Stall (flight)

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For other uses, see stall.
In fluid dynamics, a stall is a reduction in the lift coefficient
generated by an airfoil as angle of attack increases. This occurs
when the critical angle of attack of the airfoil is exceeded. The
critical angle of attack is typically about 15 degrees, but it may
vary significantly depending on the airfoil and Reynolds
number.
Because stalls are most commonly discussed in connection with
aviation, this article discusses stalls mainly as they relate to
aircraft, particularly fixed-wing aircraft. Stalls in fixed-wing
flight are often experienced as a sudden reduction in lift as the
pilot increases angle of attack and exceeds the critical angle of
attack (which may be due to slowing down below stall speed in
level flight). A stall does not mean that the engine(s) have
stopped working, or that the aircraft has stopped moving—the
effect is the same even in an unpowered glider aircraft.
Contents
[hide]

 1 Formal definition
 2 Graph
 3 Aerodynamic description of a stall
o 3.1 Stalling an airplane
o 3.2 Symptoms of an approaching stall
 o 3.3 Stalling characteristics
 4 “Stall speed”
 5 Accelerated and turning flight stall
 6 Deep stall
 7 Stall warning and safety devices
 8 Flight beyond the stall
 9 Spoilers
 10 See also
 11 Notes
 12 References

[edit] Formal definition

A stall is a condition in aerodynamics and aviation where the

angle of attack increases beyond a certain point such that the lift
begins to decrease. The angle at which this occurs is called the
critical angle of attack. This critical angle is dependent upon the
profile of the wing, its planform, its aspect ratio, and other
factors, but is typically in the range of 8 to 20 degrees relative to
the incoming wind for most subsonic airfoils. The critical angle
of attack is the angle of attack on the lift coefficient versus
angle-of-attack curve at which the maximum lift coefficient
occurs.
Flow separation begins to occur at small angles of attack while
attached flow over the wing is still dominant. As angle of attack
increases, the separated regions on the top of the wing increase
in size and hinder the wing's ability to create lift. At the critical
angle of attack, separated flow is so dominant that further
increases in angle of attack produce less lift and vastly more
drag.
A fixed-wing aircraft during a stall may experience buffeting or
a change in attitude (normally nose down in General aviation
aircraft). Most aircraft are designed to have a gradual stall with
characteristics that will warn the pilot and give the pilot time to
react. For example an aircraft that does not buffet before the stall
may have an audible alarm or a stick shaker installed to simulate
the feel of a buffet by vibrating the stick fore and aft. The
"buffet margin" is, for a given set of conditions, the amount of
‘g’, which can be imposed for a given level of buffet. The
critical angle of attack in steady straight and level flight can only
be attained at low airspeed. Attempts to increase the angle of
attack at higher airspeeds can cause a high speed stall or may
merely cause the aircraft to climb.
Any yaw of the aircraft as it enters the stall regime can result in
autorotation, which is also sometimes referred to as a 'spin'.
Because air no longer flows smoothly over the wings during a
stall, aileron control of roll becomes less effective, whilst
simultaneously the tendency for the ailerons to generate adverse
yaw increases. This increases the lift from the advancing wing
and accentuates the probability of the aircraft to enter into a
spin.
Depending on the aircraft's design, a stall can expose extremely
adverse properties of balance and control; particularly in a
prototype.

An example of the relationship between angle of attack and lift

on a cambered airfoil. The exact relationship is usually
measured in a wind tunnel and depends on the airfoil section.
The relationship for an aircraft wing depends on the planform &
its aspect ratio. Aircraft cannot operate steadily at angles of
attack greater than their stall angle.
[edit] Graph
The graph shows that the greatest amount of lift is produced as
the critical angle of attack is reached (which in early 20th
century aviation was called the "burble point"). This angle is
17.5 degrees in this case but changes from airfoil to airfoil. In
particular, for aerodynamically thick airfoils (thickness to chord
ratios of around 10%) the critical angle is increased compared
with a thin airfoil of the same camber. Symmetric airfoils have
lower critical angles (but also work efficiently in inverted
flight). The graph shows that as the angle of attack exceeds the
critical angle, the lift produced by the airfoil decreases.
The information in a graph of this kind is gathered using a
model of the airfoil in a wind tunnel. Because aircraft models
are normally used, rather than full-size machines, special care is
needed to make sure data is taken in the same Reynolds number
regime (or scale speed) as in free flight. The separation of flow
from the upper wing surface at high angles of attack is quite
different at low Reynolds number from that at the high Reynolds
numbers of real aircraft. High pressure wind tunnels are one
solution to this problem. Steady operation of an aircraft at an
angle of attack above the critical angle is not generally possible
because, after exceeding the critical angle, the loss of lift from
the wing causes the nose of the aircraft to fall, reducing the
angle of attack again. This nose drop, independent of control
inputs, indicates the pilot has actually stalled the aircraft. [1][2]
This graph shows the stall angle, yet in practice most pilot
operating handbooks (POH) or generic flight manuals describe
stalling in terms of airspeed. This is because all aircraft are
equipped with an airspeed indicator, but fewer aircraft have an
angle of attack indicator. An aircraft's stalling speeds is
published by the manufacturer (and is required for certification
by flight testing) for a range of weights and flap positions, but
the stalling angle of attack is not published.
As speed reduces, angle of attack has to increase to keep lift
constant until the critical angle is reached. The airspeed at which
this angle is reached is the (1g, unaccelerated) stalling speed of
the aircraft in that particular configuration. Deploying flaps/slats
decreases the stall speed to allow the aircraft to take off and land
at a lower speed.
[edit] Aerodynamic description of a stall
[edit] Stalling an airplane
An airplane can be made to stall in any pitch attitude or bank
angle or at any airspeed but is commonly practiced by reducing
the speed to the unaccelerated stall speed, at a safe altitude.
Unaccelerated (1g) stall speed varies on different aeroplanes and
is represented by colour codes on the air speed indicator. As the
plane flies at this speed the angle of attack must be increased to
prevent any loss of altitude or gain in airspeed (which
corresponds to the stall angle described above). The pilot will
notice the flight controls have become less responsive and may
also notice some buffeting, a result of the turbulent air separated
from the wing hitting the tail of the airplane.
In most light aircraft, as the stall is reached the aircraft will start
to descend (because the wing is no longer producing enough lift
to support the aeroplane's weight) and the nose will pitch down.
Recovery from this stalled state usually involves the pilot
decreasing the angle of attack and increasing the air speed, until
smooth air flow over the wing is resumed. Normal flight can be
resumed once recovery from the stall is complete.[3] The
manoeuvre is normally quite safe and if correctly handled leads
to only a small loss in altitude (50'-100'). It is taught and
practised in order for pilots to recognize, avoid, and recover
from stalling the airplane.[4] A pilot is required to demonstrate
competency in controlling an aircraft during and after a stall for
certification,[5] and it is a routine manoeuvre for pilots when
getting to know the handling of a new aircraft type. The only
dangerous aspect of a stall is a lack of altitude for recovery.
A special form of asymmetric stall in which the aircraft also
rotates about its yaw axis is called a spin. A spin can occur if an
aircraft is stalled and there is an asymmetric yawing moment
applied to it.[6] This yawing moment can be aerodynamic
(sideslip angle, rudder, adverse yaw from the ailerons), thrust
related (p-factor, one engine inoperative on a multi-engine non-
centreline thrust aircraft), or from less likely sources such as
severe turbulence. The net effect is that one wing is more deeply
stalled than the other and the aircraft descends rapidly while
rotating and some aircraft cannot recover from this condition
without correct pilot control inputs (which must stop yaw) and
loading.[7] A new solution to the problem of difficult (or
impossible) stall-spin recovery is provided by the ballistic
parachute recovery system.
The most common stall-spin scenarios occur on takeoff
(departure stall) and during landing (base to final turn) because
of insufficient airspeed during these manoeuvres. Stalls also
occur during a go-around manoeuvre if the pilot does not
properly respond to the out-of-trim situation resulting from the
transition from low power setting to high power setting at low
speed.[8] Stall speed is increased when the upper wing surfaces
are contaminated with ice or frost creating a rougher surface.
Stalls do not derive from airspeed and can occur at any speed
-but only if the wings have too high an angle of attack.
Attempting to increase the angle of attack at 1g by moving the
control column back normally causes the aircraft to rise.
However aircraft often experience higher g, for example when
turning steeply or pulling out of a dive. In these cases, the wings
are already operating at a higher angle of attack to create the
necessary force (derived from lift) to accelerate in the desired
direction. Increasing the g loading still further, by pulling back
on the controls, can cause the stalling angle to be exceeded
-even though the aircraft is flying at a high speed.[9] These "high
speed stalls" produce the same buffeting characteristics as 1g
stalls and can also initiate a spin if there is also any yawing.
[edit] Symptoms of an approaching stall
One symptom of an approaching stall is slow and sloppy
controls. As the speed of the aeroplane decreases approaching
the stall, there is less air moving over the wing and therefore less
air will be deflected by the control surfaces (ailerons, elevator
and rudder) at this slower speed. Some buffeting may also be
felt from the turbulent flow above the wings as the stall is
reached. The stall warning will sound, if fitted, in most aircraft 5
to 10 knots above the stall speed.[10]
[edit] Stalling characteristics
Different aircraft types have different stalling characteristics. A
benign stall is one where the nose drops gently and the wings
remain level throughout. Slightly more demanding is a stall
where one wing stalls slightly before the other, causing that
wing to drop sharply, with the possibility of entering a spin. A
dangerous stall is one where the nose rises, pushing the wing
deeper into the stalled state and potentially leading to an
unrecoverable deep stall. This can occur in some T-tailed
aircraft where the turbulent airflow from the stalled wing can
blanket the control surfaces at the tail.
[edit] “Stall speed”

The airspeed indicator is often used to indirectly predict stall

conditions.
Stalls depend only on angle of attack, not airspeed. Because a
correlation with airspeed exists, however, a "stall speed" is
usually used in practice. It is the speed below which the airplane
cannot create enough lift to sustain its weight in 1g flight. In
steady, level flight (1g), the faster an airplane goes, the less
angle of attack it needs to hold the airplane up (i.e., to produce
lift equal to weight). As the airplane slows down, it needs to
increase angle of attack to create the same lift (equal to weight).
As the speed slows further, at some point the angle of attack will
be equal to the critical (stall) angle of attack. This speed is called
the "stall speed". The angle of attack cannot be increased to get
more lift at this point and so slowing below the stall speed will
result in a descent. And so, airspeed is often used as an indirect
indicator of approaching stall conditions. The stall speed will
vary depending on the airplane's weight and configuration (flap
setting, etc.).
There are multiple V speeds which are used to indicate when a
stall will occur:
  VS: the computed stalling speed with flaps retracted at
design speed. Often has the same value as VS1.
 VS0: the stalling speed or the minimum steady flight speed
in landing configuration (full flaps, landing gear down,
spoiler retracted).
 VS1: the stalling speed or the minimum steady flight speed
in a specific configuration (usually a "clean" configuration
with flaps, landing gear and spoilers all retracted).
 VSR: reference stall speed.
 VSR0: reference stall speed in the landing configuration.
 VSR1: reference stall speed in a specific configuration.
 VSW: speed at which onset of natural or artificial stall
warning occurs.
On an airspeed indicator, the bottom of the white arc indicates
VS0 at maximum weight, while the bottom of the green arc
indicates VS1 at maximum weight. While an aircraft's VS speed is
computed by design, its VS0 and VS1 speeds must be
demonstrated empirically by flight testing.[11]
[edit] Accelerated and turning flight stall
Illustration of a turning flight stall, occurring during a co-
ordinated turn with progressively-increasing angle of bank.
An accelerated stall is a stall that occurs while the aircraft is
experiencing a load factor higher than 1 (1g), for example while
turning or pulling up from a dive. In these conditions, the
aircraft stalls at higher speeds than the normal stall speed (which
always refers to straight and level flight).[12]
Considering for example a banked turn, the lift required is equal
to the weight of the aircraft plus extra lift to provide the
centripetal force necessary to perform the turn, that is:[13][14]
L = nW
where:
L = lift
n = load factor (greater than 1 in a turn)
W = weight of the aircraft
In order to achieve the extra lift, the lift coefficient, and so the
angle of attack, will have to be higher than it would be in
straight and level flight at the same speed. Therefore, given that
the stall always occurs at the same critical angle of attack, [15] by
increasing the load factor (e.g. by tightening the turn) such
critical angle - and the stall - will be reached with the airspeed
remaining well above the normal stall speed[13] , that is:[16][17]

where:
 Vst = stall speed
Vs = stall speed of the aircraft in straight, level flight
n = load factor
It should be noted that, according to FAA's terminology, the
above example illustrates a so-called turning flight stall, while
the term accelerated is used to indicate an accelerated turning
stall only, that is a turning flight stall where the airspeed
decreases at a given rate.[18]
A notable example of air accident involving a low-altitude
turning flight stall is the 1994 Fairchild Air Force Base B-52
crash.
[edit] Deep stall
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Normal flight
Deep stall condition – T-tail in "shadow" of wing

The deep stall affects aircraft with a T-tail configuration.

A deep stall (or super-stall) is a dangerous type of stall that
affects certain aircraft designs,[19] notably those with a T-tail
configuration. In these designs, the turbulent wake of a stalled
main wing "blankets" the horizontal stabilizer, rendering the
elevators ineffective and preventing the aircraft from recovering
from the stall.
Although effects similar to deep stall had long been known to
occur on many aircraft designs, the name first came into
widespread use after a deep stall led to the crash of the prototype
BAC 1-11 G-ASHG on October 22nd, 1963, killing its crew.
This led to changes to the aircraft, including the installation of a
stick shaker (see below) in order to clearly warn the pilot of the
problem before it occurred. Stick shakers are now a part of all
commercial airliners. By sheer coincidence, also on October
22nd, 1963, a Tu-134 was lost in a flight test due to the same
cause.[citation needed] Nevertheless, the problem continues to cause
accidents; on June 3rd 1966 a Hawker Siddeley Trident (G-
ARPY)[1] was lost to deep stall; deep stall is suspected to be
cause of another Trident (G-ARPI) crash on June 18th 1972; on
April 3rd 1980 a prototype of the Canadair Challenger business
jet entered deep stall during testing, killing one of the test pilots
who was unable to leave the plane in time[20] and on July 26th
1993 a Canadair CRJ-100 was lost in flight test due to a deep
stall.[21]
Deep stall is possible with some sailplanes, as their most
common designs are T-tail configurations.[citation needed] The IS-29
glider is one of the gliders that are vulnerable to deep stalls
when the CG and the overall weight are between certain
limits[citation needed].
In the early 1980s, a Schweizer SGS 1-36 sailplane was
modified for NASA's controlled deep-stall flight program.[22]
A different type of stall affecting the F-16 fighter is also known
as a deep stall because of its similar difficulty in recovery, but
for a different reason. The aircraft is designed to be inherently
unstable, which when kept under control by its "fly-by-wire"
system allows for higher maneuverability. However, this design,
coupled with the intent of the control computer to keep the
fighter level, prevents the aircraft from pitching nose-down in a
stall, which would allow the pilot to recover given sufficient
altitude. This is known as a deep stall because the elevators are
rendered useless by the flight computer even though, unlike a T-
tail, air does contact the elevators, and even with the computer
disabled it is difficult to recover from (the pilot must "rock" the
aircraft with elevator input until it pitches nose-down, which can
take several seconds).
[edit] Stall warning and safety devices
Aeroplanes can be equipped with devices to prevent or postpone
a stall or to make it less (or in some cases more) severe, or to
make recovery easier.

 An aerodynamic twist can be introduced to the wing with

the leading edge near the wing tip twisted downward. This
is called washout and causes the wing root to stall before
the wing tip. This makes the stall gentle and progressive.
Since the stall is delayed at the wing tips, where the
ailerons are, roll control is maintained when the stall
begins.
 A stall strip is a small sharp-edged device which, when
attached to the leading edge of a wing, encourages the stall
to start there in preference to any other location on the
wing. If attached close to the wing root it makes the stall
gentle and progressive; if attached near the wing tip it
encourages the aircraft to drop a wing when stalling.
 A stall fence is a flat plate in the direction of the chord to
stop separated flow progressing out along the wing[23]
 Vortex generators, tiny strips of metal or plastic placed on
top of the wing near the leading edge that protrude past the
boundary layer into the free stream. As the name implies
they energize the boundary layer by mixing free stream
airflow with boundary layer flow thereby creating vortices,
this increases the inertia of the boundary layer. By
increasing the inertia of the boundary layer airflow
separation and the resulting stall may be delayed.
 An anti-stall strake is a leading edge extension which
generates a vortex on the wing upper surface to postpone
the stall.
 A stick pusher is a mechanical device which prevents the
pilot from stalling an aeroplane. It pushes the elevator
control forwards as the stall is approached, causing a
reduction in the angle of attack. Generically, a stick pusher
is known as a stall identification device or stall
identification system.[24]
 A stick shaker is a mechanical device which shakes the
pilot's controls to warn of the onset of stall.
 A stall warning is an electronic or mechanical device
which sounds an audible warning as the stall speed is
approached. The majority of aircraft contain some form of
this device that warns the pilot of an impending stall. The
simplest such device is a stall warning horn, which consists
of either a pressure sensor or a movable metal tab that
actuates a switch, and produces an audible warning in
response.
 An Angle-Of-Attack (AOA) Indicator or A.K.A Lift
Reserve Indicator is a pressure differential instrument that
integrates airspeed and angle of attack into one
instantaneous, continuous readout. An AOA indicator
provides a visual display of the amount of available lift
throughout its slow speed envelope regardless of the many
variables which act upon an aircraft. This indicator is
immediately responsive to changes in speed, angle of attack
and wind conditions and automatically compensates for
aircraft weight, altitude, and temperature.
  An angle of attack limiter or an "alpha" limiter is a flight
computer that automatically prevents pilot input from
causing the plane to rise over the stall angle. Some alpha
limiters can be disabled by the pilot.
Stall warning systems often involve inputs from a broad range of
sensors and systems to include a dedicated angle of attack
sensor.
Blockage, damage, or inoperation of stall and angle of attack
(AOA) probes can lead to the stall warning becoming unreliable
and cause the stick pusher, overspeed warning, autopilot and
yaw damper to malfunction.[25]
If a forward canard is used for pitch control, rather than an aft
tail, the canard is designed to meet the airflow at a slightly
greater angle of attack than the wing. Therefore, when the
aircraft pitch increases abnormally, the canard will usually stall
first, causing the nose to drop and so preventing the wing from
reaching its critical AOA. Thus the risk of main wing stalling is
greatly reduced. Unfortunately if the main wing stalls, recovery
becomes difficult as the canard is more deeply stalled and angle
of attack increases rapidly.[26]
If an aft tail is used, the wing is designed to stall before the tail.
In this case, the wing can be flown at higher lift coefficient
(closer to stall) to produce more overall lift.
Most military combat aircraft have an angle of attack indicator
among the pilot's instruments which lets the pilot know precisely
how close to the stall point the aircraft is. Modern airliner
instrumentation may also measure angle of attack although this
information may not be directly displayed on the pilot's display,
instead driving a stall warning indicator or giving performance
information to the flight computer (for fly by wire systems).
[edit] Flight beyond the stall
As the wing stalls aileron effectiveness is reduced making the
plane hard to control and increasing the risk of a spin starting.
Steady flight beyond the stalling angle (where the coefficient of
lift is largest) requires engine thrust to replace lift as well as
alternate controls to replace the loss of effectiveness of the
ailerons. For high powered aircraft, the loss of lift (and increase
in drag) beyond the stall angle is less of a problem than
maintaining control. Control can be provided by vectored thrust
as well as a rolling stabilator (or "taileron") and the enhanced
manoeuvering capability by flights at very high angles of attack
can provide a tactical advantage for military fighters such as the
F-22 Raptor. The highest angle of attack in sustained flight so
far demonstrated was 70 degrees in the X-31 at the Dryden
Flight Research Center.[27]
[edit] Spoilers
Except for flight training, airplane testing and aerobatics, a stall
is usually an undesirable event. Spoilers (sometimes called lift
dumpers), however, are devices that are intentionally deployed
to create a carefully controlled flow separation over part of an
aircraft's wing in order to reduce the lift it generates, increase
the drag, and allow the aircraft to descend more rapidly without
gaining speed.[28] Spoilers are also deployed asymmetrically (one
wing only) to enhance roll control. Spoilers can also be used on
aborted take-offs and after main wheel contact on landing to
increase the aircraft's weight on its wheels for better braking
action.
Unlike powered airplanes, which can control descent by
increasing or decreasing thrust, gliders have to increase drag to
increase the rate of descent. In high performance gliders spoiler
deployment is extensively used to control the approach to
landing.
Spoilers can also be thought of as "lift reducers" because they
reduce the lift of the wing in which the spoiler resides. For
example, an uncommanded roll to the left could be reversed by
raising the right wing spoiler (or only a few of the spoilers
present in large airliner wings). This has the advantage of
avoiding the need to increase lift in the wing that is dropping
(which may bring that wing closer to stalling).