlation, greater the accuracy with which
one can predict a score. Karl Pearson’s coefficient of correlation is the frequently
used measure in case of statistics of variables, whereas Yule’s coefficient of
association is used in case of statistics of attributes. Multiple correlation coefficient,
partial correlation coefficient, regression analysis, etc., are other important measures
often used by a researcher.9

5. Other measures
Index number and analysis of time series are some of the other tools of data analysis.

Index numbers are indicators which reflect the relative changes in the level of a
certain phenomenon in any given period called the current period with respect to its
values in some other period called the base period selected primarily for this
comparison.

Illustration: Index number is used to compare the changes in the national income of
India from independence (1947) to the year 2014.

Analysis of time series

A time series is an arrangement of statistical data in accordance with its time of
occurrence. If the values of a phenomenon are observed at different periods of time,
the values so obtained will show appreciable variations.

6.4 Statistical software packages

To assist the researcher in quantitative data analysis, there are various statistic
softwares available for computerized statistical data analysis. Some of them are
available in the open source/ public domain i.e. free of cost while others are paid and
purchased softwares. They are of great help when analyzing large quantities of data.
The two most commonly used softwares are SAS (Statistical Analysis System) and
SPSS (Statistical Package for Social Sciences).

7. ANALYSIS WHEN HYPOTHESIS EXISTS

When specific hypothesis has been set down, then the major part of analysis involves
getting the appropriate combinations of data and reading them so as to verify or
falsify the hypothesis. A hypothesis which is tested for possible rejection is known as
‘null hypotheses. Null hypothesis is very much useful in testing the significant
difference between assumed and observed values.

8. PRECUATIONS IN ANALYSIS AND INTERPERTATION OF DATA

Following are some of the common precautions to be kept in mind while analyzing
and interpreting the data:
1. Comprehensive knowledge and proper perspective

9 Supra note no 2.
 The researcher while analyzing and interpreting the data must have thorough
knowledge of the research from a wider perspective rather than analyzing the
immediate element of the problem.
2. Take into account all pertinent elements
The researcher must keep all relevant factors/elements into consideration while
analyzing and interpreting the data. Failure to do so will make the generalizations
drawn inaccurate.
3. Limitations of the study
The researcher must mention all the limitations in the study like non-representation in
sampling, bias in the data, inadequacy in the design, inaccurate statistical analysis etc
.
4. Proper evaluation of data
Suitable interpretation of data lies on proper evaluation of facts. The researcher must
interpret and analyze the data thoroughly himself for better results.

9. DIAGRAMMATIC REPRESENTATATION
A very convenient and appealing method of data representation is by using various
forms of diagrams. They in a very meaningful way highlight the salient features of
the data which makes them easy to understand. Following are examples of some of
the diagrammatic representations that may be employed in the research report. It may
be noted that all the diagrams are fictitious and made only for illustrative purpose
here:

a) Graph
In a graph there are two axis the X and Y axis. X axis is horizontal and the Y axis
is vertical intersecting the X axis. The point where intersection occurs is the place
of origin. The independent variables are scaled on the X axis and the dependent
one on the Y axis.

Following is an illustration of the same.

In the graph the growth of female literacy in India since independence has been
shown. The X axis has the years while the Y axis has the rate of growth of
women literacy in India.
Graph
 80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0
1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010

b) Bar diagram
The bar diagrams are drawn either vertically or horizontally. Each bar indicates
the value of the variable.
Illustration- The following bar diagram shows by way of example what was the
voters turn out till the year 2010 general election in the state of Delhi. The data is
merely for illustration purpose.

Growth of voters in India

2001-2010

1991-2000

1981-1990
Female turnout
1971-1980 Male turnout

1961-1970

1950-1960

0 20 40 60 80

c) Pie chart

In a pie chart, the data is presented in the form of a circle with each category
occupying a segment that is proportional according to the size of its data.
 Following is an illustration of the same:

Percentage distribution of crimes in

India in the year 2000

Domestic crimes
Economic crimes
Property crimes
Violent crimes
other crimes

10. CONCLUSION

In the research process, data analysis is a very important and scientific step especially
when the researcher is conducting a quantitative research. The researcher must
understand the research area comprehensively and do the processing, analysis and
finally interpretation with the help of various techniques and tools of analysis
depending upon the nature, scope and aims of the research being conducted.