Physical and Chemical Principles General Inorganic Chemistry

GENERAL INORGANIC CHEMISTRY

Study of Matter
A. Classification of Matter
1. Pure Substance
 form of matter that has distinct composition and properties
a. Elements
 Substance composed of one kind of atom and cannot be decomposed into
simpler substances
 There are 118 known elements of which 91 elements exist in the Earth in
macroscopic or trace quantities, 3 elements (Tc, Pm and Np) exist as a
result of rare decay of heavy elements and 24 elements (Am to Uuo) are
synthetically prepared
b. Compounds
 Substance formed when elements interact with other elements
 A pure compound is made up made up of the elements in the same
proportion by mass – Law of Definite Proportions by Joseph Louis Proust
(1754-1826)
 Abundance of the elements in (a) earth’s crust and (b) human body
H , 10.0% Other, 7.0%
Ca , 3.4% Others, 9.2%
Fe , 4.7% O , 49.5%

Al, 7.5%

Si , 25.7% C , 18.0% O , 65.0%

(a) (b)
2. Mixture
 form of matter that consists of different substances and whose composition
varies
a. Heterogeneous mixture – mixture that does not have uniform composition,
properties and appearance
b. Homogeneous mixture – mixture that is uniform throughout
B. Properties of Matter
1. Physical properties – observed without changing the identity and composition of
the substance
2. Chemical properties – observed when a substance react to form other substances
3. Intensive properties – properties independent of the amount of substance present
such as melting point, density, temperature, etc.
4. Extensive properties – properties dependent of the amount of substance present
such as mass and volume
C. Changes in Matter
1. Physical change – changes that does not result to formation of new substances
2. Chemical change – changes that result to formation of new substances

Atomic Theory
A. Dalton’s Atomic Theory
 Proposed by John Dalton (1766-1844)
Physical and Chemical Principles General Inorganic Chemistry

 Elements are composed of tiny indivisible particles called atoms. Atoms of

different elements are chemically different however atoms of a given element
are of the same size, shape, mass and chemical properties
 If two elements combine to form more than one compound, the ratio of the mass
of an element to a fixed mass of the other element is a whole number or a
simple fraction - Law of Multiple Proportions
 A chemical reaction only involves separation, combination or rearrangement of
atoms - Law of Conservation of Mass
B. Electron
1. Property
 Sir William Crookes (1832-1919) and Heinrich Geissler (1814-1879) invented a
low pressure gas-discharge tube made of glass known as the cathode ray tube
 The glass tube with two metal plates was connected to a high-voltage source,
which emitted a ray drawn from the negative plate towards the positive plate
 The ray emitted has the same nature regardless of the material of construction of
the glass tube, electrode and the gas used
2. Discovery
 Joseph John Thomson (1856-1940) used magnetic and electric fields to
determine the ratio of electric charge to the mass of the cathode ray particle
 He found that the cathode ray particle weighs 1000 times lighter than hydrogen
 The mass to charge ratio was –1.76  108 coul/g
3. Charge
 Robert Andrews Millikan (1868-1953) was known for his oil drop experiment
 He determined the charge of an electron to be –1.60  10–19 coul
C. Radioactivity
 Wilhelm Konrad Rontgen (1845-1923) discovered the X-rays, which penetrated
matter, darkened unexposed photographic plates and caused metals to emit
unusual rays
 Antoine Henri Becquerel (1852-1908) discovered radioactivity in uranium.
 Marya Skolodowska Curie (1867-1934) discovered radium and polonium.
D. Proton and Nucleus
Ernest Rutherford (1871-1937) performed the gold foil experiment, wherein a thin
foil of gold was bombarded with alpha particles and made the following conclusions:
 Most of the atom is an empty space
 The positive charge of an atom is concentrated in the nucleus
 The positively charged particle in the nucleus is the proton and carries the same
quantity of charges as an electron
 It has a mass of 1.6752 x 10–24 gram – about 1837 times the mass of an electron.
E. Neutron
James Chadwick (1891-1974) discovered neutron by bombarding a beryllium atom
with alpha particles producing an electrically neutral particle having a mass slightly
greater than that of a proton
4 Be  2   6 C  0 n
9 4 12 1
Physical and Chemical Principles General Inorganic Chemistry

F. Electronic Structure of the Atom

1. Basic concepts
 Atomic number is the number of protons in the nucleus of an atom. An atom is
electrically neutral where the number of protons is equal to the number of
electrons
 Mass number is the total number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus of an
atom
 Isotopes are atoms that have the same atomic number but different mass number
 Atomic weight is the weight of an atom relative to the C-12 atom and expressed
in terms of the atomic mass unit (amu) with an absolute value of 1.6605410–
24
gram
 Isotopes are atoms that have the same atomic number but different mass number
 Average atomic mass of an element is the weighted average of the atomic
masses of the isotopes based on their percentage abundance.
2. Electromagnetic theory
 Michael Faraday (1791-1867) discovered that the plane of polarization of a
linearly polarized light is rotated when it travels along the magnetic field
direction in the presence of an optically transparent dielectric material
 James Clerk Maxwell (1831-1879) proposed that visible light consists of
electromagnetic waves that comprises both electric field and magnetic field
components; these components have the same wavelength, frequency, speed
and travels in mutually perpendicular planes
 Electromagnetic radiation is the emission of energy in the form of
electromagnetic waves
3. Quantum theory
 Max Karl Ernst Ludwig Planck (1858-1947) proposed that atoms and molecules
could emit or absorb energy in discrete amount and gave the name quantum
which denotes the smallest amount of energy that can be emitted or absorbed
in the form of electromagnetic radiation
 The energy of a single quantum of energy (E) emitted is proportional to the
frequency (v) of the radiation
E  hv
where h = Planck’s constant
4. Atomic spectra
 Robert Wilhelm Eberhard Bunsen (1811-1899) and Gustav Robert Kirchhoff
(1824-1887) invented the spectroscope where white light is separated using a
prism into its component colors and passed to sample
 Each element was found to have a characteristic spectrum whether light was
passed to the gaseous state of the sample (absorption) or sample was
stimulated energetically producing light (emission)
 Johann Jakob Balmer (1825-1898) showed that the positions of the lines of light
in the visible portion of the hydrogen spectrum could be predicted by the
expression:
1 Bm2 Bm2
λ  2 
v n  m2 4  m2
Physical and Chemical Principles General Inorganic Chemistry

where  = wavelength of light [cm], v = wavenumber [cm–1], n = 2, m = any

integer greater than n and B = Balmer constant
 Johannes Robert Rydberg (1854-1919) generalized the Balmer equation for all
transitions of hydrogen and proposed a generalized equation to describe the
wavelengths of spectral lines of many elements:
 4  4 1 1   1 1 
v  v0 1  2     2   R H  2  2 
 m  B4 m  n m 
where RH = Rydberg constant
 Hydrogen spectral series involves emission spectrum of atomic hydrogen with
wavelengths given by the Rydberg formula and is due to the electrons moving
between energy levels in the atom

Spectral series n
Lyman Series Theodore Lyman (1874-1954) 1
Balmer Series Johann Balmer (1825-1898) 2
Paschen Series Friedrich Paschen (1865-1947) 3
Brackett Series Frederick Brackett (1896-1988) 4
Pfund Series August Pfund (1879–1949) 5
Humphreys Series Curtis Humphreys (1898 - 1986) 6
5. Photoelectric effect
 Phenomenon in which electrons are ejected from the surface of metals upon
illumination beyond the threshold frequency
 Albert Einstein (1879-1955) made the following conclusions about the
photoelectric effect:
 Light is absorbed by the electrons in the metal which increases the energy
of the electron
 When light is absorbed by the electron, the binding energy or the work
function () must be overcome before the electron can be ejected from the
metal
 An excess energy after overcoming the work function will be converted to
kinetic energy
hc 1
E  hv   BE  KE    mv2
λ 2
6. Emission spectra
 Niels Henrik David Bohr (1885-1962) proposed that not only the energy is
quantized and made the following assumptions:
 In the hydrogen atom, the electron moves in a circular orbit about the
nucleus where the centripetal force that keeps the electron in such path is
provided by the coulombic force of attraction between the electron and the
proton in the nucleus
me v2 e2
Fcent  Fcoul and 
r 4π 0 r 2
where me = mass of electron [kg], v = velocity of electron [m-s–1], r =
radius of circular orbit [m], e = charge of the electron [C], 0 =
permittivity of free space [C2-(J-m)–1]
Physical and Chemical Principles General Inorganic Chemistry

 The energy of the electron remains constant as it remains in its orbit about
the nucleus
Total energy of the system E T  KE  PE
1 e2
ET  me v2 
2 4π 0 r
1 e2
From Fcent  Fcoul expression ET  
2 4π 0 r
 Only certain orbits with a quantized value of angular momentum are
allowed
Definition of momentum, P P  me vr
nh
Proposed quantization of momentum P  m e vr 
2π
nh
In terms of the velocity v
2πme r
n 2 h 2ε 0
Using Fcent  Fcoul expression r  a 0n 2
πm e e 2
where a0 = Bohr radius and n = positive integer which is referred to as
quantum number
 Allowable orbital transitions occurs when an electron absorbs or emits a
photon whose energy is exactly equal to the difference between the energy
of the orbits
m e e 4  1 1 
E  hv  E f  Ei  
8 02 h 2  n i2 n f2 
m e e 4  1 1   1 1 
v 2 3  2
 2   RH 2  2 

8 0 h c  n i n f   
 ni nf 
 Bohr radius, a0 is aapproximately equal to the most probable distance between
hydrogen’s electron and proton in its ground state
h 2ε 0 h
a0  
e c
2
πm e e m
where h =reduced/rationalized Planck’s constant [J-s] and  = fine-structure
constant []
 Fine-structure constant,  is a coupling constant characterizing
electromagnetic interaction strength introduced by Arnold Johannes Wilhelm
Sommerfeld (1868- 1951)
7. Dual properties of matter
 Louis-Victor-Pierre-Raymond de Broglie (1892-1987) proposed that all
moving particles have wave properties according to the following relation:
h h
 
P mv
 Visible massive particles have very short wavelengths while electrons
possess wave properties due to their small mass
Physical and Chemical Principles General Inorganic Chemistry

 Clint J. Davisson (1881-1958), Lester H. Germer (1896-1972) and George P.

Thomson (1892-1975) demonstrated that electrons possess wave-like
properties
8. Heisenberg uncertainty principle
 Limitations of Bohr’s theory include its inability to account the emission
spectra of atoms containing more than one electron and the presence of
additional lines in hydrogen emission spectrum in the presence of a magnetic
field
 The wave-like property of an electron does not account for the exact position
of the electron
 Werner Karl Heisenberg (1901-1976) proposed that it is impossible to
determine simultaneously both the momentum (P) and position (x) of a
particle with certainty
h
ΔPΔx 
4π
9. Quantum or wave mechanics
 Erwin Schrodinger (1887-1961) formulated an equation that encompasses
both particle and wave-like behavior which can specify possible energy states
an electron can occupy in a hydrogen atom and corresponding wave functions
 Solution to Schrodinger equation can describe subatomic, atomic, molecular
and even macroscopic systems
 h 2 
  V̂ x    E
 2m x
2

where  = wave function, E = sum of kinetic and potential energy and V̂ =
potential energy
10. Summary of constants
Constants Symbol Value Dimension
Speed of light c 2.99792458  108 m–s–1
Permittivity of free space 0 8.854187817  10–12 F–m–1
Electron charge e 1.602176487  10–19 C
Atomic mass unit u 1.660538782  10–27 kg
Planck’s constant h 6.62606896  10–34 J–s
Reduced Planck’s constant ћ 1.05457163  10–34 J–s
9.10938215  10–31 kg
Electron rest mass me 10–4
5.48579911  u
1.672621637  10–27 kg
Proton rest mass mp
1.007276467  100 u
1.674927211  10–27 kg
Neutron rest mass mn
1.008664916  100 u
Rydberg constant RH 1.097373157  105 cm–1
Balmer constant B 3.645068202  10–7 m
Fine-structure constant  7.297352538  10–3 []

11. Quantum numbers

a. Principal Quantum Number (n) pertains to the average distance of the electron
from the nucleus in a particular orbital with has integral values 1, 2, etc.
b. Azimuthal/Angular Momentum Quantum Number (l) tells the shape of the
orbital and it has values from 0 to n–1
Physical and Chemical Principles General Inorganic Chemistry

c. Magnetic Quantum Number (ml) describes the orientation of orbitals in space.

Its allowable values are –l to 0 to +l
d. Spin Quantum Number (ms) shows the spin of electrons. Its values are
+½ (clockwise) and –½ (counter clockwise)
Relationship between quantum numbers and atomic orbitals
No. of orbitals
(electrons) in
n l ml subenergy level
Orbital name Shape
2l+1 (4l+2)
0 0 1 (2) 4s
1 –1, 0, +1 3 (6) 4px , 4py , 4pz dumbbell
–2, –1, 0, 4d xy , 4d xz , 4d yz , 4d z 2 , 4d x 2  y 2
2 5 (10) rosette
4 +1, +2
–3, –2, –1, 4f z 3 , 4f xz2 , 4f yz2 4f xyz ,
can not be
3 0, +1, +2, 7 (14)
4f x x 2 -3y2  , 4f y3x2 - y 2  , 4f z x 2 - y 2  , defined
+3

12. Electronic configurations

a. Rules and Principles in Writing Electronic Configuration
 Aufbau principle l=0 l=1 l=2 l=3
 From German word, aufbau meaning
building up Q (n=7) 7s 7p
 The orbitals of an atom must be filled with P (n=6) 6s 6p 6d
a maximum of two electrons in the order
O (n=5) 5s 5p 5d 5f
of increasing orbital energy
 Works well for the atoms in their ground N (n=4) 4s 4p 4d 4f
states M (n=3) 3s 3p 3d
 Madelung-Klechkovsky rule
 Proposed by Erwin Madelung (1881-1972) L (n=2) 2s 2p
and Vsevolod Klechkovsky (1900-1972) K (n=1) 1s
 Orbitals are filled in the order of
increasing (n + l) and if two orbitals have the same value of (n + l), they
are filled in order of increasing n
 Pauli’s exclusion principle
 Proposed by Wolfgang Ernst Pauli (1900-1958)
 No two electrons in an atom can have the same set of quantum numbers
and an atomic orbital must contain a maximum of two electrons with
opposite spins
 Hund’s rule of multiplicity
 Proposed by Friedrich Hermann Hund (1896-1997)
 The most stable arrangement of electrons in subshells is the one with
more parallel spins
b. Methods of Writing Electronic Configuration
 Orbital method
26
Fe 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d6
 Rectangular-arrow Method
26
Fe #$ #$ #$ #$ #$ #$ #$ #$ #$ #$ #$ # # # #
1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 4s 3d
Physical and Chemical Principles General Inorganic Chemistry

 Shell Method
26
Fe 2e 8e 14e 2e

K L M N

 Core method
26
Fe [Ar] 4s2 3d6
Periodic Table of Elements
A. Development of the Periodic Table of Elements
 In 1829, Johann Wolfgang Dobereiner (1780-1849) arranged the elements in
triads like Li–Na–K, Ca–Sr–Ba, and Cl–Br–I
 In 1864, John AR Newlands (1837-1898) arranged the elements in atomic mass
and found out that every eight element has similar properties
 In 1869, Dmitri Ivanovich Mendeleev (1834-1907) and Julius Lothar Meyer
(1830-1895) arranged the elements in the periodic table according to their
recurring periodic properties
 In 1913, Henry Gwyn–Jeffreys Moseley (1887-1915) discovered the relationship
between the elements’ atomic number and the frequency of X–rays generated by
bombarding the element with high-energy electrons.
B. Periodic Properties of the Elements: Modern Periodic Law
 Modern periodic law states that the physical and chemical properties of the
elements are functions of their atomic numbers
1. Atomic Size or Radius
 Three different types of radii:
 single-bond covalent radius, rcov – typical contribution of an element to
the length of the covalent bond (i.e. rcov of F is half the internuclear
distance in the molecule F2)
 van der Waals radii, rvdw – obtained from the non-bonded distance of
closest approach between non-bonded atoms in contact
 ionic radii, rion – radii assigned to ion of elements in ionic compounds
 Average distance between the nucleus and the valence electron
 Generally increases in a group from top to bottom, in spite of the increase Zeff,
due to the increase in the principal quantum number, n where the outer
electrons have a greater probability of getting farther from the nucleus
 Generally decreases from left to right due to increase in the Zeff in which
electrons are drawn closer to the nucleus causing the atom to shrink
2. Ionic Size or Radius
 Cations are smaller than their parent atoms since the removal of an electron
from its neutral parent atom causes reduction in the electron-electron
repulsion and the remaining electrons are drawn towards the nucleus
 Anions are bigger than their parent atoms since the addition of an electron to
the parent atom results to increase the electron-electron repulsions causing the
electrons to spread out more in space and therefore enlarges the domain of the
electron cloud
 Same trend as atomic size
 Isoelectronic series are group of ions with the same number of electrons (e.g.
S–2, Cl–1, K+, Ca+2)
Physical and Chemical Principles General Inorganic Chemistry

3. Ionization Energy (IE)

 The energy required to remove an electron from a gaseous atom in its ground
state
 The lower the IE, the easier it is to remove an electron
 Generally decreases in a group from top to bottom due to the increase in the
principal quantum number that overcomes the increase in the effective nuclear
charge
 Generally increases from left to right due to increase in the effective nuclear
charge
 For group 3A elements which contains the first electron in the np sublevel,
IE decreases since removal of this electron results to a stable and filled ns
sublevel
 For group 6A elements which contains the first electron to pair with
another np electron, IE decreases since removal of this electron results to a
stable half-filled np sublevel
4. Electron Affinity
 The energy change when an electron is added to a gaseous atom or ion
 In most cases, energy is released when the first electron is added and the
greater the attraction between the atom and the added electron, the more
negative the electron affinity is
 Groups 6A and 7A have highly negative electron affinities, Groups 1A and
2A have slightly negative electron affinities and Group 8A have slightly
positive electron affinities
 Generally, electron affinity increases from left to right but decreases with
many exceptions from top to bottom
5. Electronegativity
 First proposed by Linus Carl Pauling (1901-1994)
 The measure of the ability of an atom in a molecule to attract towards itself a
bonding electron
 Generally, electronegativity decreases from top to bottom and increases from
left to right
 As a rough estimate, the nature of bond can be determined based on the
difference in the electronegativity as follows:
 Purely covalent bond EN < 0.40
 Polar covalent 0.40 < EN < 1.70
 Ionic bond EN < 1.70
 Electronegativities of Common Elements
[

H
2.300
[ [ [ [ [ [ [

Li Be B C N O F
0.912 1.576 2.051 2.544 3.066 3.610 4.193
[ [ [ [ [ [ [

Na Mg Al Si P S Cl
0.869 1.293 1.613 1.916 2.253 2.589 2.869
[ [ [

K Ca Br
0.734 1.034 2.685
[

I
2.359
Physical and Chemical Principles General Inorganic Chemistry

6. Variation of Physical Properties in the Periodic Table

Across a period…
[ [ [ [ [

B C N O F

PROPERTY INCREASING DECREASING

Li
[
Atomic Size 
Na
Metallic Property 
Down a [

group… K Reactivity 
[

Rb Ionization Energy 
[

Cs Electron Affinity 
[

Fr Electronegativity 

Chemical Bonding
A. Types of Chemical Bonds
1. Covalent bond – results from the attraction of the nucleus and the electron of two
or more atoms and usually involves two non-metals
2. Ionic bond – results from the attraction of two opposite charged particles and
usually involves a metal and a non-metal
3. Metallic bond – electrostatic attractive forces between delocalized electrons and
the positively charged metal ions
B. Properties of a Chemical Bond
1. Bond energy is the amount of energy involved in the formation and breaking of a
bond
2. Bond length is the distance between the nuclei of the atoms forming the bond
3. Bond order pertains to single bond, double bond, triple bond and those
intermediate between single and double bonds, etc.

C. Theories of Bonding
1. Valence bond theory
 The formation of a bond is due to the overlap of two half-filled atomic orbitals
containing unpaired
 Two types of overlapping orbitals: sigma () and pi ()
 Sigma bonds are formed when the orbitals of the two shared electrons overlap
head-on
 Pi bonds are formed when the orbitals of the two shared electrons overlap
laterally
 Hybridization involves mixing of atomic orbitals to form new hybrid orbitals
2. Molecular orbital theory
 A bond is formed when electrons in the bonding molecular orbital is greater
than the electrons in the non-bonding molecular orbital
Physical and Chemical Principles General Inorganic Chemistry

 When two orbitals overlap, two molecules orbitals form – one of the
molecular orbitals lies lower in energy (molecular bonding orbital) from the
atomic orbitals from which it was made and the other higher in energy
(antibonding molecular orbital) than the atomic orbitals from which it was
formed
 Bonding order = ½ (no. of bonding electrons – no. of antibonding electrons)
D. Molecular Geometry – Valence Shell Electron-Pair Repulsion (VSEPR) Theory
BOND
TYPE GEOMETRY HYBRIDIZATION EXAMPLE
ANGLE(S)
AB2 linear 180 sp CO2
AB3 trigonal planar 120 sp2 BF3
AB2E bent less than 120 sp2 SO2
AB4 tetrahedral 109.5 sp3 CH4
AB3E trigonal pyramid 107 sp3 NH3
AB2E2 bent 104.5 sp3 H2O
ABE3 linear 180º sp3 CH3O–
AB5 trigonal bipyramid 90, 120,180 dsp3 PCl5
AB4E see-saw 90, 120,180 dsp3 SF4
AB3E2 T-shaped 90,180 dsp3 ClF3
AB3E3 linear 180 dsp3 XeF2
AB6 octahedral 90,180º d2sp3 SF6
AB5E square pyramid <90, 180º d2sp3 BrF5
AB4E2 square planar 90,180º d2sp3 XeF4
AB7 pentagonal bipyramid 72,90 d3sp3 IF7
AB6E pentagonal pyramid 72,90 d3sp3 TeCl6–2
E. Intramolecular Forces of Attraction
 Forces of attraction that exist between bonds within a molecule
Intramolecular Energy
Basis of Attraction Example
force (kJ-mol–1)
Ionic opposite charges 400-4000 KCl
Covalent nucleus-shared e– 150-1100 O–O
metal cations and
Metallic 75-1000 Cu
delocalized electrons

F. Intermolecular forces of attraction

 Forces attraction that exist between molecules
Energy
Intramolecular force Basis of Attraction Example
(kJ-mol–1)
Ion-dipole ion-polar molecule 40-600 K+ - H 2 O
Hydrogen bond H bonded to N, O or F 5-25 HBr - HBr
Partial charges of polar
Dipole-dipole 10-40 H2O and HF
molecules
Induced dipole of
London dispersion 0.05-40 Ne - Ne
polarizable molecule
Physical and Chemical Principles General Inorganic Chemistry

Stoichiometry
Quantitative study of reactants and products in a chemical reaction
A. Types of Chemical Reactions
1. Combination (synthesis) reaction: A + B  AB
a. metal + oxygen gas  acidic oxide or acidic anhydride
 2Mg + O2  2MgO
 2Na + ½O2  Na2O
b. non-metal + oxygen gas  basic oxide or basic anhydride
 S + O2  SO2
 C + O2  CO2
c. non-metal oxide + water  acid
 SO2 + H2O  H2SO3(aq)
 CO2 + H2O  H2CO3(aq)
d. metal oxide + water  alkali/base
 MgO + H2O  Mg(OH)2
2. Decomposition reaction: AB  A + B
a. metal oxide 

metal + oxygen gas
 HgO 

Hg + ½O2 (Joseph Priestley, 1774)
b. metal carbonates 

metal oxide + CO2
 Na2CO3 

Na2O + CO2
 CaCO3  
CaO + CO2
c. metal nitrates 
metal nitrites + O2
 NaNO3  
NaNO2 + ½O2
d. metal bicarbonates 
metal carbonate + H2O + CO2
 2NaHCO3  
Na2CO3 + H2O + CO2
e. metal oxyhalides 
metal halide + O2
 2KBrO3 
 2KBr + 3O2
 / MnO2 / Fe 2O3

3. Single Replacement: AB + C  CB + A
a. Hydrogen Displacement Reactions
 Na + H2O(l)  NaOH + ½H2(g)
 2Fe + 3H2O(v)  Fe2O3 + 3H2(g)
 Zn + HCl(aq)  ZnCl2 + H2(g)
b. Halogen Displacement (Activity Series : F2 > Cl2 > Br2 > I2)
 2KI + Cl2  2KCl + I2
4. Double decomposition (metathesis) reaction: AB + CD  CB + AD
a. Neutralization Reaction – reaction of an acid and a base forming salt and
water
 HCl + KOH  KCl + H2O
b. Precipitation Reaction – reaction which results in the formation of an
insoluble product
 Na2CO3(aq) + CaSO4(aq)  CaCO3(s) + Na2SO4(aq)
Physical and Chemical Principles General Inorganic Chemistry

B. Activity Series of Metals (arranged in decreasing activity)

Li K Na Ca Mg Al Mn Zn Cr Fe Ni Sn Pb

DISPLACE HYDROGEN FROM ACIDS

DISPLACE HYDROGEN FROM STEAM

DISPLACE HYDROGEN
FROM COLD WATER

H Cu Bi Sb Hg Ag Pt Au

C. Basic Concepts
1. Law of conservation of matter
The total mass of all substances present after a chemical reaction is the same as
the total mass before the reaction. (Antoine Lavoisier, 1789)
2. Law of definite composition
Different samples of the same compound always contain its constituent elements
in the same proportion by mass. (Joseph Louis Proust, 1799)
3. Law of multiple proportions
If two elements can combine to form more than one compound, the masses of one
element that combine with a fixed mass of the other element are in ratios of small
whole numbers. (John Dalton, 1808)
4. Mole
The amount of a substance that contains as many elementary entities (atoms,
molecules or other particles) as there are atoms in exactly 12 grams of the carbon-
12 isotope.
5. Avogadro’s number
The number of atoms in 12 grams of the carbon-12 isotope. Its currently accepted
value is 6.022045  1023 particles.

6. Mass-mole relationship

MOLAR AVOGADRO’S
MASS NUMBER

NUMBER OF
MASS MOLE PARTICLES

7. Empirical formula
The simplest formula of a compound and contains the simplest ratio of atoms in
the compound.
8. Molecular Formula
The true formula of a compound and a whole-number multiple of the empirical
formula
Physical and Chemical Principles General Inorganic Chemistry

Chemical Equilibrium
A. Equilibrium Constant Expressions
Consider the hypothetical reaction: aA(g) + bB(g)  cC(g) + dD(g)
For gases and aqueous solutions in a chemical reaction, equilibrium constants are
expressed in terms of molarity (KC) and partial pressure (KP) as follows:
[C]c [D] d [PC ]c [PD ]d
KC  and K P 
[A] a [B]b [PA ]a [PB ]b
These cases apply for ideal solutions and ideal gases where the activities are taken as
unity

Relationship between KC and KP

K P  K C RTΔngases
where Δn gases  Σngas,product  Σngas,reactant  c  d   a  b

B. Le Chatelier’s Principle
A system in equilibrium when subjected to a stress will act in such a way to relieve
the stress.
Consider the equilibrium reaction: N2(g) + 3 H2(g)  2 NH3(g) H = – 45 kJ/mol
1. Effects of changing the concentration
Increasing (decreasing) the concentration of the reactants shifts the reaction
forward (backward). Increasing (decreasing) the concentration of the products
shifts the reaction backward (forward). In the given reaction, removing NH 3 in the
reaction vessel, shift the reaction forward while adding some NH3 shifts the
reaction backward.
2. Effects of Changing the Pressure/Volume
Increasing the pressure (or similarly decreasing the volume) of a system in
equilibrium shifts the reaction towards the formation of less number of gaseous
molecules. On the other hand, decreasing the pressure (or similarly increasing the
volume) of a system in equilibrium shifts the reaction towards the formation of
greater number of gaseous molecules. In the reaction given above, increasing the
pressure of the system will result in the formation of more ammonia.
3. Effects of Changing the Temperature
Increasing the temperature favors an endothermic reaction while decreasing the
temperature favors an exothermic reaction. For the reaction above, increasing the
temperature will favor the backward reaction being exothermic.
4. Effects of Adding the Catalyst
Adding a catalyst does not affect the equilibrium
Physical and Chemical Principles General Inorganic Chemistry

Nuclear Chemistry
Types of Emitted Particle/Radiation
PARTICLE CHARGE SYMBOL
1 
0 0
beta particle or electron -1 or 1 e

1 
0 0
positron +1 or 1 e
proton or a hydrogen 1 1
+1 1 p or 1 H
nucleus
1
neutron 0 0n

0
0
gamma ray 0
alpha particle or helium
 2
4 4
+2 or  2 He
nucleus

Ways of Expressing Quantity of Radiation

1. Activity – number of nuclear disintegrations per second
a. SI Unit : Bq
b. 3.7 x 1010 Bq (becquerel) = 1 Ci (curie)
c. Curie is the rate of disintegration of 1 gram of Ra
2. Radiation absorbed dose (rd)
a. SI Unit : Gy (gray)
b. 1 Gy = 1 J/kg absorbing material
c. 1 rd = 10–5 J/gram of tissue
Types of Radioactive Decay
 2
212 208 4
1. Alpha Particle Decay : 84 Po 82 Pb +

1 
0
2. Beta Particle Decay : 137
55Cs  137
56 Ba +
+ 24 + 0 
0
3. Gamma Ray Emission: 211
83 Bi  207
81Tl

4. Positron Emission : 54
27 Co  54
26 Fe + 10 
5. Neutron Emission : 87
36 Kr
 86
36 Kr
+ 01n
6. Electron Capture : 50
23V + 0
1 e  50
22Ti + x  ray