1. What is meant by the geometric modelling of an object?

is the creation and manipulation of a computer-based representation or simulation of an existing object, in place
of the real object.

 Main categories of Geometric Modelling:

• Representation of an existing object.

• Initiation of design: creation of a new object to meet functional and/or visual requirements.

• Rendering: generating an image of the model for visual interpretation

 Advantage:
• No materials and no manufacturing processes.

• Full scale.

• Computational evaluation, analysis, and testing.

• Changes and refinements can be made and evaluated easily and quickly.

• Extracting 2-D drawings from 3-D geometric model.

• Higher precision and completeness than physical model/ paper design.

• Leads to the opportunity of automated production.

 Geometric Data Uses
1. Conceptual Design.

2. Analysis. (Weight, Hydrostatic, Structural, Hydrodynamics)

3. Classification and Regulation.

4. Tooling and Manufacturing.

5. Maintenance and Repair

2) Surface modelling
Surface of product: mathematical formulas are developed and maintained.

 Advantage over wireframe are

• Highly precise and more compact, and easier to modify.

• Wireframe can be easily computed from the surface.

• These calculations are conducted with sufficient accuracy.

• also more complete: points can be evaluated on vessel ‘s surfaces at any desired location .

• Such views will be 100% consistent with each other and with 3-D surface
 3) Associative Geometric Modelling
• Represent and store generative relationships between the geometric elements of model in such a way that some
elements can be automatically updated when others change, in order to maintain the captured relationships.

• The general concept can save much effort in revising geometry during the design process and in modifying.

 Types of AGM:
1. Parametric Modelling.

2. Variational Modelling.

3. Feature-Based Modelling.

4. Relational Geometry.

4) what are the uses of surfaces?

• Explicit design elements, such as the hull or weather deck surfaces

• Construction elements, such as a horizontal rectangular surface locating an interior deck

• Boundaries for solids.

5) Bead
point embedded in a curve

 Ways to construct such points:

• Absolute bead: specified by curve and (t) parameter.

• Relative bead: specified by parameter offset (Δt) from other bead .

• Arc length bead: specified by arc length distance from another

bead or from one end of a curve.

• Intersection bead: located at the intersection Of the Curve with a (plane, surface, or another curve).

 The uses of beads include:

• assign a location on the curve to compute a tangent or location of a fitting.

• Endpoints of a sub curve, a portion of the host curve between two beads.

• End points
6) What are the traditional model of marine vessel was needed?
(1) agreement consistency of the three orthogonal views

(2) “fairness” or quality of the curves in all views

(3) meeting the design objectives of stability, capacity, performance, seaworthiness, etc.

7) Conceptual Design
• modifying an existing design + modifications or

• starting a new design (analysis and performance simulation, exploring and optimizing over a wide range of
alternatives in configuration, proportions, leading dimensions, and proposed shapes).

8) What are the main types of analysis needed for a marine vessel?
a) Weight analysis:
Relating weight to geometry requires the calculation of lengths, areas and, volumes and of the centroids of
curves, surfaces and solids and knowledge of unit weights (per unit length, area, or volume) of the materials used
in construction.

b) Hydrostatics Analysis
is the evaluation of forces and moments resulting from the variable static fluid pressures acting on the exterior
surfaces of the vessel and the interior surfaces of tanks, and the static equilibrium of the vessel under these and
other imposed forces and moments.

c) Structural analysis
is the prediction of strength and deformation of the vessel’s structures under the loads expected to be
encountered in routine service, as well as extraordinary loads which may threaten the vessel’s integrity and
survival.

Approximation levels:

1. One-dimensional (1-D) : the entire ship is treated as a slender beam having cross sectional properties and
transverse loads which vary with respect to longitudinal position.

2. Ship structures are approximated by structural models (essentially 1-D and 2-D) beam, plate, and shell finite
elements connected into a 3-D structure.

3. regions of the ship that are identified as critical high-stress areas may be modelled in great detail with meshes
of 3-D finite elements.

d) Hydrodynamic analysis
is the prediction of forces, motions, and structural loads resulting from movement of the ship through the water,
and movement of water around the ship, including effects of waves in the ocean environment.
9) what is meant by classification of marine structure?
Classification is a process of qualifying a ship or marine structure for safe service in her intended operation and
to qualify for commercial insurance. It is extremely important to respect classification requirements during
design process.

• Although final approvals depend on inspection of the finished vessel, it is extremely important to anticipate
classification requirements at the earliest design stages.

• Much of the information required for classification and regulation is geometric in nature (design drawings and
geometric models).

10) Analytic Properties of Curves

x(t) signifying a vector of two or three components ({x, y} for 2-D curves and {x ,y, z} for 3-D curves).
• Examples :
• Differential geometry
• Tangent vector
• Parametric velocity
• Arc length
• The tangent vector

11) Define the Manufacturing process

is the creation of individual parts from various materials through diverse fabrication, treatment, and finishing
processes, and the assembly of these parts into the final product.

12) Parametric Modelling

• Geometric shapes are related by formulas to set of leading dimensions which become the parameters defining a
parametric family of models.
• The sequence of model construction steps is stored in a linear history which can be replayed with different input
or modified.

13) Directed graph ( digraph)

• Is the underlying logical structure of an RG model, in which each node represents an entity, and each edge
represents a dependency relationship between two entities.
• The graph is directed, because each dependency is a directed relationship, with one entity playing the role of
support or parent and the other playing the role of dependent or child.

14) State the five levels of definitions of the geometry of a ship.

1. Particulars
2. Offsets
3. Wireframe
4. Surface models
5. Solid models
15) Describe the aim of wireframes.
It shows only a finite number of the possible plane sections, to locate points on the surface that do not lie on any
wires requires further interpolation steps.

16) Differentiate between parametric and variational modelling?

1. Parametric Modelling
• Geometric shapes are related by formulas to set of leading dimensions which become the parameters defining a
parametric family of models.
• The sequence of model construction steps is stored in a linear history which can be replayed with different input or
modified.
2. Variational Modelling
• In variational modelling, geometric positions, shapes, constructions are controlled by a set of dimensions,
constraints and formulas which are solved and applied simultaneously rather than sequentially.

17) What is IGES?

initial graphics exchange specification
• neutral standard computer file format for exchange of geometric information between CAD systems.
• ASCII(text) file is the most used.
• Organized (start, global, directory entry, parameter data, and
terminate)
• No standardized way to relationships between entities.
• IGES is a project of the American National Standards Institute
(ANSI)

17) What is STEP?

• Standard for the Exchange of Product model data
• It is a neutral standard for capturing, storing, and communicating digital product data.
• STEP describes non-geometric information such as design inlet and decisions, materials, fabrication and
manufacturing processes, assembly and maintenance of the product and geometric information is still a very
important component of STEP representations.
• STEP is a project of the International Standards Organization (ISO).

18) Give three examples of features that are contrary to fairness.

• Unnecessarily hard turns (local high curvature).
• Flat spots (local low curvature).
• Abrupt change of curvature, as in the transition from a straight line to a tangent circular arc
• Unnecessary inflection points (reversals of curvature).

19) What is meant by spline curves?

• Spline curves originated as mathematical models of the flexible curves used for drafting and lofting of freeform
curves in ship design.
• Splines are composite function generated by splicing together spans of relatively simple function usually low order
polynomials.
• The location where spans join called knots.
 Types:
– Explicit Spline curves: The most basic definition of a curve in two dimensions is y=f(x). ( limited if slope is
infinite)
– Parametric Spline curve: can be used to generate curves
that are more general the explicit equations of the form
y= f(x).

20) Define the different degrees of continuity between intersecting curves.

G0: Two curves that join end-to-end with an arbitrary angle at the junction are said to have G0 continuity, or
“geometric continuity of zero order”.
G1: Curves join with zero angle at the junction and have the same tangent direction (1st order geometric
continuity or slope continuity or tangent continuity).
G2: curves join with zero angle, and have the same curvature at the junction (2nd order geometric continuity or
curvature continuity.)

21) What are the arc entity types?

1. A BCurve is a uniform B-spline curve which depends on two or more control points.
2. SubCurve is the portion of any curve between two beads re-parameterized to the range [0,1].
3. ProjCurve is the projected curve described in preceding section.

22) What are the advantages of relational structure?

1. The curve can be automatically update if any of its supporting entities changes.
2. The curves can be durably joined at their endpoints by referencing a given point entity in common.

23) What are the limitations of the graphically faired lines plan?
1. Residual discrepancies and unfairness resulting from the limited accuracy of the drafting operations
2. It is only a wireframe representation. To obtain information for the actual surface at a point that is not on one of
the lines, further interpolation is needed.

24) objective of fairing

• to bring the three views into complete agreement with each other.
• to meet hydrostatic targets such as displacement and longitudinal center of buoyancy
• to make each line in each view a satisfactorily fair curve.
• to achieve visual objectives in the appearance of the vessel.

25) What are advantages of wireframe computer fairing?

1. Precision is not limited by drafting operations.
2. Elimination of human error in transferring locations between views.
3. Automation of some steps allows the operator to work with a larger number of contours.
4. Curvature profiling tools are much more sensitive than visual evaluation of curve fairness.
5. Sufficient accuracy is obtainable to permit NC cutting of parts from final interpolated curves.
 26) Give examples and description of applications that require discretization of the
complete hull surface?
Example: aerodynamic and hydrodynamic analysis, 3-D hydrostatics, radiation-diffraction wave-body analysis and
radar cross-section.
 Structural code that deals with the complete hull shell.
 Nonlinear hydrodynamics code that creates its own panels below a wavy free surface.

27) What are the advantages of designing with a parametric surface model?
1. The hull surface is completely defined at all times; points at any position can be precisely located without
ambiguity.
2. Since the model is 3-D, the three orthogonal views (and any other projections or renderings) are automatically in
agreement; no effort needs to be expended to keep them.
3. Analysis data can be extracted in a variety of forms, e.g., transverse sections for hydrostatics, discretized models
for resistance, propulsion, and survivability.
4. The surface definition can be utilized in planning subdivision,
e.g., shell plate layout, compartmentation, and interior structural elements.
5. Manufacturing data can be extracted in a variety of forms, e.g., full size patterns for parts.

28) Lofting
is the process of creating a full- scale (or at least large-scale) lines plan or “laydown”.
• Lofting is a continuation of the iterative graphical lines fairing process at full size.
• Lofting is serve as a template for fabrication of tooling such as mold frames and actual vessel components such as
frames, bulkheads, floors, longitudinal, and shell plates
• Lofting is a continuation of the iterative graphical lines fairing process at full size, so it can be much more precise.

29) uses of curve

• as explicit design elements, such as the sheer line, chines, or stem profile of a ship
• as components of a wireframe representation of surfaces.
• as control curves for generating surfaces by various constructions.

30) B-spline and NURBS

B-spline
• A B-spline basis function (“B-spline”) is a continuous curve x(t) defined in relation to a sequence of control points.
• the B-splines can be viewed as variable weights applied to the control points to generate or sweep out the curve.
• The parametric B-spline curve imitates in shape the usually open) control polygon or polyline joining its control
points in sequence.
NURBS
• NURBS Curves = Non-Uniform Rational B- Splines
– Non-uniform means: non uniform knots
– Rational reflects to representation of a NURBS curve as a fraction involving non-negative weights.
Advantages of NURBS:
1. Specific choices of weights and knots exist which will make a NURRBS curve take the exact shape of any choice
section
2. Provides a single unified representation
3. Used to approximate any other curve
4. Widely adopted for communication of curves between CAD system.
Implicit curve definition:

the set of points that satisfy an implicit equation

f(x , y)=0 or f(x, y, z) =0

Explicit curve definition:

one coordinate is expressed as an explicit function of the other: y= f(x) or y=f(x), z= g(x)

Parametric curve definition:

In either 2-D or 3-D each coordinate is expressed as an explicit function of a common dimensionless
parameter:

x=f(t), y = g(t), z = h(t)

Issues need to be resolved to specify a cubic spline uniquely:

• Parameters values at the knots

• End conditions

• An entity’s ancestors means all its supports back to the beginning of the model.

• An entity’s descendants means all its dependents.

✓ Step 1. Build a model that has high face validity.

✓ Step 2. Validate model assumptions.
✓ Step 3. Compare the model input-output transformations to corresponding input-output
transformations for the real system
Verification:
"Are we building the product right”.

The software should conform to its specification.

Validation:
"Are we building the right product”.

The software should do what the user really requires.

A curve is a 1-D continuous point set embedded in a 2-D or 3-D space.

Degrees of parametric continuity

C0: Two curves that share a common endpoint. They may join with G1 or G2 continuity, but if their
parametric velocities are different at the junction, they are only C0.

C1: Two curves that are G1 and have the same parametric velocity at the junction.

C2: Two curves that are G2 and have the same parametric velocity and acceleration at the junction.
understanding