Psychology 238

Text Study Guide: Midterm 2

CHAPTER 10 – COMMUNICATION

CHAPTER 10 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

1. Define communication and explain why communication by the strict chain of command is often
ineffective.
2. Explain the factors that contribute to voice versus silence.
3. Explain the organizational grapevine and discuss its main features.
4. Review the role of both verbal and non-verbal communication at work.
5. Discuss gender differences in communication and identify how a failure to
recognize these differences can cause communication problems.
6. Discuss the challenges relating to cross-cultural communication and identify useful strategies to
deter miscommunication.
7. Define computer-mediated communication and highlight its strengths and weaknesses.
8. Review personal strategies and organizational initiatives aimed at enhancing communication.

CHAPTER 10 TEXTBOOK STUDY CHECKLIST

• What is communication?
• Basics of organizational communication
o Communication by strict chain of command
 Downward communication
 Upward communication
 Horizontal communication
o Deficiencies in the chain of command
 Informal communication
 Filtering
 Slowness
• Voice, silence, and the mum effect
o Voice
o Psychological safety
o Mum effect
• The grapevine
o Characteristics of the grapevine
o Who participates in the grapevine, and why?
o Pros and cons of the grapevine
• The verbal language of work
o Jargon
• The non-verbal language of work
o Body language
o Props, artifacts, and costumes
 Office décor and arrangement
 Does clothing communicate?
• Gender differences in communication
 o Getting credit. Men are more likely to blow their horn about something they have done.
o Confidence and boasting. Men tend to be more boastful about themselves and their
capabilities and minimize their doubts so they are perceived as more confident.
o Asking questions. Men are less likely than women to ask questions in situations that can
put woman in a one-down position and reflect negatively on them.
o Apologies. Women and men differ in their use of apologies. Men avoid ritual apologies
because it is a sign of weakness that can place them in a one-down position. For
women, it is a way of expressing concern.
o Feedback. Women buffer criticism by beginning with praise as a way to save face for the
person receiving the criticism and avoid putting them in a one-down position. Men are
more blunt and straightforward. These differences can lead to misunderstandings.
o Compliments. Women are more likely to provide compliments than men. Men are more
likely to provide a critique.
o Ritual opposition. Men often use ritual opposition or fighting as a form of
communication and the exchange of ideas. Women see this as a personal attack and
something to be avoided.
o Managing up and down. Men spend much more time communicating with their
superiors and talking about their achievements. Women tend to downplay their
superiority leading others to believe that they are not capable of projecting their
authority.
o Indirectness. Women in positions of authority tend to be indirect when giving orders.
Such indirectness can lead to misunderstandings and be perceived as a lack of
appropriate demeanour and confidence.
• Cross-cultural communication
o Language differences
o Non-verbal communication across cultures
o Etiquette and politeness across cultures
o Social conventions across cultures
o Cultural context
 People from high-context cultures want to know about you and the company
that you represent in great detail.
 Getting to the point quickly is not a style of communication that people in high-
context cultures favour.
 When communicating with people from a high-context culture, give careful
consideration to the age and rank of the communicator. Age and seniority tend
to be valued in high-context cultures, and the status of the communicator is an
important contextual factor that gives credibility to a message.
 Because they tend to devalue cultural context, people from low-context cultures
tend to favour very detailed business contracts. For them, the meaning is in the
message itself.
o Computer-mediated communication
 Two important dimensions of information richness are the degree to which
information is synchronous between senders and receivers, and the extent to
which both parties can receive non-verbal and paraverbal cues.
• Personal approaches to improving communication
o Basic principles of effective communication
 Take the time
 Be accepting of the other person
  Do not confuse the person with the problem
 Say what you feel
 Listen actively
 Watch your body language
 Paraphrase what the speaker means
 Show empathy
 Ask questions
 Wait out pauses
 Give timely and specific feedback
o When in Rome
 Assume differences until you know otherwise
 Recognize differences within cultures
 Watch your language (and theirs)
• Organizational approaches to improving communication
o Provision of explanations
o 360-degree feedback
o Employee surveys and survey feedback
o Suggestion systems
o Telephone hotlines, intranets, and webcasts
o Management training
CHAPTER 13 TEXTBOOK STUDY CHECKLIST (NEGOTIATION ONLY)

• Managing conflict with negotiation

o Distributive negotiation assumes a zero-sum, win-lose situation in which a fixed amount
of assets is divided between parties.
 Distributive negotiation tactics
 threats and promises
 firmness versus concessions
 persuasion
o Integrative negotiation is a win-win negotiation that assumes that mutual problem
solving can enlarge the assets to be divided between parties. It is a process where gains
can be made by all parties involved.
 Integrative negotiation tactics
 Copious information exchange
 Framing differences as opportunities
 Cutting costs
 Increasing resources
 Introducing superordinate goals
o Third party involvement
 Mediation
 Arbitration

CHAPTER 13 – CONFLICT AND STRESS (pp. 464-469 and 474-491)

CHAPTER 13 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

• Define interpersonal conflict and review its causes in organizations.

• Explain the types of conflict and the process by which conflict occurs.
• Discuss the various modes of managing conflict.
• Distinguish among stressors, stress, and stress reactions.
• Discuss the role that personality plays in stress.
• Review the sources of stress encountered by various organizational role occupants.
• Describe behavioural, psychological, and physiological reactions to stress, and discuss
techniques for managing stress.

CHAPTER 13 TEXTBOOK STUDY CHECKLIST

Part A – Conflict

• What is conflict?
• Causes of organizational conflict
 Group identification and intergroup bias
 Interdependence
 Differences in power, status, and culture
 Ambiguity
 Scarce resources
• Types of conflict
 Relationship conflict
1. Relationship conflict concerns interpersonal tensions among individuals that have to do
with their relationship per se, not the task at hand. So-called “personality clashes” are
examples of relationship conflicts.
 Task conflict
1. Task conflict concerns disagreements about the nature of the work to be done.
Differences of opinion about goals or technical matters are examples of task conflict.
 Process conflict
1. Process conflict involves disagreements about how work should be organized and
accomplished. Disagreements about responsibility, authority, resource allocation, and
who should do what all constitute process conflict.
• Conflict dynamics
• Modes of managing conflict
 Five approaches to managing organizational conflict are discussed. They are a function of
how assertive you are in trying to satisfy your own
or your group’s concerns and how cooperative you
are in trying to satisfy those of the other party or
group.
1. Avoiding
2. Accommodating
3. Competing
4. Compromise
5. Collaborating
Part B – Stress

• A model of stress in organizations

o Stressors
o Stress
o Stress reactions
o Personality and stress
 Locus of control
 Type A behaviour pattern
 Negative affectivity
• Stressors in organizational life
o Executive and managerial stressors
 Role overload
 Heavy responsibility
o Operative-level stressors
 Poor physical working
conditions
 Poor job design
o Boundary role stressors, burnout, and emotional labour
o The job demands-resources model and work engagement
o Some general stressors
 Interpersonal conflict
- Bullying
- Abusive supervision
- Cyberbullying
 Work-family conflict
 Job insecurity and change
 Role ambiguity
 Sexual harassment
• Reactions to organizational stress
o Behaviour reactions to stress
 Problem solving
 Seeking social support
 Performance changes
 Withdrawal and presenteeism
 Use of addictive substances
o Psychological reactions to stress
 Use of defence mechanisms (include rationalization, projection, displacement,
reaction formation, compensation)
o Physiological reactions to stress
• Organizational strategies for managing stress
o Job redesign
o “Family-friendly” human resources policies
o Stress management programs
o Work-life balance, fitness, and wellness programs
 CHAPTER 9 – LEADERSHIP

CHAPTER 9 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

1. Define leadership and discuss the role of strategic and formal leadership in organizations.
2. Explain and critically evaluate the trait theory of leadership.
3. Compare and contrast the following leadership behaviours and their consequences:
consideration, initiating structure, leader reward, and leader punishment.
4. Describe and evaluate the situational theories of leadership: contingency theory and path-goal
theory.
5. Discuss participative leadership and how and when to use participative leadership using the
Vroom and Jago model.
6. Describe and evaluate leader-member exchange (LMX) theory and transactional and
transformational leadership and their consequences.
7. Discuss the new and emerging theories of leadership include empowering leadership, ethical
leadership, authentic leadership, and servant leadership.
8. Describe gender differences in leadership and explain why women are underrepresented in
leadership roles in organizations.
9. Discuss the GLOBE project and explain the role that culture plays in leadership effectiveness.
10. Discuss global leadership and describe the characteristics of global leaders.

CHAPTER 9 TEXTBOOK STUDY CHECKLIST

• What is leadership?
• The trait theory of leadership
o Research on leadership traits
o Leadership categorization theory
 According to leadership categorization theory, people are more likely to view
somebody as a leader and to evaluate them as a more effective leader when
they possess prototypical characteristics of leadership.
o Limitations of the trait approach
• The behaviour of leaders
o Consideration and initiating structure
o The consequences of consideration and initiating structure
o Leader reward and punishment behaviours
• Situational theories of leadership
o Fiedler’s contingency theory
 Fiedler’s model suggests that a task orientation (low LPC) is most effective when
the leadership situation is very favourable or when it is very unfavourable. A
relationship orientation (high LPC) is most effective in conditions of medium
favourability.
o House’s path-goal theory
 Path-goal theory is concerned with the situations under which various leader
behaviours are most effective.
 Leader behaviour
 Directive behaviour
  Supportive behaviour
 Participative behaviour
 Achievement-oriented behaviour
 Situational factors (follower characteristics and task characteristics)
- Different types of employees need or prefer different forms of
leadership.
o For example, employees who are high need achievers should
work well under achievement-oriented leadership.
- The effectiveness of leadership behaviour also depends on the
particular work environment.
o For example, when tasks are clear and routine, employees will
perceive directive leadership as redundant and unnecessary.
When tasks are challenging but ambiguous, employees should
appreciate both directive and participative leadership.
Frustrating, dissatisfying jobs should increase employee
appreciation of supportive behaviour. Thus, effective leadership
should take advantage of the motivating and satisfying aspects
of jobs while offsetting or compensating for those job aspects
that demotivate or dissatisfy.
 Research evidence
• Participative leadership: involving employees in decisions
o What is participative leadership?
o Potential advantages of participative leadership
 Motivation
 Quality
 Acceptance
o Potential problems of participative leadership
 Time and energy
 Loss of power
 Lack of receptivity or knowledge
o Vroom and Jogo’s situational model of participation
 Research evidence
• Leader-member exchange theory
o Leader member exchange or LMX theory is a theory of leadership that focuses on the
quality of the relationship that develops between a leader and an employee.
o The basis for the effects of LMX is social exchange theory, which posits that individuals
who are treated favourably by others will feel a sense of obligation to reciprocate by
responding positively and returning that favourable treatment in some manner.
Employees in a high-quality relationship with their supervisor will reciprocate with extra
effort and higher commitment and performance.
o Research evidence
• Transactional and transformational leadership theory
o Transactional leadership
 based on a fairly straightforward exchange between the leader and the
followers—leaders set goals and provide direction and support, employees
perform well, and the leader rewards them; the leader uses a participatory
style, and the employees come up with good ideas.
 Two factors
 - Contingent reward
- Management-by-exception (active and passive)
o Transformational leadership
 Intellectual Stimulation: this contributes in part to the “new vision” aspect of
transformational leadership. People are stimulated to think about problems,
issues, and strategies in new ways.
 Individualized Consideration: this involves treating employees as distinct
individuals, indicating concern for their needs and personal development, and
serving as a mentor or coach when appropriate. The emphasis is a one-on-one
attempt to meet the concerns and needs of the individual in question in the
context of the overall goal or mission.
 Inspirational Motivation: This involves the communication of visions that are
appealing and inspiring to followers and stimulates enthusiasm, challenges
followers with high standards, communicates optimism about future goal
attainment, and provides meaning for the task at hand.
 Idealized influence (Charisma): Charismatic leaders have personal qualities that
give them the potential to have extraordinary influence over others. They tend
to command strong loyalty and devotion from followers, and this, in turn,
inspires enthusiastic dedication and effort dedicated toward the leader’s chosen
mission. Charisma provides the emotional aspect of transformational
leadership. They hold high expectations for follower performance; their goals
have an ideological or moral flavour to them; and they often articulate
followers’ feelings in times of stress or discord. These factors work together to
give charismatic leaders their extraordinary potential for influence.
• New and emerging theories of leadership
o Empowering leadership
o Ethical leadership
 involves the demonstration of normatively appropriate conduct (e.g., openness,
fairness, and honesty) through personal actions and interpersonal relationships,
and the promotion of such conduct to followers through two-way
communication, reinforcement, and decision making.
 Behaviours of ethical leadership
1. Communicate a clear and consistent positive ethics message from the
top
2. Create and embrace opportunities for everyone in the organization to
communicate positive ethics, values, and practices
3. Ensure consequences for ethical and unethical conduct
o Authentic leadership
 Four behaviours of authentic leadership
1. Self-awareness
2. Relational transparency
3. Balanced processing
4. Internalized moral perspective
o Servant leadership
 Six characteristics of servant leader behaviour
1. Empowering and developing people
2. Humility
3. Authenticity
 4. Interpersonal acceptance
5. Providing direction
6. Stewardship
• Gender and leadership
• Culture and leadership

• Global leadership
• What style of leadership is best?
 •

CHAPTER 12 – POWER, POLITICS, AND ETHICS

CHAPTER 12 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

1. Define power and review the bases of individual power.

2. Explain how people obtain power in organizations.
3. Discuss the concept of empowerment.
4. Provide a profile of power seekers.
5. Explain strategic contingencies and discuss how subunits obtain power.
6. Define organizational politics and discuss its various forms.
7. Define ethics and review the ethical dilemmas that managers and employees face.
8. Define sexual harassment and discuss what organizations can do to prevent it and how they
should respond to allegations.

CHAPTER 12 TEXTBOOK STUDY CHECKLIST

Part A – Power

• What is power?
• The bases of individual power
 o Legitimate power derives from a person’s position or job in the organization. It
constitutes the organization’s judgment about who is formally permitted to influence
whom and it is often called authority. When legitimate power works, it often does so
because people have been socialized to accept its influence.
o Reward power exists when a power holder can exert influence by providing positive
outcomes and preventing negative outcomes. It corresponds to the concept of positive
reinforcement. Reward power is often used to back up legitimate power, although any
organizational member can attempt to influence others with rewards such as praise,
compliments, and flattery.
o Coercive power is available when a power holder can exert influence by the use of
punishment and threat. Like reward power, it is often used as a support for legitimate
power. However, when mangers use coercive power, it is generally ineffective and can
provoke considerable employee resistance.
o Referent power exists when a power holder is well liked by others. It stems from
identification with a power holder, rather than mere compliance to achieve rewards or
avoid punishment. Also, referent power is available to everyone, since anyone in the
organization may be well liked, irrespective of his or her other bases of power.
o Expert power. A person has expert power when he or she has special information or
expertise that is valued by an organization. Expert power corresponds to the difficulty of
replacement. The more crucial and unusual this expertise, the greater is the expert
power available.
• How do people obtain power?
o Doing the right things
 Extraordinary activities
 Visible activities
 Relevant activities
o Cultivating the right people
 Outsiders
 Subordinates
 Peers
 Superiors
• Empowerment – putting power where it is needed
• Influence tactics – putting power to work
Influence tactics convert power into actual influence over others. They are specific behaviours
that people use to affect others and manage others’ impressions of themselves. These tactics
range from the overt to the covert and include:
1. Assertiveness—ordering, nagging, setting deadlines, and verbal confrontation.
2. Ingratiation—using flattery and acting friendly, polite, or humble.
3. Rationality—using logic, reason, planning, and compromise.
4. Exchange—doing favours or offering to trade favours.
5. Upward appeal—making formal or informal appeals to organizational superiors for
intervention.
6. Coalition formation—seeking united support from other organizational members.
• Who wants power?
o People who are high in n Pow
 Institutional managers
• Controlling strategic contingencies – how subunits obtain power
o Scarcity
 o Uncertainty
o Centrality
o Substitutability

Part B – Politics

• Organizational politics – using and abusing power

o The basics of organizational politics
I. Sanctioned means/sanctioned ends. Power is used routinely to pursue agreed upon
goals. Accepted means of influence are employed to achieve accepted outcomes.

II. Sanctioned means/not-sanctioned ends. Acceptable means of influence are abused to

pursue goals that are not approved by the organization.

III. Not-sanctioned means/sanctioned ends. Ends that are useful for the organization are
pursued through questionable means.

IV. Not-sanctioned means/not-sanctioned ends. This is the most flagrant abuse of

power. Disapproved tactics are used to pursue disapproved outcomes.

o The facets of political skill

 Social astuteness. Good politicians are careful observers who are tuned in to
others’ needs and motives. They can “read” people and thus possess emotional
intelligence.
 Interpersonal influence. The politically skilled have a convincing and persuasive
interpersonal style but employ it flexibly to meet the needs of the situation.
They put others at ease.
 Apparent sincerity. Influence attempts will be seen as manipulative unless they
are accompanied by sincerity. A good politician comes across as genuine and
exhibits high integrity.
 Networking ability. Networking involves establishing good relations with key
organizational members or outsiders to accomplish one’s goals. Networks
provide a channel for favours to be asked for and given. An effective network
enhances one’s organizational reputation, thus aiding influence attempts.
o Machiavellianism – the harder side of politics
 Machiavellianism is a set of cynical beliefs about human nature, morality, and
the permissibility of using various tactics to achieve one’s ends. It is a stable
personality trait.
o Defensiveness – reactive politics
  Stalling. Moving slowly when someone asks for your cooperation is the most
obvious way of avoiding taking action without actually saying no.
 Overconforming. Sticking to the strict letter of your job description or to
organizational regulations is a common way to avoid action.
 Buck passing. Having someone else take action is an effective way to avoid
doing it yourself.
 Buffing. Buffing is the tactic of carefully documenting information showing that
an appropriate course of action was followed.
 Scapegoating. Blaming others when things go wrong is classic political
behaviour.
Part C – Ethics

• Ethics in organizations
o The nature of ethical misconduct
o Causes of unethical behaviour
 Gain
 Extreme performance pressure
 Role conflict
 Strong organizational identification
 Competition
 Personality
 Organizational and industry culture
o Whistle-blowing: occurs when a current or former organizational member discloses
illegitimate practices to some person or organization that might be able to take action
to correct these practices.
o Sexual harassment – when power and ethics collide
o Employing ethical guidelines
1. Identify the stakeholders that will be affected by the decision.
2. Identify the costs and benefits of various alternatives to these stakeholders.
3. Consider the relevant moral expectations that surround a particular decision.
4. Be familiar with the common ethical dilemmas that decision makers face in your
specific role or profession.
5. Discuss ethical matters with decision stakeholders and others.
6. Convert your ethical judgments into appropriate action.