Introduction to Quantitative Analysis

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After completing this chapter, students will be able to:

1.1 Describe the quantitative analysis approach 1.4 Prepare a quantitative analysis model.
and understand how to apply it to a real 1.5 Use computers and spreadsheet models to
situation. perform quantitative analysis.
1.2 Describe the three categories of business 1.6 Recognize possible problems in using
analytics. quantitative analysis.
1.3 Describe the use of modeling in quantitative 1.7 Recognize implementation concerns of
analysis. quantitative analysis.

P
eople have been using mathematical tools to help solve problems for thousands of years;
however, the formal study and application of quantitative techniques to practical decision
making is largely a product of the twentieth century. The techniques we study in this book
have been applied successfully to an increasingly wide variety of complex problems in business,
government, health care, education, and many other areas. Many such successful uses are dis-
cussed throughout this book.
It isn’t enough, though, just to know the mathematics of how a particular quantitative tech-
nique works; you must also be familiar with the limitations, assumptions, and specific applica-
bility of the technique. The successful use of quantitative techniques usually results in a solution
that is timely, accurate, flexible, economical, reliable, and easy to understand and use.
In this and other chapters, there are QA (Quantitative Analysis) in Action boxes that provide
success stories on the applications of management science. They show how organizations have
used quantitative techniques to make better decisions, operate more efficiently, and generate
more profits. For example, Taco Bell has reported saving over $150 million with better fore-
casting of demand and better scheduling of employees. NBC television increased advertising
revenue by over $200 million by using a model to help develop sales plans for advertisers. Be-
fore it merged with United Airlines, Continental Airlines saved over $40 million a year by using
mathematical models to quickly recover from disruptions caused by weather delays and other
factors. These are but a few of the many companies discussed in QA in Action boxes throughout
this book.

M01_REND7659_13_GE_C01.indd 19 29/03/17 1:31 PM

 To see other examples of how companies use quantitative analysis or operations research
methods to operate better and more efficiently, go to the website www.scienceofbetter.org. The
success stories presented there are categorized by industry, functional area, and benefit. These
success stories illustrate how operations research is truly the “science of better.”

1.1  What Is Quantitative Analysis?

Quantitative analysis uses a Quantitative analysis is the scientific approach to managerial decision making. This field of
scientific approach to decision study has several different names, including quantitative analysis, management science, and
making. operations research. These terms are used interchangeably in this book. Also, many of the quan-
titative analysis methods presented in this book are used extensively in business analytics.
Whim, emotions, and guesswork are not part of the quantitative analysis approach. The ap-
proach starts with data. Like raw material for a factory, these data are manipulated or processed
into information that is valuable to people making decisions. This processing and manipulating
of raw data into meaningful information is the heart of quantitative analysis. Computers have
been instrumental in the increasing use of quantitative analysis.
In solving a problem, managers must consider both qualitative and quantitative factors. For
example, we might consider several different investment alternatives, including certificates of
deposit at a bank, investments in the stock market, and an investment in real estate. We can use
quantitative analysis to determine how much our investment will be worth in the future when de-
posited at a bank at a given interest rate for a certain number of years. Quantitative analysis can
also be used in computing financial ratios from the balance sheets for several companies whose
stock we are considering. Some real estate companies have developed computer programs that
use quantitative analysis to analyze cash flows and rates of return for investment property.
Both qualitative and quantitative In addition to quantitative analysis, qualitative factors should be considered. The weather,
factors must be considered. state and federal legislation, new technological breakthroughs, the outcome of an election, and
so on may all be factors that are difficult to quantify.
Because of the importance of qualitative factors, the role of quantitative analysis in the deci-
sion-making process can vary. When there is a lack of qualitative factors and when the problem,
model, and input data remain the same, the results of quantitative analysis can automate the
decision-making process. For example, some companies use quantitative inventory models to
determine automatically when to order additional new materials. In most cases, however, quanti-
tative analysis will be an aid to the decision-making process. The results of quantitative analysis
will be combined with other (qualitative) information in making decisions.
Quantitative analysis has been particularly important in many areas of management. The
field of production management, which evolved into production/operations management (POM)
as society became more service oriented, uses quantitative analysis extensively. While POM
focuses on the internal operations of a company, the field of supply chain management takes a
more complete view of the business and considers the entire process of obtaining materials from
suppliers, using the materials to develop products, and distributing these products to the final
consumers. Supply chain management makes extensive use of many management science mod-
els. Another area of management that could not exist without the quantitative analysis methods
presented in this book, and perhaps the hottest discipline in business today, is business analytics.

1.2  Business Analytics

Business analytics is a data-driven approach to decision making that allows companies to make
better decisions. The study of business analytics involves the use of large amounts of data, which
means that information technology related to the management of the data is very important. Sta-
tistical and quantitative methods are used to analyze the data and provide useful information to
the decision maker.
Business analytics is often broken into three categories: descriptive, predictive, and prescrip-
tive. Descriptive analytics involves the study and consolidation of historical data for a business
and an industry. It helps a company measure how it has performed in the past and how it is per-
forming now. Predictive analytics is aimed at forecasting future outcomes based on patterns in
the past data. Statistical and mathematical models are used extensively for this purpose. Prescrip-
tive analytics involves the use of optimization methods to provide new and better ways to operate

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 TABLE 1.1 
BUSINESS ANALYTICS
Business Analytics and CATEGORY QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS TECHNIQUE
Quantitative Analysis
Models Descriptive analytics Statistical measures such as means and standard deviations (Chapter 2)
Statistical quality control (Chapter 15)
Predictive analytics Decision analysis and decision trees (Chapter 3)
Regression models (Chapter 4)
Forecasting (Chapter 5)
Project scheduling (Chapter 11)
Waiting line models (Chapter 12)
Simulation (Chapter 13)
Markov analysis (Chapter 14)
Prescriptive analytics Inventory models such as the economic order quantity (Chapter 6)
Linear programming (Chapters 7, 8)
Transportation and assignment models (Chapter 9)
Integer programming, goal programming, and nonlinear programming
(Chapter 10)
Network models (Chapter 9)

based on specific business objectives. The optimization models presented in this book are very
important to prescriptive analytics. While there are only three business analytics categories, many
business decisions are made based on information obtained from two or three of these categories.
Many of the quantitative analysis techniques presented in the chapters of this book are used
extensively in business analytics. Table 1.1 highlights the three categories of business analytics,
and it places many of the topics and chapters in this book in the most relevant category. Keep in
mind that some topics (and certainly some chapters with multiple concepts and models) could
The three categories of business possibly be placed in a different category. Some of the material in this book could overlap two or
analytics are descriptive, even three of these categories. Nevertheless, all of these quantitative analysis techniques are very
predictive, and prescriptive. important tools in business analytics.

1.3  The Quantitative Analysis Approach

Defining the problem can be the The quantitative analysis approach consists of defining a problem, developing a model, acquir-
most important step. ing input data, developing a solution, testing the solution, analyzing the results, and implement-
ing the results (see Figure 1.1). One step does not have to be finished completely before the
Concentrate on only a few next is started; in most cases, one or more of these steps will be modified to some extent before
problems. the final results are implemented. This would cause all of the subsequent steps to be changed.
In some cases, testing the solution might reveal that the model or the input data are not correct.
This would mean that all steps that follow defining the problem would need to be modified.

HISTORY The Origin of Quantitative Analysis

Q uantitative analysis has been in existence since the begin-

ning of recorded history, but it was Frederick Winslow Taylor
personnel or consultants to apply the principles of scien-
tific management to the challenges and opportunities of the
twenty-first century.
who in the late 1800s and early 1900s pioneered the appli- The origin of many of the techniques discussed in this book
cation of the principles of the scientific approach to manage- can be traced to individuals and organizations that have applied
ment. Dubbed the “Father of Industrial Engineering,” Taylor is the principles of scientific management first developed by Taylor;
credited with introducing many new scientific and quantitative they are discussed in History boxes throughout the book. Trivia:
techniques. These new developments were so successful that Taylor was also a world-class golfer and tennis player, finishing
many companies still use his techniques in managerial deci- just off the medal stand in golf at the 1900 Olympics and winning
sion making and planning today. Indeed, many organizations the inaugural men’s doubles title (with Clarence Clark) at the U.S.
employ a staff of operations research or management science Open Tennis Championships.

M01_REND7659_13_GE_C01.indd 21 29/03/17 1:31 PM

 FIGURE 1.1 Defining the Problem
The Quantitative Analysis The first step in the quantitative approach is to develop a clear, concise statement of the prob-
Approach lem. This statement will give direction and meaning to the following steps.
In many cases, defining the problem is the most important and the most difficult step. It is
Defining
the Problem essential to go beyond the symptoms of the problem and identify the true causes. One problem
may be related to other problems; solving one problem without regard to other, related problems
can make the entire situation worse. Thus, it is important to analyze how the solution to one
Developing problem affects other problems or the situation in general.
a Model It is likely that an organization will have several problems. However, a quantitative analysis
group usually cannot deal with all of an organization’s problems at one time. Thus, it is usually
necessary to concentrate on only a few problems. For most companies, this means selecting
Acquiring
Input Data
those problems whose solutions will result in the greatest increase in profits or reduction in costs
for the company. The importance of selecting the right problems to solve cannot be overempha-
sized. Experience has shown that bad problem definition is a major reason for failure of manage-
Developing ment science or operations research groups to serve their organizations well.
a Solution When the problem is difficult to quantify, it may be necessary to develop specific, measur-
able objectives. A problem might be inadequate health care delivery in a hospital. The objectives
might be to increase the number of beds, reduce the average number of days a patient spends
Testing the
in the hospital, increase the physician-to-patient ratio, and so on. When objectives are used,
Solution
however, the real problem should be kept in mind. It is important to avoid setting specific and
measurable objectives that may not solve the real problem.
Analyzing
the Results Developing a Model
Once we select the problem to be analyzed, the next step is to develop a model. Simply stated, a
model is a representation (usually mathematical) of a situation.
Implementing
Even though you might not have been aware of it, you have been using models most of your
the Results
life. You may have developed models about people’s behavior. Your model might be that friend-
ship is based on reciprocity, an exchange of favors. If you need a favor such as a small loan, your
model would suggest that you ask a good friend.
Of course, there are many other types of models. Architects sometimes make a physical
model of a building that they will construct. Engineers develop scale models of chemical plants,
called pilot plants. A schematic model is a picture, drawing, or chart of reality. Automobiles,
lawn mowers, gears, fans, smartphones, and numerous other devices have schematic models
The types of models include
(drawings and pictures) that reveal how these devices work. What sets quantitative analysis apart
physical, scale, schematic, and
from other techniques is that the models that are used are mathematical. A mathematical model
mathematical models.
is a set of mathematical relationships. In most cases, these relationships are expressed in equa-
tions and inequalities, as they are in a spreadsheet model that computes sums, averages, or stan-
dard deviations.
Although there is considerable flexibility in the development of models, most of the models
presented in this book contain one or more variables and parameters. A variable, as the name
implies, is a measurable quantity that may vary or is subject to change. Variables can be control-
lable or uncontrollable. A controllable variable is also called a decision variable. An example
would be how many inventory items to order. A parameter is a measurable quantity that is in-
herent in the problem. The cost of placing an order for more inventory items is an example of a
parameter. In most cases, variables are unknown quantities, while parameters are known quanti-
ties. Hence, in our example, how much inventory to order is a variable that needs to be decided,
whereas how much it will cost to place the order is a parameter that is already known. All mod-
els should be developed carefully. They should be solvable, realistic, and easy to understand and
modify, and the required input data should be obtainable. The model developer has to be careful
to include the appropriate amount of detail to be solvable yet realistic.

Acquiring Input Data

Once we have developed a model, we must obtain the data that are used in the model (input
data). Obtaining accurate data for the model is essential; even if the model is a perfect represen-
Garbage in, garbage out means tation of reality, improper data will result in misleading results. This situation is called garbage
that improper data will result in in, garbage out. For a larger problem, collecting accurate data can be one of the most difficult
misleading results. steps in performing quantitative analysis.

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 IN ACTION Operations Research and Oil Spills

O perations researchers and decision scientists have been in-

vestigating oil spill response and alleviation strategies since long
to minimize the long-term impacts of a particular disaster after
the immediate situation has stabilized.
Many quantitative tools have helped in areas of risk analysis,
before the BP oil spill disaster of 2010 in the Gulf of Mexico. A insurance, logistical preparation and supply management, evacu-
four-phase classification system has emerged for disaster re- ation planning, and development of communication systems. Re-
sponse research: mitigation, preparedness, response, and recov- cent research has shown that while many strides and discoveries
ery. Mitigation means reducing the probability that a disaster will have been made, much research is still needed. Certainly each
occur and implementing robust, forward-thinking strategies to re- of the four disaster response areas could benefit from additional
duce the effects of a disaster that does occur. Preparedness is any research, but recovery seems to be of particular concern and per-
and all organization efforts that happen in advance of a disaster. haps the most promising for future research.
Response is the location, allocation, and overall coordination of Source: Based on N. Altay and W. Green, “OR/MS Research in Disaster Op-
resources and procedures during the disaster that are aimed at erations Management,” European Journal of Operational Research 175, 1
preserving life and property. Recovery is the set of actions taken (2006): 475–493, © Trevor S. Hale.

There are a number of sources that can be used in collecting data. In some cases, company
reports and documents can be used to obtain the necessary data. Another source is interviews
with employees or other persons related to the firm. These individuals can sometimes provide
excellent information, and their experience and judgment can be invaluable. A production super-
visor, for example, might be able to tell you with a great degree of accuracy the amount of time
it takes to produce a particular product. Sampling and direct measurement provide other sources
of data for the model. You may need to know how many pounds of raw material are used in
producing a new photochemical product. This information can be obtained by going to the plant
and actually measuring with scales the amount of raw material that is being used. In other cases,
statistical sampling procedures can be used to obtain data.

Developing a Solution
Developing a solution involves manipulating the model to arrive at the best (optimal) solution
to the problem. In some cases, this requires that an equation be solved for the best decision. In
other cases, you can use a trial-and-error method, trying various approaches and picking the
one that results in the best decision. For some problems, you may wish to try all possible values
for the variables in the model to arrive at the best decision. This is called complete enumera-
tion. This book also shows you how to solve very difficult and complex problems by repeat-
ing a few simple steps until you find the best solution. A series of steps or procedures that are
repeated is called an algorithm, named after Algorismus (derived from Muhammad ibn Musa
al-Khwarizmi), a Persian mathematician of the ninth century.
The input data and model The accuracy of a solution depends on the accuracy of the input data and the model. If the
determine the accuracy of the input data are accurate to only two significant digits, then the results can be accurate to only two
solution. significant digits. For example, the results of dividing 2.6 by 1.4 should be 1.9, not 1.857142857.

Testing the Solution

Testing the data and model Before a solution can be analyzed and implemented, it needs to be tested completely. Because
is done before the results are the solution depends on the input data and the model, both require testing.
analyzed. Testing the input data and the model includes determining the accuracy and completeness of
the data used by the model. Inaccurate data will lead to an inaccurate solution. There are several
ways to test input data. One method of testing the data is to collect additional data from a differ-
ent source. If the original data were collected using interviews, perhaps some additional data can
be collected by direct measurement or sampling. These additional data can then be compared
with the original data, and statistical tests can be employed to determine whether there are dif-
ferences between the original data and the additional data. If there are significant differences,
more effort is required to obtain accurate input data. If the data are accurate but the results are
inconsistent with the problem, the model may not be appropriate. The model can be checked to
make sure that it is logical and represents the real situation.

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 Although most of the quantitative techniques discussed in this book have been computer-
ized, you will probably be required to solve a number of problems by hand. To help detect both
logical and computational mistakes, you should check the results to make sure that they are con-
sistent with the structure of the problem. For example, (1.96)(301.7) is close to (2)(300), which
is equal to 600. If your computations are significantly different from 600, you know you have
made a mistake.

Analyzing the Results and Sensitivity Analysis

Analyzing the results starts with determining the implications of the solution. In most cases, a
solution to a problem will result in some kind of action or change in the way an organization is
operating. The implications of these actions or changes must be determined and analyzed before
the results are implemented.
Because a model is only an approximation of reality, the sensitivity of the solution to
Sensitivity analysis determines changes in the model and input data is a very important part of analyzing the results. This type
how the solution will change with of analysis is called sensitivity analysis or postoptimality analysis. It determines how much the
a different model or input data. solution will change if there are changes in the model or the input data. When the solution is
sensitive to changes in the input data and the model specification, additional testing should be
performed to make sure that the model and input data are accurate and valid. If the model or data
are wrong, the solution could be wrong, resulting in financial losses or reduced profits.
The importance of sensitivity analysis cannot be overemphasized. Because input data may
not always be accurate or model assumptions may not be completely appropriate, sensitivity
analysis can become an important part of the quantitative analysis approach. Most of the chap-
ters in this book cover the use of sensitivity analysis as part of the decision-making and problem-
solving process.

Implementing the Results

The final step is to implement the results. This is the process of incorporating the solution into
the company’s operations. This can be much more difficult than you would imagine. Even if the
solution is optimal and will result in millions of dollars in additional profits, if managers resist
the new solution, all of the efforts of the analysis are of no value. Experience has shown that a
large number of quantitative analysis teams have failed in their efforts because they have failed
to implement a good, workable solution properly.
After the solution has been implemented, it should be closely monitored. Over time, there
may be numerous changes that call for modifications of the original solution. A changing econ-
omy, fluctuating demand, and model enhancements requested by managers and decision makers
are only a few examples of changes that might require the analysis to be modified.

The Quantitative Analysis Approach and Modeling in the Real World

The quantitative analysis approach is used extensively in the real world. These steps, first seen in
Figure 1.1 and described in this section, are the building blocks of any successful use of quantita-
tive analysis. As seen in our first Modeling in the Real World box, the steps of the quantitative
analysis approach can be used to help a large company such as CSX plan for critical scheduling
needs now and for decades into the future. Throughout this book, you will see how the steps of
the quantitative analysis approach are used to help countries and companies of all sizes save mil-
lions of dollars, plan for the future, increase revenues, and provide higher-quality products and
services. The Modeling in the Real World boxes will demonstrate to you the power and impor-
tance of quantitative analysis in solving real problems for real organizations. Using the steps of
quantitative analysis, however, does not guarantee success. These steps must be applied carefully.

1.4  How to Develop a Quantitative Analysis Model

Developing a model is an important part of the quantitative analysis approach. Let’s see how we
can use the following mathematical model, which represents profit:

Profit = Revenue - Expenses

Expenses include fixed and In many cases, we can express revenue as the selling price per unit multiplied times the num-
variable costs. ber of units sold. Expenses can often be determined by summing fixed cost and variable cost.

M01_REND7659_13_GE_C01.indd 24 29/03/17 1:31 PM

 MODELING IN THE REAL WORLD
The Finn-Power Group Dealing with High Product Variety
Defining
Defining the Problem
the Problem Founded in 1969, the Finn-Power Group is Scandinavia’s largest machine tool manufacturer, exporting
about 88% of its products to more than 50 countries. One of Finn-Power’s leading sectors is machinery
automation, developed in the company’s northern Italian facility. While delivering very high-quality out-
puts, the machines had to be configured in more than 60,000 different ways to accommodate customers’
needs, and the need for successive modifications based on after sale requests created substantial optimiza-
tion problems and delays in product delivery.

Developing Developing a Model

a Model In 1999, Finn-Power began to study the introduction of sophisticated planning bills to produce more
accurate forecasts about its components’ needs. The purpose of the planning bills was to simplify the mas-
ter production scheduling (MPS) and the requirements of input materials.

Acquiring Acquiring Input Data

Input Data The input data required consisted of specific details about the components, such as whether they were
common to a set of products (modular bills) or specific to a single one. Bills were based both on historical
data from previous sales and on estimates about the probability of use for each component.

Developing Developing a Solution

a Solution In the initial solution, planning bills were implemented, and the company was able to achieve a substantial
reduction of the items that required individual estimates, therefore reducing overall time. A two-level pro-
duction schedule to streamline the production was also introduced.

Testing the Testing the Solution

Solution The planning bills’ solution was tested in the Italian subsidiary operations. Salespeople collected
orders from customers, and requests for modifications were passed to the designers and buyers to be
implemented.

Analyzing Analyzing the Results

the Results The first test was not successful as the process of updating the planning bills was not carried out with the
necessary clarity of objectives. Also, the reports produced were incomplete and hard to read, and they did
not convey a real picture of the modifications actually required. As a result, the company failed to deliver
the scheduled models in time and in some cases had to rework some of the components. A revised model
was therefore proposed to address these shortcomings.

Implementing Implementing the Results

the Results The revised model, which enhanced product modularity, finally yielded the desired results. It dramati-
cally improved the accuracy of forecasts, streamlined the production process as originally intended, and
significantly augmented the number of on-time deliveries from 38% in 1999 to 80% in 2002. Also, it
significantly reduced the value of the obsolete stock by 62.5%, resulting in huge savings and improved
performance.

Source: P. Danese and P. Romano. “Finn-Power Italia Develops and Implements a Method to Cope with High Product Variety
and Frequent Modifications,” Interfaces 35, 6 (November–December 2005): 449–459.

M01_REND7659_13_GE_C01.indd 25 29/03/17 2:43 PM

 Variable cost is often expressed as the variable cost per unit multiplied times the number of
units. Thus, we can also express profit in the following mathematical model:

Profit = Revenue - 1Fixed cost + Variable cost2

Profit = 1Selling price per unit21Number of units sold2
- 3Fixed cost + 1Variable cost per unit21Number of units sold24
Profit = sX - 3 f + nX4
Profit = sX - f - nX (1-1)

where

s = selling price per unit

f = fixed cost
n = variable cost per unit
X = number of units sold

The parameters in this model are f, n, and s, as these are inputs that are inherent in the model.
The number of units sold (X) is the decision variable of interest.

EXAMPLE: PRITCHETT’S PRECIOUS TIME PIECES  We will use the Bill Pritchett clock repair shop ex-
ample to demonstrate the use of mathematical models. Bill’s company, Pritchett’s Precious Time
Pieces, buys, sells, and repairs old clocks and clock parts. Bill sells rebuilt springs for a price per
unit of $8. The fixed cost of the equipment to build the springs is $1,000. The variable cost per
unit is $3 for spring material. In this example,

s = 8
f = 1,000
n = 3

The number of springs sold is X, and our profit model becomes

Profit = +8X - +1,000 - +3X

If sales are 0, Bill will realize a $1,000 loss. If sales are 1,000 units, he will realize a profit of
+4,000 [+4,000 = 1+8211,0002 - +1,000 - 1+3211,0002]. See if you can determine the profit
for other values of units sold.
In addition to the profit model shown here, decision makers are often interested in the
The BEP results in $0 break-even point (BEP). The BEP is the number of units sold that will result in $0 profits. We
profits. set profits equal to $0 and solve for X, the number of units at the BEP:

0 = sX - f - nX

This can be written as

0 = 1s - n2X - f

Solving for X, we have

f = 1s - n2X
f
X =
s - n
This quantity (X) that results in a profit of zero is the BEP, and we now have this model for the
BEP:

Fixed cost
BEP =
1Selling price per unit2 - 1Variable cost per unit2
f
BEP = (1-2)
s - n

M01_REND7659_13_GE_C01.indd 26 29/03/17 1:31 PM

 For the Pritchett’s Precious Time Pieces example, the BEP can be computed as follows:

BEP = +1,000>1+8 - +32 = 200 units, or springs,

The Advantages of Mathematical Modeling

There are a number of advantages of using mathematical models:
1. Models can accurately represent reality. If properly formulated, a model can be extremely
accurate. A valid model is one that is accurate and correctly represents the problem or sys-
tem under investigation. The profit model in the example is accurate and valid for many
business problems.
2. Models can help a decision maker formulate problems. In the profit model, for example,
a decision maker can determine the important factors or contributors to revenues and ex-
penses, such as sales, returns, selling expenses, production costs, and transportation costs.
3. Models can give us insight and information. For example, using the profit model, we can
see what impact changes in revenue and expenses will have on profits. As discussed in
the previous section, studying the impact of changes in a model, such as a profit model, is
called sensitivity analysis.
4. Models can save time and money in decision making and problem solving. It usually takes
less time, effort, and expense to analyze a model. We can use a profit model to analyze the
impact of a new marketing campaign on profits, revenues, and expenses. In most cases, us-
ing models is faster and less expensive than actually trying a new marketing campaign in a
real business setting and observing the results.
5. A model may be the only way to solve some large or complex problems in a timely fash-
ion. A large company, for example, may produce literally thousands of sizes of nuts, bolts,
and fasteners. The company may want to make the highest profits possible given its manu-
facturing constraints. A mathematical model may be the only way to determine the highest
profits the company can achieve under these circumstances.
6. A model can be used to communicate problems and solutions to others. A decision analyst
can share his or her work with other decision analysts. Solutions to a mathematical model
can be given to managers and executives to help them make final decisions.

Mathematical Models Categorized by Risk

Some mathematical models, like the profit and break-even models previously discussed, do not
Deterministic means with involve risk or chance. We assume that we know all values used in the model with complete cer-
complete certainty. tainty. These are called deterministic models. A company, for example, might want to minimize
manufacturing costs while maintaining a certain quality level. If we know all these values with
certainty, the model is deterministic.
Other models involve risk or chance. For example, the market for a new product might be
“good” with a chance of 60% (a probability of 0.6) or “not good” with a chance of 40% (a prob-
ability of 0.4). Models that involve chance or risk, often measured as a probability value, are
called probabilistic models. In this book, we will investigate both deterministic and probabilis-
tic models.

1.5  T he Role of Computers and Spreadsheet Models in the

Quantitative Analysis Approach
Developing a solution, testing the solution, and analyzing the results are important steps in the
quantitative analysis approach. Because we will be using mathematical models, these steps re-
quire mathematical calculations. Excel 2016 can be used to help with these calculations, and
some spreadsheets developed in Excel will be shown in some chapters. However, some of the
techniques presented in this book require sophisticated spreadsheets and are quite tedious to de-
velop. Fortunately, there are two software programs available from the Companion Website for
this book that make this much easier:
1. POM-QM for Windows is an easy-to-use decision support program that was developed for
production and operations management (POM) and quantitative methods (QM) courses.

M01_REND7659_13_GE_C01.indd 27 29/03/17 1:31 PM

 PROGRAM 1.1
The QM for Windows Main
Menu

Select a module from the

drop-down menu.

To see the modules relevant

for this book, select Display
QM Modules only.

PROGRAM 1.2A
Entering the Data for
Pritchett’s Precious Time
Pieces Example into QM
for Windows Click Solve to run
the program.

Enter the data.

PROGRAM 1.2B
QM for Windows Solution Additional output is available
from the Window menu.
Screen for Pritchett’s
Precious Time Pieces
Example

POM for Windows and QM for Windows were originally separate software packages for
each type of course. These are now combined into one program called POM-QM for Win-
dows. As seen in Program 1.1, it is possible to display all the modules, only the POM mod-
ules, or only the QM modules. The images shown in this textbook will typically display only
the QM modules. Hence, in this book, reference will usually be made to QM for Windows.
Appendix E at the end of the book provides more information about QM for Windows.
To use QM for Windows to solve the break-even problem presented earlier, from the Mod-
ule drop-down menu select Breakeven/Cost-Volume Analysis. Then select New-Breakeven
Analysis to enter the problem. When the window opens, enter a name for the problem and select
OK. Upon doing this, you will see the screen shown in Program 1.2A. The solution is shown in
Program 1.2B. Notice the additional output available from the Window drop-down menu.

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 Files for the QM for Windows examples throughout the book can be downloaded from
the Companion Website. Opening these files will demonstrate how data are input for the
various modules of QM for Windows.
2. Excel QM, an add-in for Excel, can also be used to perform the mathematical calculations
for the techniques discussed in each chapter. When installed in Excel 2016, Excel QM will
appear as a tab on the ribbon. From this tab, the appropriate model can be selected from a
menu, as shown in Program 1.3. Appendix F has more information about this. Excel files
with the example problems shown can be downloaded from the Companion Website.
To use Excel QM in Excel 2016 to solve the break-even problem presented earlier, from
the Alphabetical menu (see Program 1.3) select Breakeven Analysis. When this is done, a
worksheet is prepared automatically, and the user simply inputs the fixed cost, variable cost,
and revenue (selling price per unit), as shown in Program 1.4. The solution is calculated
when all the inputs have been entered.
Excel 2016 contains some functions, special features, formulas, and tools that help with
some of the questions that might be posed in analyzing a business problem. One such feature,
Goal Seek, is shown in Program 1.5 as it is applied to the break-even example. Excel 2016
also has some add-ins that must be activated before using them the first time. These include
the Data Analysis add-in and the Solver add-in, which will be discussed in later chapters.

PROGRAM 1.3
Excel QM in Excel 2016 Ribbon and Menu of Techniques

Select the Excel

QM tab.

Select the Alphabetical menu

to see the techniques.

PROGRAM 1.4
Entering the Data for Pritchett’s Precious Time Pieces Example into Excel QM in Excel 2016

The problem data

are entered here.

The results are

shown here.

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 PROGRAM 1.5
Using Goal Seek in the Break-Even Problem to Achieve a Specified Profit

From the Data tab, select What-If Analysis. From the menu
that drops down, select Goal Seek.

If the goal is $175 profit (B23) and this is

obtained by changing the volume (B12), the
Goal Seek window inputs are these.

Major League Operations Research

IN ACTION at the Department of Agriculture

I n 1997, the Pittsburgh Pirates signed Ross Ohlendorf because

of his 95-mph sinking fastball. Little did they know that Ross pos-
avid Pittsburgh Pirates fan. Ross spent 2 months of the ensuing
off-season utilizing his educational background in operations re-
search, helping the Department of Agriculture track disease mi-
sessed operations research skills also worthy of national merit. gration in livestock, a subject Ross has a vested interest in, as his
Ross Ohlendorf had graduated from Princeton University with a family runs a cattle ranch in Texas. Moreover, when ABC News
3.8 GPA in operations research and financial engineering. asked Ross about his off-season unpaid internship experience, he
Indeed, after the 2009 baseball season, when Ross applied replied, “This one’s been, I’d say, the most exciting off-season I’ve
for an 8-week unpaid internship with the U.S. Department of had.”
Agriculture, he didn’t need to mention his full-time employer
because the Secretary of the Department of Agriculture at the Source: From “Ross Ohlendorf: From Major League Pitcher to Unpaid Intern,”
time, Tom Vilsack, was born and raised in Pittsburgh and was an by Rick Klein, © 2009, ABCnews.com.

1.6  Possible Problems in the Quantitative Analysis Approach

We have presented the quantitative analysis approach as a logical, systematic means of tackling
decision-making problems. Even when these steps are followed carefully, there are many diffi-
culties that can hurt the chances of implementing solutions to real-world problems. We now take
a look at what can happen during each of the steps.

Defining the Problem

One view of decision makers is that they sit at a desk all day long, waiting until a problem arises,
and then stand up and attack the problem until it is solved. Once it is solved, they sit down, relax,
and wait for the next big problem. In the worlds of business, government, and education, prob-
lems are, unfortunately, not easily identified. There are four potential roadblocks that quantita-
tive analysts face in defining a problem. We use an application, inventory analysis, throughout
this section as an example.

CONFLICTING VIEWPOINTS  The first difficulty is that quantitative analysts must often consider
conflicting viewpoints in defining the problem. For example, there are at least two views that

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 All viewpoints should be managers take when dealing with inventory problems. Financial managers usually feel that in-
considered before formally ventory is too high, as inventory represents cash not available for other investments. Sales man-
defining the problem. agers, on the other hand, often feel that inventory is too low, as high levels of inventory may
be needed to fill an unexpected order. If analysts assume either one of these statements as the
problem definition, they have essentially accepted one manager’s perception and can expect re-
sistance from the other manager when the “solution” emerges. So it’s important to consider both
points of view before stating the problem. Good mathematical models should include all perti-
nent information. As we shall see in Chapter 6, both of these factors are included in inventory
models.

IMPACT ON OTHER DEPARTMENTS  The next difficulty is that problems do not exist in isolation and
are not owned by just one department of a firm. Inventory is closely tied with cash flows and
various production problems. A change in ordering policy can seriously hurt cash flows and up-
set production schedules to the point that savings on inventory are more than offset by increased
costs for finance and production. The problem statement should thus be as broad as possible and
include input from all departments that have a stake in the solution. When a solution is found,
the benefits and risks to all areas of the organization should be identified and communicated to
the people involved.

BEGINNING ASSUMPTIONS  The third difficulty is that people have a tendency to state problems
in terms of solutions. The statement that inventory is too low implies a solution that inventory
levels should be raised. The quantitative analyst who starts off with this assumption will prob-
ably indeed find that inventory should be raised. From an implementation standpoint, a “good”
An optimal solution to the wrong solution to the right problem is much better than an “optimal” solution to the wrong problem.
problem leaves the real problem If a problem has been defined in terms of a desired solution, the quantitative analyst should ask
unsolved. questions about why this solution is desired. By probing further, the true problem will surface
and can be defined properly.

SOLUTION OUTDATED  Even with the best of problem statements, however, there is a fourth danger.
The problem can change as the model is being developed. In our rapidly changing business
environment, it is not unusual for problems to appear or disappear virtually overnight. The ana-
lyst who presents a solution to a problem that no longer exists can’t expect credit for providing
timely help. However, one of the benefits of mathematical models is that once the original model
has been developed, it can be used over and over again whenever similar problems arise. This
allows a solution to be found very easily in a timely manner.

Developing a Model
FITTING THE TEXTBOOK MODELS  One problem in developing quantitative models is that a manager’s
perception of a problem won’t always match the textbook approach. Most inventory models
involve minimizing the total of holding and ordering costs. Some managers view these costs as
unimportant; instead, they see the problem in terms of cash flow, turnover, and level of customer
satisfaction. Results of a model based on holding and ordering costs are probably not acceptable
to such managers. This is why the analyst must completely understand the model and not simply
use the computer as a “black box” where data are input and results are given with no understand-
ing of the process. The analyst who understands the process can explain to the manager how the
model does consider these other factors when estimating the different types of inventory costs.
If other factors are important as well, the analyst can consider these and use sensitivity analysis
and good judgment to modify the computer solution before it is implemented.

UNDERSTANDING THE MODEL  A second major concern involves the trade-off between the complex-
ity of the model and ease of understanding. Managers simply will not use the results of a model
they do not understand. Complex problems, though, require complex models. One trade-off is to
simplify assumptions in order to make the model easier to understand. The model loses some of
its reality but gains some acceptance by management.
One simplifying assumption in inventory modeling is that demand is known and constant.
This means that probability distributions are not needed and it allows us to build simple, easy-
to-understand models. Demand, however, is rarely known and constant, so the model we build

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 lacks some reality. Introducing probability distributions provides more realism but may put com-
prehension beyond all but the most mathematically sophisticated managers. One approach is
for the quantitative analyst to start with the simple model and make sure that it is completely
understood. Later, more complex models can be introduced slowly as managers gain more confi-
dence in using the new approach. Explaining the impact of the more sophisticated models (e.g.,
carrying extra inventory called safety stock) without going into complete mathematical details is
sometimes helpful. Managers can understand and identify with this concept, even if the specific
mathematics used to find the appropriate quantity of safety stock is not totally understood.

Acquiring Input Data

Obtaining accurate input data Gathering the data to be used in the quantitative approach to problem solving is often not a
can be very difficult. simple task. One-fifth of all firms in a recent study had difficulty with data access.

USING ACCOUNTING DATA  One problem is that most data generated in a firm come from basic ac-
counting reports. The accounting department collects its inventory data, for example, in terms of
cash flows and turnover. But quantitative analysts tackling an inventory problem need to collect
data on holding costs and ordering costs. If they ask for such data, they may be shocked to find
that the data were simply never collected for those specified costs.
Professor Gene Woolsey tells a story of a young quantitative analyst sent down to account-
ing to get “the inventory holding cost per item per day for part 23456/AZ.” The accountant asked
the young man if he wanted the first-in, first-out figure, the last-in, first-out figure, the lower of
cost or market figure, or the “how-we-do-it” figure. The young man replied that the inventory
model required only one number. The accountant at the next desk said, “Hell, Joe, give the kid a
number.” The kid was given a number and departed.

VALIDITY OF DATA  A lack of “good, clean data” means that whatever data are available must often
be distilled and manipulated (we call it “fudging”) before being used in a model. Unfortunately,
the validity of the results of a model is no better than the validity of the data that go into the
model. You cannot blame a manager for resisting a model’s “scientific” results when he or she
knows that questionable data were used as input. This highlights the importance of the analyst
understanding other business functions so that good data can be found and evaluated by the
analyst. It also emphasizes the importance of sensitivity analysis, which is used to determine the
impact of minor changes in input data. Some solutions are very robust and do not change at all
following certain changes in the input data.

Developing a Solution
Hard-to-understand mathematics HARD-TO-UNDERSTAND MATHEMATICS  The first concern in developing solutions is that although the
and single solutions can become mathematical models we use may be complex and powerful, they may not be completely under-
problematic in developing a stood. Fancy solutions to problems may have faulty logic or data. The aura of mathematics often
solution. causes managers to remain silent when they should be critical. The well-known operations re-
searcher C. W. Churchman cautions that “because mathematics has been so revered a discipline
in recent years, it tends to lull the unsuspecting into believing that he who thinks elaborately
thinks well.”1

ONLY ONE ANSWER IS LIMITING  The second problem is that quantitative models usually give just
one answer to a problem. Most managers would like to have a range of options and not be
put in a take-it-or-leave-it position. A more appropriate strategy is for an analyst to present a
range of options, indicating the effect that each solution has on the objective function. This gives
managers a choice, as well as information on how much it will cost to deviate from the optimal
solution. It also allows problems to be viewed from a broader perspective, since nonquantitative
factors can be considered.

Testing the Solution

The results of quantitative analysis often take the form of predictions of how things will work
in the future if certain changes are made now. To get a preview of how well solutions will really

1
C. W. Churchman, “Reliability of Models in the Social Sciences,” Interfaces 4, 1 (November 1973): 1–12.

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 PLATO Helps 2004 Olympic
IN ACTION Games in Athens

T he 2004 Olympic Games were held in Athens, Greece, over

a period of 16 days. More than 2,000 athletes competed in 300
techniques from management science, systems engineering, and
information technology were used to change the planning, de-
sign, and operations of venues.
events in 28 sports. The events were held in 36 different venues The objectives of PLATO were to (1) facilitate effective orga-
(stadia, competition centers, etc.), and 3.6 million tickets were nizational transformation, (2) help plan and manage resources
sold to people who would view these events. In addition, 2,500 in a cost-effective manner, and (3) document lessons learned so
members of international committees and 22,000 journalists and future Olympic committees could benefit. The PLATO project de-
broadcasters attended these games. Home viewers spent more veloped business-process models for the various venues, devel-
than 34 billion hours watching these sporting events. The 2004 oped simulation models that enable the generation of what-if
Olympic Games was the biggest sporting event in the history of scenarios, developed software to aid in the creation and manage-
the world up to that point. ment of these models, and developed process steps for training
In addition to the sporting venues, other noncompetitive ven- ATHOC personnel in using these models. Generic solutions were
ues, such as the airport and Olympic village, had to be considered. A developed so that this knowledge and approach could be made
successful Olympics requires tremendous planning for the transpor- available to other users.
tation system that will handle the millions of spectators. Three years PLATO was credited with reducing the cost of the 2004 Olym-
of work and planning were needed for the 16 days of the Olympics. pics by over $69 million. Perhaps even more important is the fact
The Athens Olympic Games Organizing Committee (ATHOC) that the Athens games were universally deemed an unqualified
had to plan, design, and coordinate systems that would be de- success. The resulting increase in tourism is expected to result in
livered by outside contractors. ATHOC personnel would later be economic benefit to Greece for many years in the future.
responsible for managing the efforts of volunteers and paid staff
during the operations of the games. To make the Athens Olym- Source: Based on D. A. Beis et al., “PLATO Helps Athens Win Gold: Olympic
pics run efficiently and effectively, the Process Logistics Advanced Games Knowledge Modeling for Organizational Change and Resource Man-
Technical Optimization (PLATO) project was begun. Innovative agement,” Interfaces 36, 1 (January–February 2006): 26–42, © Trevor S. Hale.

work, managers are often asked how good the solution looks to them. The problem is that com-
plex models tend to give solutions that are not intuitively obvious. Such solutions tend to be
rejected by managers. The quantitative analyst now has the chance to work through the model
and the assumptions with the manager in an effort to convince the manager of the validity of the
Assumptions should be results. In the process of convincing the manager, the analyst will have to review every assump-
reviewed. tion that went into the model. If there are errors, they may be revealed during this review. In
addition, the manager will be casting a critical eye on everything that went into the model, and if
he or she can be convinced that the model is valid, there is a good chance that the solution results
are also valid.

Analyzing the Results

Once a solution has been tested, the results must be analyzed in terms of how they will affect
the total organization. You should be aware that even small changes in organizations are often
difficult to bring about. If the results indicate large changes in organization policy, the quantita-
tive analyst can expect resistance. In analyzing the results, the analyst should ascertain who must
change and by how much, if the people who must change will be better or worse off, and who
has the power to direct the change.

1.7  Implementation—Not Just the Final Step

We have just presented some of the many problems that can affect the ultimate acceptance of the
quantitative analysis approach and use of its models. It should be clear now that implementation
isn’t just another step that takes place after the modeling process is over. Each one of these steps
greatly affects the chances of implementing the results of a quantitative study.

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 Lack of Commitment and Resistance to Change
Even though many business decisions can be made intuitively, based on hunches and experience,
there are more and more situations in which quantitative models can assist. Some managers,
however, fear that the use of a formal analysis process will reduce their decision-making power.
Others fear that it may expose some previous intuitive decisions as inadequate. Still others just
feel uncomfortable about having to reverse their thinking patterns with formal decision making.
These managers often argue against the use of quantitative methods.
Many action-oriented managers do not like the lengthy formal decision-making process and
prefer to get things done quickly. They prefer “quick and dirty” techniques that can yield imme-
diate results. Once managers see some QA results that have a substantial payoff, the stage is set
for convincing them that quantitative analysis is a beneficial tool.
Management support and user We have known for some time that management support and user involvement are critical
involvement are important. to the successful implementation of quantitative analysis projects. A Swedish study found that
only 40% of projects suggested by quantitative analysts were ever implemented. But 70% of the
quantitative projects initiated by users, and fully 98% of the projects suggested by top managers,
were implemented.

Lack of Commitment by Quantitative Analysts

Just as managers’ attitudes are to blame for some implementation problems, analysts’ attitudes
are to blame for others. When the quantitative analyst is not an integral part of the department
facing the problem, he or she sometimes tends to treat the modeling activity as an end in itself.
That is, the analyst accepts the problem as stated by the manager and builds a model to solve
only that problem. When the results are computed, he or she hands them back to the manager
and considers the job done. The analyst who does not care whether these results help make the
final decision is not concerned with implementation.
Successful implementation requires that the analyst not tell the users what to do but rather
work with them and take their feelings into account. An article in Operations Research describes
an inventory control system that calculated reorder points and order quantities. But instead of
insisting that computer-calculated quantities be ordered, a manual override feature was installed.
This allowed users to disregard the calculated figures and substitute their own. The override was
used quite often when the system was first installed. Gradually, however, as users came to real-
ize that the calculated figures were right more often than not, they allowed the system’s figures
to stand. Eventually, the override feature was used only in special circumstances. This is a good
example of how good relationships can aid in model implementation.

Summary
Quantitative analysis is a scientific approach to decision mak- departments, beginning assumptions, outdated solutions, fitting
ing. The quantitative analysis approach includes defining the textbook models, understanding the model, acquiring good in-
problem, developing a model, acquiring input data, develop- put data, hard-to-understand mathematics, obtaining only one
ing a solution, testing the solution, analyzing the results, and answer, testing the solution, and analyzing the results. In using
implementing the results. In using the quantitative approach, the quantitative analysis approach, implementation is not the
however, there can be potential problems, including conflicting final step. There can be a lack of commitment to the approach
viewpoints, the impact of quantitative analysis models on other and resistance to change.

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