Chapter 2

EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE : AN OVERVIEW

2.1 Introduction 18
2.2 What is Emotional Intelligence? 19
2.3 The Emotional Brain 19
2.4 Origins of the Concept 20
2.5 Defining Emotional Intelligence 23
2.6 Advantages of Emotional Intelligence 24
2.7 Emotional Intelligence Models 25
2.8 Measures of EI Models 39
2.9 Applicability of EI on Other Factors 46
2.10 Conclusion 47
References 48
 || Shree Shrinathji Prassannostu ||

Chapter 2
EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE : AN OVERVIEW

2.1 Introduction
Intelligence is considered as one of the most desirable personality qualities in
today's society. I.Q. tests are presently employed for many purposes such as
selection, diagnosis and evaluation in all parts of society. It claims that, "it is the
single most effective predictor of individual performance at school and on the job.
(Andoh, 1998)1 Some critics of I.Q. believe that intelligence is more of a result of an
individual's opportunities to learn skills and information in a particular situation.
They emphasize that successful learning in school depends on many personal
characteristics such as persistence, interest in school, and willingness to study.
Encouragement for academic achievement received from friends, family and teachers
is also important, together with other cultural factors. Another criticism of I.Q. tests
is that the tests declines when they are used to forecast outcome in later life, such as
job performance, or salary. Moreover, I.Q. tests become less effective on population,
situations or tasks change. Some studies have showed that I.Q. positively predicts
leadership quality in low stress conditions.
Another issue is the validity of IQ tests. Present researchers of human
intelligence, such as Robert Sternberg and Howard Gardner (1983)2, argue that IQ
tests measure only a restricted aspect of human intellectual ability. These researchers
also highlighted the crucial importance of considering the cultural context for a fair
evaluation of individual performance. I.Q. tests based on western thoughts which
cannot be applied to other cultures, which may have different values. This tends
strong support to the notion of the existence of several kinds of intelligence, and
recent theories argue for a further extension of the concept of intelligence also
include emotional intelligence.

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2.2 What is Emotional Intelligence?
Emotions are involved in everything people do: every action, decision and
judgement. Emotionally intelligent people recognize this and use their thinking to
manage their emotions rather than being managed by them. In the course of last two
decades, Emotional Intelligence (EI) concept has become a very important indicator
of a person‘s knowledge, skills and abilities in workplace, school and personal life.
The overall result of researches suggest that EI plays a significant role in the job
performance, motivation, decision making, successful management and leadership.
Thus applying EI methodology in higher education can have lots of benefits for
students. It not only fulfills their desire but also makes them more efficient in their
field.
Everyone experiences and relates their feelings and emotions in day to day
life. Emotions have valuable information about relationships, behavior and every
aspect of the human life around us. The most recent research shows that emotions are
constructive and do contribute to enhance performance and better decision making
both at job and in private life.

2.3 The Emotional Brain

With advances in neuroscience and brain imaging techniques, scientists
understand the way that the human brain works. They are able to distinguish between
the emotional centre of the brain - which gives rise to feelings and emotions - from
the neocortex, which is responsible for thinking and reasoning. Today most scientists
believe that our emotions are well involved in the rational decisions and choices we
make. There is an increasing evidence that emotional intelligence has greater impact
on our ability to learn and our future success.
As shown in Fig. 2.1, a visual signal first goes from the retina to the thalamus,
where it is translated into the language of the brain. Most of the messages then go to
the visual cortex, where it is analyzed and assessed for meaning and appropriate
response; if that response is emotional, a signal goes to the amygdala to activate the
emotional centers. But a smaller portion of the original signal goes straight from the
thalamus to the amygdala in a quicker transmission allowing a faster response. Thus

19
the amygdala can trigger an emotional response before the cortical centers have fully
understood what is happening.

Caudate Nucleus

Globus Plalidus
Putamax
Nucleus
Accumbens Thalamus

Amygdala

Fig. 2.1 The emotional brain

Source: http://www.simplifyinginterfaces.com/2012/01/designing-a-user-experience-for-brains-
that-are-10000-years-old/

2.4 Origins of the Concept

The roots of emotional intelligence were traced by Darwin‘s early work on the
importance of emotional expression for survival. In the 1900s, even though
traditional definitions of intelligence emphasized cognitive aspects such as memory
and problem-solving, later on several researchers in the intelligence field of study
had begun to be aware of the importance of the non-cognitive aspects.
When psychologists began to think and write about intelligence, they focused
on cognitive aspects, such as memory and problem-solving. However, there were
researchers who understand that the non-cognitive aspects were also important in
intelligence.
In 1920, E. L. Thorndike3, used the term social intelligence to describe the
skill of understanding and managing other people. In other words, he proposed that
humans possess several types of intelligence, one form is being called as social

20
intelligence, or the ability to understand and manage men and women, boys and girls,
and also to act wisely in human relations.
In 1940 David Wechsler4, the originator of the Wechsler Adult Intelligence
Scale (WAIS), referred to both non-intellective and intellective elements of
intelligence. He described the effects of non-intellective factors on intelligent
behavior. The non-intellective elements included affective, personal, and social
factors, he later hypothesized that they were essential for predicting one's ability to
succeed in life. He further argued that our models of intelligence would not be
complete until we can effectively describe these factors.
In 1983, Howard Gardner's2 Frames of Mind: The Theory of Multiple
Intelligences included both Interpersonal intelligence (the capacity to understand the
intentions, motivations and desires of other people) and Intrapersonal intelligence
(the capacity to understand oneself, to appreciate one's feelings, fears and
motivations). In Gardner's view, traditional types of intelligence, such as IQ, failed to
explain cognitive ability fully. Thus, there was a common belief that traditional
definitions of intelligence are lacking the ability to explain performance outcomes
completely.
Psychologists John Mayer and Peter Salovey5, introduced the concept of
emotional intelligence in the early 1990‘s. According to them, emotions are internal
events that coordinate physiological responses, cognitions, and conscious awareness.
They defined emotional intelligence as, ―The ability to perceive emotions, to access
and generate emotions so as to assist thought, to understand emotions and emotional
knowledge, and to regulate emotions reflectively so as to promote emotional and
intellectual growth‖.
As a result of the growing needs of EI, the research on the topic was in
process, until the publication of Daniel Goleman‘s (1995)6 best seller book Emotional
Intelligence: Why It Can Matter More Than IQ was published and then the term
became widely popular. Nancy Gibbs‘ article in Time magazine in 1995 highlighted
Goleman‘s book and EI was popular in media. Thereafter, articles on EI began to
appear with increasing frequency across a wide range of academic and popular
magazines.

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 In 1996, Dr. Reuven Bar-On7 explained that Emotional Intelligence reflects
our ability to deal successfully with other people and with our feelings. He developed
the Bar-On EQ-I, and this inventory is the first scientifically developed and validated
measure of emotional intelligence that reflects one‘s ability to deal with daily
environmental challenges and helps for one‘s success in professional and personal
life. Bar-On Emotional Quotient Inventory (EQ-i) was published by Multi-Health
Systems in 1996. This test covers five areas: intrapersonal, interpersonal,
adaptability, stress management and general mood.
In 1997, Richardson and Evans8 explored some methods for teaching social
and emotional competence within a culturally diverse society. Their purpose was to
help students to connect with each other, in order to assist them in developing
interpersonal, intrapersonal, and emotional intelligences, arguing that these
intelligences are essential for personal accomplishment.
In 1997, according to Ediger9 the emotions, feelings and values are very
important for a person‘s well being and achievement in one‘s life. He also states that
science teachers should stress on the emotional area that cannot be separated from the
cognitive domain. He also said that quality emotions and feelings help students to
give their best potential in the classroom. The students who dislike study and think
negatively cannot concentrate for a long time on study and have more difficulty in
reaching their capacity than others.
In 1997, Pool10 the senior editor of Educational Leadership, stated in an article
that emotional well-being is a predictor of success in academic achievement and job
success among others.
Finegan (1998)11 argues that schools should help students to learn the abilities
of emotional intelligence. Possessing those abilities, or even some of them, ―can lead
to better achievement from the formal education from the childhood to adolescent in
the working place and in society‖.
In 2001, Elias12 mentioned that teaching emotional and social skills are very
important at school, it affects academic achievement positively of students not only
during the year they were taught but during the years that follow as well. Teaching
these skills has a long term effect on achievement.

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 According to Nelson and Low (2003)13 emotional intelligence is the single
most important variable in personal achievement, career success, leadership and life
satisfaction. They feel that an emotionally fit person is capable to identify,
understand, experience, and express human emotions in a healthy and productive
ways.

2.5 Defining Emotional Intelligence

There are lots of arguments about the definition of EI. As the field is growing
so rapidly that researchers are constantly amending their own definitions. Some
definitions are as below:
According to Salovey and Mayer (1990)14 emotional intelligence is:
“the ability to monitor one’s own and others’ feelings and emotions, to
discriminate among them and to use this information to guide one’s thinking and
actions.”
According to Reuven Bar-On (1996)15 emotional intelligence is:
“An array of non-cognitive (emotional and social) capabilities, competencies
and skills that influence one’s ability to succeed in coping with environmental
demands and pressures.”
According to Six Seconds Team (1997)16 emotional intelligence is:
“The capacities to create optimal results in your relationships with yourself
and others.”
According to Maurice Elias (2001)12
“Emotional intelligence is the set of abilities that we like to think of as being
on the other side of the report card from the academic skills.”
According to Peter Salovey and John Mayer (2002)17emotional intelligence is:
“The ability to perceive emotions, to access and generate emotions so as to
assist thought, to understand emotions and emotional meanings, and to reflectively
regulate emotions in ways that promote emotional and intellectual growth.”
According to Hein (2005, 2008, 2009)15 emotional intelligence is:
“The mental ability we are born with which gives our emotional sensitivity
and potential for emotional management skills that help us maximize our long term
health, happiness and survival.”(2005)

23
 “Knowing how to separate healthy from unhealthy feelings and how to turn
negative feelings into positive ones.”(2008)
“Emotional intelligence is the innate potential to feel, use, communicate,
recognize, remember, learn from, manage, understand and explain emotions.”(2009)
According to Byron Stock (2007)18,
“Emotional Intelligence (EI) is the ability to acquire and apply knowledge
from your emotions and the emotions of others.” You can use the information about
what you’re feeling to help you make effective decisions about what to say or do (or
not to say or do) next.
According to Travis Bradberry and Jean Greaves (2009)19,
“Emotional intelligence is your ability to recognize and understand emotions
in yourself and others, and your ability to use this awareness to manage your
behaviour and relationships.”
According to Golis Chris (2009)20
“EQ is achieving Self- and Social Mastery by being smart with core emotions.”
According to Wikipedia (the free encyclopedia)(2010)14
Emotional Intelligence (EI), often measured as an Emotional Intelligence
Quotient (EQ), describes a concept that involves the ability, capacity, skill or (in the
case of the trait EI model) a self-perceived ability, to identify, assess, and manage the
emotions of one’s self, of others, and of groups.

2.6 Advantages of Emotional Intelligence

The advantages emotional intelligence are as below:
 improves relationships with human beings;
 improves communication with people;
 makes better empathy skills;
 acting with integrity;
 helps you to get respect from others;
 to improve career prospects;
 managing change more confidently;
 enjoy the work wholeheartedly;
 feeling confident and positive in attitude;
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  to reduce stress levels;
 to increase creativity;
 to learn from mistakes.

2.7 Emotional Intelligence Models

In the course of last two decades EI researchers have developed three major
models they are ability, mixed, and trait EI models21. The main difference in these
three categories is whether authors‘ models perceive their EI as an innate human trait
or a competence that can be systematically developed over time. Thus, measuring EI
differs per model varying from strict ability testing with right and wrong answers to
subjective self-report types of measurement.
Ability models regard emotional intelligence as a pure form of mental ability
and thus as a pure intelligence. In contrast, mixed models of emotional intelligence
combine mental ability with personality characteristics such as optimism and well-
being. While, trait models of EI refers to an individual‘s self-perceptions of their
emotional abilities.
The ability model of emotional intelligence is proposed by John Mayer and
Peter Salovey. Two mixed models of emotional intelligence have been proposed by
Reuven Bar-On and Daniel Goleman, each has a different notion.

2.7.1 Ability EI models

2.7.1.1 John Mayer and Peter Salovey (2000)21: An Ability Model of Emotional
Intelligence
John Mayer and Peter Salovey first coined the term ―emotional intelligence‖
in 1990 and have continued to conduct research on the significance of the construct61.
Their pure theory of emotional intelligence integrates key ideas from the fields of
intelligence and emotion. They further mentioned that emotional intelligence is based
on a model of intelligence. It proposes that emotional intelligence is comprised of
two areas: experiential (ability to perceive, respond, and manipulate emotional
information without necessarily understanding it) and strategic (ability to understand
and manage emotions without necessarily perceiving feelings well or fully

25
experiencing them). He had developed four branches for this model. (Mayer &
Salovey, 1997).
The first branch, emotional perception, is the ability to be self-aware of
emotions and to express emotions and emotional needs accurately to others.
Emotional perception also includes the ability to distinguish between honest and
dishonest expressions of emotion.
The second branch, emotional assimilation, is the ability to distinguish among
the different emotions such as feelings which identify those that are influencing their
thought processes.
The third branch, emotional understanding, is the ability to understand
complex emotions (such as feeling two emotions at once) and the ability to recognize
transitions from one to the other.
Last and the fourth branch, emotional management, is the ability to connect or
disconnect from an emotion depending on its usefulness in a given situation.
Salovey and Mayer‘s (2000) conception of EI strives to define EI within
standard criteria for a new intelligence. Their continuing researches was revised to
their initial definition of EI was :
―The ability to perceive emotion, integrate emotion
to facilitate thought, understand emotions and
to regulate emotions to promote personal growth.‖
Thus, the ability based model views emotions as useful source of information
that helps one to work in social environment. This model is shown in Figure 2.2.

26
Fig. 2.2 Mayer and Salovey’s (1997) four branch model of emotional intelligence
Source: http://ehealthaustralia.org/article/emotional-intelligence-101-for-healthcare/

This model of EI includes four types of abilities:

1. Perceiving emotions — the ability to identify and interpret emotions in
faces, pictures and voices – including the ability to identify one‘s own
emotions.
2. Using emotions — the ability to use emotions to facilitate various
cognitive activities, such as thinking and problem solving. The
emotionally intelligent person can be benefited in his or her changing
moods in any work.
3. Understanding emotions — the ability to comprehend emotion language
and to appreciate complicated relationships among emotions. For example,
understanding emotions include the ability to be sensitive to slight
variations between emotions, and the ability to recognize and describe
how emotions grow over time.
4. Managing emotions — the ability to regulate emotions in both ourselves
and in others. Therefore, the emotionally intelligent person can tie together
emotions, even negative ones, and manage them to achieve intended goals.

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2.7.2 Mixed Models of EI
2.7.2.1 Bar-On22: A Mixed Model of Emotional Intelligence
The director of the Institute of Applied Intelligences in Denmark and
consultant for a variety of institutions and organizations in Israel, Reuven Bar-On
(2006) developed the first measuring tool of emotional intelligence that was used as
the term ―Emotional Quotient‖.
He defines emotional intelligence as, understand oneself and others, relating
well to people, and adapting to and coping with the immediate surroundings to be
more successful in dealing with environmental demands. Bar-On‘s model of
emotional intelligence relates to the potential for performance and success, rather
than performance or success itself, and is considered process-oriented rather than
outcome-oriented (Bar-On, 2002). It focuses on (1) a group of emotional and social
abilities, including the ability to be aware of, understand, and express oneself, and
the ability to be aware of, understand, and relate to others, (2) the ability to deal with
strong emotions, and the ability to adapt to change and solve problems of a social or
personal nature (Bar-On, 1997). Bar-On mentioned that emotional intelligence
develops over time and that it can be improved through training, programming and
therapy (Bar-On, 2002).
Bar-On found that individuals with higher than average E.Q.‘s are in general
more successful in meeting environmental demands and pressures and deficiency in
emotional intelligence can mean a lack of success and the existence of emotional
problems. In general, Bar-On considers emotional intelligence and cognitive
intelligence to contribute equally to a person‘s general intelligence, which then offers
an indication of one‘s potential to succeed in life (Bar-On, 2002).
According to the Bar-On model, emotional-social intelligence is,
―a cross-section of interrelated emotional and social competencies,
skills and facilitators that determine how well we understand and
express ourselves, understand others and relate with them, and
cope with daily demands, challenges and pressures‖.
In his model, Bar-On outlines five components of emotional intelligence:
intrapersonal, interpersonal, adaptability, stress management and general mood.
These components have sub-components, which are outlined in Fig. 2.3.

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Fig. 2.3 Bar-On’s EI model
Source: http://www.cakitches.com/books/reuven-bar-on.html

From Darwin to the present, most descriptions, definitions and

conceptualizations of emotional-social intelligence have included one or more of the
following key components, all of which are included in the Bar-On conceptual
model: (i) the ability to understand emotions as well as express our feelings and
ourselves; (ii) the ability to understand others‘ feelings and relate with people; (iii)
the ability to manage and control our emotions; (iv) the ability to manage change and
solve problems of an intrapersonal and interpersonal nature; (v) the ability to generate
positive mood and be self-motivated. These meta-factors of the conceptual model of
emotional-social intelligence are referred as follows in the Bar-On measures of this
model. Each of these 5 meta-factors comprises a number of closely related
competencies, skills and facilitators (15 in all), are listed and briefly defined below.11
INTRAPERSONAL (self-awareness and self-expression):
 Self-Regard (being aware of, understanding and accepting ourselves) .
 Emotional Self-Awareness (being aware of and understanding our emotions)
 Assertiveness (expressing our feelings and ourselves nondestructively)
 Independence (being self-reliant and free of emotional dependency on others)
 Self-Actualization (setting and achieving goals to actualize our potential)

29
INTERPERSONAL (social awareness and interaction):
 Empathy (being aware of and understanding how others feel)
 Social Responsibility (identifying with and feeling part of our social groups)
 Interpersonal Relationship (establishing mutually satisfying relationships)
STRESS MANAGEMENT (emotional management and control):
 Stress Tolerance (effectively and constructively managing our emotions)
 Impulse Control (effectively and constructively controlling our emotions)
ADAPTABILITY (change management):
 Reality Testing (validating our feelings and thinking with external reality)
 Flexibility (coping with and adapting to change in our daily life)
 Problem Solving (generating effective solutions to problems of an
intrapersonal and interpersonal nature)
GENERAL MOOD (self-motivation):
 Optimism (having a positive outlook and looking at the brighter side of life)
 Happiness (feeling content with ourselves, others and life in general)
The above meta-factors and sub-factors are defined in detail below:

INTRAPERSONAL:
This meta-factor of emotional-social intelligence comprises of Self-Regard,
Emotional Self-Awareness, Assertiveness, Independence and Self-Actualization. This
meta-factor relates primarily to self-awareness and self-expression, governing our
ability to be aware of our emotions and ourselves in general, to understand our
strengths and weaknesses, and to express our feelings and ourselves
nondestructively.
 Self-Regard:
This intrapersonal sub-factor is defined as the ability to accurately perceive,
understand and accept ourselves. Self-regard is the ability to respect and accept
ourselves as basically good. Respecting ourselves is the way we like ourselves and
self-acceptance is the ability to accept our positive and negative aspects as well as our
limitations and possibilities. A person with good self-regard feels fulfilled and
satisfied.

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  Emotional Self-Awareness:
This intrapersonal sub-factor is defined as the ability to be aware of and
understand our emotions. Emotional self-awareness is the ability to recognize our
emotions.
 Assertiveness:
This intrapersonal sub-factor is defined as the ability to constructively express
our feelings and ourselves in general. Assertiveness is thus composed of three basic
components: (i) the ability to express our feelings; (ii) the ability to express beliefs
and opinions; and (iii) the ability to stand up for our rights and not to allow others to
bother or take advantage of us.
 Independence:
This intrapersonal sub-factor is defined as the ability to be self-reliant and free
of emotional dependency on others. This is the ability to be self-directed in our
thinking and actions and to be free of emotional dependency.
 Self-Actualization:
This intrapersonal sub-factor is defined as the ability to set personal goals and
the drive to achieve them in order to actualize our potential. Fundamentally, self-
actualization pertains to the ability to realize our potential capacities.

INTERPERSONAL:
This meta-factor of emotional-social intelligence comprises Empathy, Social
Responsibility and Interpersonal Relationship as defined below. It relates primarily to
social awareness, skills and interaction. This meta-factor is, essentially, concerned
with our ability to be aware of others’ feelings, concerns and needs, and to be able to
establish and maintain cooperative, constructive and mutually satisfying
relationships. They understand, interact with and relate well with others. They inspire
trust and function well as part of a team.
 Empathy:
This interpersonal sub-factor is defined as the ability to be aware of and
understand how others feel. It is being sensitive to what, how and why people feel the
way they do. Being empathetic means being able to ‗emotionally read‘ other people.

31
  Social Responsibility:
This interpersonal sub-factor is defined as the ability to identify with our
social group and cooperate with others. Social responsibility is the ability to
demonstrate ourselves as cooperative, contributing and constructive members of our
social group (in the family, among friends and at work).
 Interpersonal Relationship:
This interpersonal sub-factor is defined as the ability to establish and maintain
mutually satisfying relationships and relate well with others. Mutual satisfaction
describes meaningful social interactions that are potentially rewarding and enjoyable
for those involved.

STRESS MANAGEMENT:
This meta-factor comprises of Stress Tolerance and Impulse Control as
defined below. This component of emotional-social intelligence relates primarily to
emotional management and control and governs our ability to deal with emotions so
that they work for us and not against us.
 Stress Tolerance:
This stress management sub-factor is defined as the ability to effectively and
constructively manage emotions. In essence, stress tolerance is the ability to
withstand and deal with adverse events and stressful situations without getting
overwhelmed by actively and positively coping with stress.
 Impulse Control:
This stress management sub-factor is defined as the ability to effectively and
constructively control emotions. More precisely, impulse control is the ability to
resist or delay an impulse, drive or temptation to act. It entails a capacity for
accepting our aggressive impulses, being composed and controlling aggression,
hostility and irresponsible behavior.

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ADAPTABILITY:
This meta-factor of emotional-social intelligence comprises Reality Testing,
Flexibility and Problem Solving as defined below. This meta-factor relates primarily
to change management i.e., how we cope up with and adapt to personal and
interpersonal change as well as change in our immediate environment.
 Reality Testing:
This adaptability sub-factor governs the ability to objectively validate our
feelings and thinking with external reality. Reality testing, essentially, involves
‗tuning in‘ to the immediate situation, attempting to keep things in correct
perspective and experiencing things as they really are without excessive fantasizing
or daydreaming.
 Flexibility:
This adaptability sub-factor represents the ability to adapt and adjust our
feelings, thinking and behavior to new situations. This entails adjusting our feelings,
thoughts and behavior to changing situations and conditions.
 Problem Solving:
This adaptability sub-factor governs the ability to effectively solve problems of
a personal and interpersonal nature. Problem solving entails the ability to identify
and define problems as well as to generate and implement potentially effective
solutions.

GENERAL MOOD:
This meta-factor of emotional-social intelligence comprises Optimism and
Happiness as defined below. This meta-factor is closely associated with self-
motivation. It determines our ability to enjoy ourselves, others and life in general, as
well as influences our general outlook on life and overall feeling of contentment.
 Optimism:
This general mood sub-factor is defined as the ability to maintain a positive
and hopeful attitude towards life even in the face of adversity. It represents a positive
approach to daily living and a very important motivating factor in whatever we do.

33
  Happiness:
This general mood sub-factor is defined as the ability to feel content with
ourselves, others and life in general. It is the ability to feel satisfied with our life,
enjoy others and have fun. In this context, happiness combines self-satisfaction,
general contentment and the ability to enjoy life.

2.7.2.2 Goleman23: A Mixed Model of Emotional Intelligence

Daniel Goleman, a psychologist and science writer who has previously written
on brain and behaviour research for the New York Times, discovered the work of
Salovey and Mayer in the 1990‘s. Inspired by their findings, he began to conduct his
own research in the area and eventually wrote Emotional Intelligence (1995), the
landmark book which familiarized both the public and private sectors with the idea of
emotional intelligence. (Goleman, 1998).
Goleman‘s (1998) first model of emotional intelligence identified five
domains, or dimensions, of emotional intelligence encompassing twenty-five
competencies. Three dimensions, self-awareness, self-regulation, and motivation,
described personal competencies related to knowing and managing emotions in one‘s
self. The remaining two dimensions, empathy and social skills, described social
competencies related to knowing and managing emotions in others. As Goleman
refined his model, the self vs. others distinction would remain an important
dimension of his emotional intelligence typology.
A statistical analysis by Richard Boyatzis (2000) supported collapsing the
twenty five competencies into twenty, and the five domains into the four: Self-
Awareness, Self-Management, Social Awareness, and Relationship Management
(Boyatzis, Goleman, & Rhee, 2000). While the analysis verified that the
competencies nest within each EI domain, it also suggests that the distinction
between the social awareness cluster and the relationship management cluster may be
more theoretical than empirical. Fig. 2.4 shows Goleman‘s new model of emotional
intelligence.

34
Fig. 2.4 Goleman’s EI model
Source: http://www.transgrowth.com/transgrowth_website/ei_competencies.php

Figure 2.4 illustrates Goleman‘s conceptual model of emotional intelligence

and corresponding emotional competencies. The constructs and competencies fall
under one of four categories: the recognition of emotions in oneself or others and the
regulation of emotion in oneself or others.
Goleman‘s new model outlines four main EI constructs:
1. Self-awareness — the ability to read one‘s emotions and recognize their
impact while using gut feelings to guide decisions.
2. Self-management — involves controlling one‘s emotions and impulses
and adapting to changing circumstances.
3. Social awareness — the ability to sense, understand, and react to others‘
emotions while comprehending social networks.
4. Relationship management — the ability to inspire, influence, and develop
others while managing conflict.
Goleman define emotional intelligence as
―the capacity for recognizing our own feelings and those of others,
for motivating ourselves, for managing emotions well in
ourselves and in our relationships‖.

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THE SELF-AWARENESS DOMAIN
Goleman (1998) argues self-awareness is critical to understanding others and
exhibiting empathy. The competencies in the self-awareness domain enable
individuals to be recognized their own feelings and thoughts, as well as personal
strengths and weaknesses.
 Emotional Self-Awareness
The first component of emotional intelligence is emotional self-awareness,
knowing what one feels and why. According to Goleman (2002), emotional self-
awareness is the ability to recognize one‘s emotions and their effects on self and
others.
 Accurate Self-Assessment
Self-awareness is key to realize one‘s own strengths and weaknesses.
Individuals who score high in accurate self-assessment are aware of their abilities and
limitations, seek out feedback and learn from their mistakes, and know where they
need to improve and when to work with others who have complementary strengths.
 Self-Confidence
Self-Confidence is a belief in one‘s own capability to accomplish a task and
select an effective approach to a task or problem (Goleman, 1998). This definition
includes confidence in one‘s ability as expressed in increasingly challenging
circumstances and confidence in one‘s decisions or opinions.

THE SELF-MANAGEMENT DOMAIN

The second domain of emotional intelligence, Emotional Self-Management,
refers to the ability to regulate distressing affects like anxiety and anger and to inhibit
emotional impulsivity (Goleman, et al, 2002). Self-management covers the emotional
intelligence competencies of motivation, optimism, and emotional control.
 Emotional Self-Control
Goleman (1998) identified emotional self-control as ―the ability to keep one‘s
impulsive feelings and emotions under control and restrain from negative actions
when provoked, when faced with opposition or hostility from others, or even when
working under pressure.‖

36
  Transparency
Transparency, also referred as an integrity, is having one‘s actions consistent
with what one says. It includes communicating intentions, ideas, and feelings openly
and directly, and welcoming openness and honesty, even in difficult situations.
 Adaptability
Adaptability is the ability to be flexible and work effectively within a variety
of changing situations and with various individuals or groups. Superior managers
have been shown to exhibit this competence.
 Achievement Orientation
Achievement is not just accomplishing things. Rather, it is accomplishing
things through one‘s own efforts, against a clear, challenging standard of excellence.
This competency is most effectively engaged in situations that provide immediate,
concrete feedback from a credible source.
 Initiative
Initiative is the ability to identify a problem, obstacle, or opportunity and take
action in light of that to address current or future problems or opportunities.
 Optimism
Goleman (1998) defined optimism as the persistence to pursue goals despite
obstacles and setbacks. Optimism is a key ingredient of achievement because it can
determine one‘s reaction to unfavorable events or circumstances.

THE SOCIAL-AWARENESS DOMAIN

The Social Awareness domain includes three competencies: empathy,
organizational awareness, and service orientation. Social Awareness competencies
determine how we handle relationships.
 Empathy
Empathy gives people an astute awareness of others‘ emotions, concerns, and
needs. The empathic individual can read emotional currents, picks up nonverbal cues
such as tone of voice or facial expression (Goleman, 1998).
 Organizational Awareness
Organizational Awareness refers to one‘s ability to understand and learn the
internal and external power relationships in an organization. The organizational

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awareness competency includes one‘s ability to identify real decision-makers and
individuals with influence (Goleman, 1998).
 Service Orientation
Service Orientation is a desire to help or serve others, in order to meet their
needs. It means focusing one‘s efforts on discovering and meeting the customer‘s or
client‘s needs and distinguishes star sales performers from average ones.

THE RELATIONSHIP MANAGEMENT DOMAIN

The Relationship Management domain contains competencies that have the
most direct effect on interactions with other people. In a fundamental sense, the
effectiveness of one‘s relationship skills hinges on one‘s ability to attune to or
influence the emotions of another person.
 Developing Others
Developing Others means to understand people‘s developmental needs and
help in building their abilities. Although this ability is crucial for those who manage
the leading work, it has also emerged as a vital skill for effective leadership at high
levels (Goleman, 2000).
 Inspirational Leadership
Inspirational Leadership implies a desire to lead others. Inspirational leaders
are able to articulate and arouse enthusiasm for a shared vision and mission, to step
forward as needed, to guide the performance of others while holding them
accountable, and to lead by example.
 Influence
Influence is the ability to persuade, convince, or to impact on others in order
to get support on specific agenda or course of action.
 Conflict Management
Conflict Management is the ability to handle difficult individuals, groups of
people, or tense situations with diplomacy and tact. This competency entails finding
the best solution to a given problem or disagreement.

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  Teamwork and Collaboration
Teamwork and Collaboration represents the ability to work cooperatively with
others, to be the part of a team, to work together as opposed to working separately or
competitively.

2.7.3 The Trait EI model

Petrides et al. (2004) proposed a conceptual distinction between the ability
based model and a trait based model of EI. ―Trait EI model refers to an individual‘s
self-perceptions of his emotional abilities‖. This definition of EI includes behavioral
tendency and self perceived abilities and is measured by self report. Trait EI should
be investigated within a personality framework. An alternative name for the same
construct is trait emotional self-efficacy.

2.8 Measures of EI Models

2.8.1 Measures of Mayer and Salovey’s Model24
The current measure of Mayer and Salovey‘s model of emotional intelligence,
the Mayer-Salovey-Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test (MSCEIT) was formed on a
sample of 5,000 men and women. The MSCEIT is designed for individuals 17 years
of age or older and aims to measure the four abilities outlined in Salovey and
Mayer‘s model of emotional intelligence with 141 items. Each ability (perception,
facilitation of thought, understanding, and regulation) is measured by using specific
tasks. Perception of emotion is measured by rating the extent and type of emotion
expressed on different types of pictures. Facilitation of thought is measured by asking
people to draw parallels between emotions and physical sensations (e.g. light, colour,
temperature) as well as emotions and thoughts. Understanding is measured by asking
the subject to explain how emotions can blend from other emotions (e.g. how
emotions can change from one to another such as anger to rage). Regulation (or
management) of emotions is measured by people having chosen effective self and
other management techniques. The outline of MSCEIT model is shown in Table 2.1.

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 Table 2.1
Structure and levels of feedback from the MSCEIT
Overall score Area Scores Branch Scores Task Associated With
Each
Perceiving Emotions Faces
Experiential
(PEIQ) Pictures
Emotional
Facilitating Thought Facilitation
Emotional Intelligence (EEIQ)
(FEIQ) Sensations
Intelligence
Understanding Changes
(EIQ) Strategic
Emotions (UIEQ) Blends
Emotional
Managing Emotions Emotional Management
Intelligence (SEIQ)
(MEIQ) Emotional Relations

Table 2.1 outlines the structure of the Mayer-Salovey-Caruso Emotional

Intelligence Test and the scores attained. As shown in table, the scale yields six
scores: an overall emotional intelligence score (expressed as an emotional
intelligence quotient, or EIQ), two area scores (Experiential Emotional Intelligence,
or EEIQ and Strategic Emotional Intelligence, or SEIQ) and four branch scores of
emotional intelligence i.e. PEIQ, FEIQ, UIEQ and MEIQ. Each score is expressed in
terms of a standard intelligence with a mean score of 100 (average score obtained in
the general population) and a standard deviation of 15. Additionally, the manual
provides qualitative ratings that correspond to each numeric score. For example, an
individual who receives an overall EIQ of 69 or less would be rated ‗considerable
development‘ whereas someone scoring 130 or more would be rated ‗significant
strength‘ (Mayer, Salovey, & Caruso, 2002).

2.8.2 Measures of Bar-On’s Model24

Reuven Bar-On‘s measure of emotional intelligence, the Bar-On Emotion
Quotient Inventory (EQ-i), is a self-report measure of emotional intelligence for
individuals sixteen years of age and above. One hundred and thirty three items are
used to obtain a Total EQ (Total Emotion Quotient) and to produce five composite
scales corresponding to the 5 main components of the Bar-On model: Intrapersonal

40
EQ, Interpersonal EQ, Adaptability EQ, Stress Management EQ, and General Mood
EQ. Items are measured on a 5 point scale ranging from 1 (very seldom/not true for
me) to 5 (very often/often true of me). Total raw scores are converted into standard
scores with a mean of 100 and standard deviation of 15. (Bar-On, 2002).
Bar-On has developed several versions of the ‗Emotion Quotient Inventory‘ to
be used with various populations and in varying situations. Among these are the EQ-
interview (to be completed after the self-report), the EQ-I Short Version (a 52 item
version of the original), the EQ-i:125 (a 125 item version of the original which
excludes the negative impression scale), the EQ-I Youth Version (for children and
adolescents 7- 15 years of age), and the EQ-360 Assessment (a multi-rater instrument
used in conjunction with the regular self-report EQ-I to give a more complete
assessment). In addition, the original EQ-I is available in several languages, including
Spanish, French, Dutch, Danish, Swedish, Norwegian, Finnish, and Hebrew (Bar-On,
2002).

2.8.3 Measures of Goleman’s Model24

Several measurement tools have been developed based on Goleman‘s model
of emotional intelligence and it‘s corresponding competencies. Included among these
are the Emotional Competency Inventory (ECI), the Emotional Intelligence Appraisal
(EIA), and the Work Profile Questionnaire – Emotional Intelligence Version
(WPQei).
Daniel Goleman developed the Emotional Competency Inventory (ECI) as a
measure of emotional intelligence based on his emotional intelligence competencies
as well as an earlier measure of competencies for managers, executives, and leaders
(the Self-Assessment Questionnaire). It measures 20 competencies, organized into
the four constructs outlined by Goleman‘s model: self awareness, social awareness,
self management, and relationship management. Each respondent is asked to describe
themselves or the other person on a scale from 1 (the behaviour is only slightly
characteristic of the individual) to 7 (the behaviour is very characteristic of the
individual) for each item.

41
2.8.4 The Group Emotional Competence (GEC) Inventory24
The Group Emotional Competence (GEC) inventory is based on the work of
Vanessa Druskat and Steven Wolff who have started the application of emotional
competence concepts at the group level. Their research has shown that GEC norms
improve group effectiveness by building social relationship, which facilitates in
effective task, behaviors and processes.
The instrument has now been administered to over 150 teams and provides
feedback on 9 group norms that research has shown are linked to team effectiveness.
Feedback is useful for helping groups for better understanding of their strengths and
weakness and to identify areas for improvement. The instrument contains 57 items
that measure the nine dimensions of GEI.

2.8.5 The Genos Emotional Intelligence Inventory (GENOS EI)24

The Genos Emotional Intelligence Inventory (Genos EI) is a 360-degree
measure of emotionally intelligent workplace behaviour. It measures how often
individuals display emotionally intelligent workplace behaviour according to a
taxonomic seven-factor model of emotional intelligence identified by Dr Benjamin
Palmer and Professor Con Stough from Swinburne University. The Genos Emotional
Intelligence Inventory (Genos EI) is referred as the Swinburne University Emotional
Intelligence Test (or SUEIT).
The inventory can be completed online, consists of 70 items and takes
approximately 15 minutes to complete. This test consist of seven skills of EI like,
emotional self-awareness, emotional expression, emotional awareness of others,
emotional reasoning, emotional management, emotional management of others and
emotional self-control. This test is valid for the age group of 17 to 75 years.

2.8.6 The Schutte Self Report Emotional Intelligence Test (SSEIT) 24

The Schutte Self Report Emotional Intelligence Test (SSEIT) contains 33
items to measure emotional intelligence. It was developed by Schutte et al. (1998).
The SREIS has been designed on to the Salovey and Mayer (1990) model of EI.
Items of the test relate to the three aspects of EI:

42
(1) Appraisal and expression of emotion
(2) Regulation of emotion
(3) Utilization of emotion

2.8.7 Trait Emotional Intelligence Questionnaire (TEIQue) 24

The Trait Emotional Intelligence Questionnaire (TEIQue) was developed by
K. V. Petrides, PhD is an integral part of a scientific research program that is
currently based at the London Psychometric Laboratory in University College
London (UCL). The family of TEIQue is available, free of charge, for academic and
clinical research, a wide range of materials are also available for commercial
purposes. Translations and version of the various TEIQue forms currently exist in
over 20 languages.
The Trait Emotional Intelligence Questionnaire (TEIQue) – Scales*
TEIQue-Full Form
The TEIQue is a self-report inventory that covers the sampling of trait EI
(reprinted below) comprehensively. It comprises 153 items, measuring 15 distinct
facets, 4 factors, and global trait EI (Petrides, 2009). The 15 distinct aspects are
adaptibility, assertiveness, emotion perception (self & others), emotion expression,
emotion management (others), emotion regulation, impulsiveness, relationships, self-
esteem, self-motivation, social awareness, stress management, empathy, happiness
and optimism.
TEIQue-Short Form
This is a 30-item questionnaire designed to measure global trait emotional
intelligence (trait EI). It is based on the full form of the TEIQue. Two items from
each of the 15 facets of the TEIQue were selected for inclusion, based primarily on
their correlations with the corresponding total facet scores (Cooper & Petrides, 2010;
Petrides & Furnham, 2006).
TEIQue-Child Form
The Child Form has been designed with Stella Mavroveli and is based on a
sampling domain that has been specifically developed for children aged between 8 to
12 years. It comprises of 75 items responded to on a 5-point scale and measures nine
distinct facets (Mavroveli, Petrides, Shove, & Whitehead, 2008).

43
2.8.8 Work Group Emotional Intelligence Profile (WEIP) 24
The Work Group Emotional Intelligence Profile (WEIP) is designed to
measure emotional intelligence of individuals in teams. The measure is made up of a
seven-point reference format ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly agree).
These items reflect on one‘s own behavior such as ―I am aware of my own feelings
when working in a team‖ and ―I am able to describe accurately the way others in the
team feel.‖
The WEIP captures two dimensions of emotional intelligence: Ability to Deal
with Own Emotions (Scale 1: 18 items) and Ability to Deal with Others‘ Emotions
(Scale 2: 12 items) prepared by Jordan et al. (2002). Scales 1 and 2 are described into
5 subscales. Scale 1 is composed of the subscales: Ability to Recognize Own
Emotions, Ability to Discuss Own Emotions and Ability to Manage Own Emotions.
Scale 2 is composed of the subscales: Ability to Recognize Others‘ Emotions and
Ability to Manage Others‘ Emotions.

2.8.9 Wong’s Emotional Intelligence Scale (WEIS) 24

WEIS consists of two parts. The first part contains 20 scenarios and
respondents have to choose one option that best reflects their reaction in each
scenario. The second part contains 20 ability pairs and respondents are required to
choose one out of the two types of abilities that best represents their strengths.
Wong‘s Emotional Intelligence Scale (WEIS) is a self-report EI measure,
developed for Chinese respondent (Wong et al., 2007). WEIS is a scale based on the
four ability dimensions described in the domain of EI:
5. appraisal and expression of emotion in the self
(2) appraisal and recognition of emotion in others
(3) regulation of emotion in the self
(4) use of emotion to facilitate performance

44
2.8.10 The Scale of Emotional Competencies25
This scale is prepared by Dr. H. C. Sharma and Dr. R. L. Bharadwaj (2007).
The final form of the scale has 30 items to measure five emotional competencies,
where each competency could be measured by six items selected for the purpose. The
five competencies are 1) Adequate depth of feeling, 2) Adequate expression and
control of emotions, 3) Ability to function with emotions, 4) Ability to cope up with
problem emotions and 5) Enhancement of positive emotions. It is a five-point scale
based on the lines of likert having five alternatives to each item. Scoring of these five
alternatives follow a system of 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 from upper to lower end. The item
wise scores are to be transferred to the table given on last page of the scale to obtain
different competencies scores. The addition of item scores horizontally will provide
scores of the competencies for A, B, C, D and E separately. The addition of five
competencies vertically will provide the scores for emotional competence. This scale
is for age group of 13 to 44 years.

2.8.11 Mangal Emotional Intelligence Inventory26

This inventory has been designed by Dr. S. K. Mangal and Mrs. Shubhra
Mangal (2009). It consists of 100 items of 4 area as — (1) Intra Personal Awareness
(own emotions), (2) Inter Personal Awareness (others emotions), (3) Intra Personal
Management (own emotions), (4) Inter Personal Management (others emotions). This
inventory was standardized and administered on a large sample of 2200 (1050 males
and 1150 females) for age group of more than 16 years.

2.8.12 Multifactor Emotional Intelligence Scale (MEIS)27

This test was developed by Dr. Vinod Kumar Shanwal (2004). The MEIS is
Indian version of Mayer-Salovey-Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test (MSCEIT). It
consists of 141 items scale and 31 stimuli designed to measure the following four
branches of emotional intelligence (a) perceiving emotions, (b) using emotions to
facilitate thought, (c) understanding emotions, and (d) managing emotions. It is
standardized on 200 children of primary schools (rural & urban, male & female).
This scale is for students of age 8 to 12 years.

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2.8.13 Emotional Intelligence Scale
This scale was developed by Dr. Pallaviben P. Patel and Dr. Hiteshbhai P.
Patel (2006). It consists 77 items to measure Self-awareness, Self-management,
Social awareness, Relationship management and Empathy based on emotional
intelligence.

2.9 Applicability of EI on Other Factors28

 Motivation and Creativity
It is not a matter of surprise that moods and emotions affect our mind. When
we feel good about ourselves, we find the world around us a great motivator. This
motivation helps us to express our personality better, creative and optimistic. This
stage can be achieved by social awareness and proper emotional responses in a given
situation. Thus, emotionally intelligent person can motivate his attitude for himself
and for others which produces better results at work and in personal life. Moreover
the sense of EI creates positive work environment and brings healthy job attitudes
also.

 Decision Making
Many researchers agree that the key to good decision making is the
combination of both thinking and feeling in one‘s decisions. Positive moods and
emotions help for better decision making. With positive emotions people can develop
problem-solving skills and take good decisions quickly.

 Negotiation
Everybody knows that negotiation is an emotional process. By proper use of
emotions and understanding moods of oneself and others, one can manage their
conflict and stressful situations. A person can be successful in negotiations, if he has
an active listening techniques and skill of reading non-verbal cues.

 Leadership
Effective leaders use their emotions to convey their messages. ―When leaders
feel excited, enthusiastic and active, they may be more likely to energize their

46
subordinates and convey a sense of efficacy, competence, optimism, and enjoyment‖
(Robbins, Judge, 2009)28. Therefore, successful leaders are emotionally intelligent.

 Personal Growth
Research shows that emotionally intelligent people achieve better results at
work, school, and personal life. They are flexible enough to accept positive changes
in their life for personal growth which can be achieved by developing EI
competences.

 Education
EQ will affect educational approaches which is based on IQ that include logic,
data, concrete thinking, and memory power. To be successful in school life EI
competencies can be introduced through educational programs. Thus students in
adolescents age acquired social, emotional and personal identity by the emotional
intelligence.

2.10 Conclusion
western and eastern philosophy believed that success and happiness comes in
life if we handle our emotions and other‘s emotions too. The term ‗Emotional
intelligence‘ was popularized as a result of Daniel Goleman‘s (1995) work. Although
traditional understanding of intelligence is important for success in life, emotional
intelligence is key to relating well to others and achieving goals, because the human
world is all about relationships. We can say that by different measures as shown
above one can observe oneself and feel comfortable to understand other‘s feelings,
social-awareness and social disorder behavior even in adverse condition, better self-
control, social decision making, etc. also can be brought positively and success ratio
can be increased. Thus we can say that to be successful one requires to have effective
awareness; control and management of one‘s own emotions; and awareness and
understanding of other people.

47
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