Automobile Manufacturing Process (17403) : Chapter 1. Forging

AUTOMOBILE MANUFACTURING PROCESS (17403)
Chapter 1. Forging
1.0 Introduction:
 Forging is one of the oldest metal working operations dating back to at least 4000
B.C.
 Forging was traditionally done by blacksmiths.
 The equipments used were heavy hand hammer and simple anvil.
 Plastic deformation occurs when metal is stretched or compressed beyond elastic
limit.
 During the deformation the metal flows plastically and grain shapes are changed.
 If the deformation is carried out at higher temperature, total new grains are formed.
 This process of formation of new grains is known as recrystallization.
 The temperature at which this process is complete is known as the recrystallization
temperature.
 This temperature varies from metal to metal.
 Plastic deformation of metal below its recrystallisation temperature is called as cold
working, where as plastic deformation of metal above its recrystallisation
temperature, but below melting temperature is called as hot working.
1.1 Forging:
 Forging can be defined as the controlled plastic deformation of metals at elevated
temperatures in to a predetermined size or shape using compressive forces exerted,
through some type of die, by a hammer, a press or upsetting machine.
 Forging enhances the mechanical properties of metals and improves the grain flow,
which in turn increases the strength and toughness of the forged components.
1.2 Forgeability:
 Forgeability can be defined as the tolerance of a metal or alloy for deformation
without failure.
 Thus good forgeability means less resistance to deformation and even adverse
effects such as cracking are not there.
 Forgeability can be evaluated on basis of following tests:
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Mr. Dhaigude Pramod. B.
(a) Hot twist test
(b) Upset test
(c) Hot impact test
(a) HOT TWIST TEST:
 In this test, a hot bar is twisted and numbers of twists before failure are counted.
 A large number of twists before failure indicate better forgeability.
(b) UPSET TEST:
 In this test the cylindrical billets are upset-forged to various thicknesses.
 The limit of upset forging without failure or cracking is considered measure of
forgeability.
 This test is widely used in forging industry.
(c) HOT-IMPACT TENSILE TEST:
 A conventional impact-testing machine fitted with a tension test attachment is used.
 The impact tensile test is taken as measure of forgeability.
1.3 Forging Materials:
 The selection of forging material is made on the basis of certain desirable
mechanical properties inherent in the composition of material and some properties
can be developed by forging such as strength, resistance to fatigue, good machining
characteristics, durability
 Following is the list of some alloys in ascending order of forgeability
1. Aluminium alloys 5. Low-alloy steels 9. Titanium alloys
2.Magnesium alloys 6.Martensitic stainless steels 10. Tantalum alloys
3. Copper alloys 7. Austenitic stainless steels 11. Molybdenum alloys
4. Plain carbon steels 8. Nickel alloys 12. Tungsten alloys
1.4 Forging Temperatures:
 For successful forging, the metal piece must be heated to proper temperature to
attain plastic properties before deformation.
 Excessive temperature may result in the burning of the metal.
 Insufficient temperature will not induce sufficient plasticity, so it will be difficult to
shape by hammering.
 The finishing temperature is also important to get a fine grained structure.
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 The temperature ranges for some common metals are given in table 1.1
Forging Temperature oC
Sr.No. Metal / Alloy
Starting Finishing
01 Mild steel 1300 800
02 Wrought iron 1275 900
03 Medium carbon steel 1250 750
04 High carbon steel 1150 825
05 Copper, brass and bronze 950 600
Aluminium and magnesium
06 500 350
alloys
Table 1.1 Forging Temperatures
1.5 Advantages of forging:

1. Strength:
 Forging reduces the failures.
 In this process workpiece yields with high strength to weight ratio.
 Due to this, it can be able to withstand fluctuating stress caused by sudden shock
loading.
2. Metal conservation:
 Practically there is no waste of metals.
3. Weight saving:
 Strong thin-walled parts may be produced without damaging important physical
requirements.
4. Machining time:
 Forging can be made to close tolerances, which reduces machining time for finishing
operations of the products.
5. Speed of production:
 High rate of production is possible.
6. Incorporation in welded structures:
 Parts can be welded easily due to fibrous structure.
7. It maintains uniform and same quality all over parts
8. It gives close tolerances.
9. It gives smooth surface finish.
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1.6 Disadvantages of forging :
1. High tool cost.
2. High tool maintenance
3. No cord holes.
4. Limitation in size and shape.
5. Heat treatment process increases cost of the product.
6. Brittle materials like cast iron cannot be forged.
7. Complex shape cannot be produced by forging.
1.7 Classification of forging process:
 Mainly forging process classified into two parts.
I. Open die forging:
a) Hand forging
b) Power forging:
i. Hammer forging
ii. Press forging
II. Close die forging:
a) Drop forging
b) Press forging
c) Machine forging
I. Open die forging:
 It is the simplest forging process.
 This process also known as smiths die forging or flat die forging.
 A solid workpiece placed between two flat face dies as shown in fig.1.1 (a)
 It reduces their height by compressing it.
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Fig. 1.1 Open Die Forging Processes

 The die surfaces have some cavity to produce relatively simple forging.
 Deformation of workpiece takes place in ideal condition as shown in fig.1.1 (b).
 Due to constant volume, reduction in height increases the diameter of forged part.
 But in actual working conditions part gets developed in barrel shape as shown in
fig.1.1 (c).
 This barreling is caused due to friction force between workpiece and die surfaces.
 Barreling can be reduced easily with help of lubricant.
 Smith die forging process sub-divided into two parts
a) HAND PROCESS:
 According to the name this process purely done by hand.
 The forging is done on a anvil by hammering the workpiece at suitable temperature.
 This temperature attained by heating the workpiece with tongs.
Fig. 1.2 a Pair of Fullers and Swages

 Hand forging consist of two formers as shown in fig.1.2.
 These formers are made of high carbon steel in different size to suit various types of
workpiece.
 It has two formers top and bottom formers.
 Bottom formers also known as fuller.
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 Working edges of the fullers and formers are normally rounded.
 These are used for making necks by reducing cross-section of a workpiece.
 Generally are used in maintenance shops as well as rework area.
 But now a day, a new forging process is developed known as power forging.
b) POWER FORGING:
 Heavy machine parts cannot be forged by hand.
 Low blow of a hand or hammer is not able to produce a great degree of deformation
in a workpiece.
 The machine or equipments driven by external source having high power are used
in power forging.
 Power forging also sub-divided into two parts
i. HAMMER FORGING:
 Machine which is work by blow or impact to perform forging process is known as
hammer forging.
ii. PRESS FORGING:
 Machine which is work on pressure to perform forging process is known as press
forging.
II. Close die forging:
 In open die forging Complex shape with great accuracy is very difficult to forged.
 Close die forging process consist of specially prepared dies to manufacturing forged
parts in large quantities.
 It is also known as impression die forging.
 It consists of two dies as shown in fig.1.3.
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Fig. 1.3 Close Die Forging

 The workpiece takes the shape of the die cavities (impression) during forging
process.
 Some materials come outwards and form a flash.
 The flash has a very important role in the grain flow of material in close die forging.
 Thin flash cools very easily.
 Flash have frictional resistance gives high pressure to the material in die cavity. So it
helps to filling of die cavity.
 Generally this process is used for mass production with high degree of accuracy.
 This process sub-divided into two parts
a) DROP FORGING:
 Drop forging is used when mass production of identical parts is required.
 It is also called as stamping. It consists of special type of hammer known as drop
hammer or drop stamp.
 Perfectly made steel dies are used for forging.
 These dies are made into two parts as shown in fig.1.4.
 One part is connected to the top side and other part is fastened to the anvil block at
the bottom side.
 The top part of the die is raised by mechanical links to a certain height.
 The heated metal placed accurately in the bottom part of the die.
 The top part of the die is then allowed to fall suddenly.
 This gives a high blow and completes the workpiece in a single operation.
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 This process done due to squeezing of the metal into the die cavities.
 The devices are used for raising the top part of the die is given below
i. Belt
ii. Rope
iii. Friction rolls and board.
Board being raised Raised board held a proper height

before dropping
Fig. 1.4 Working Principle of a Drop Hammer
 WORKING PROCESS:
 Top & bottom portion get connected with the help of board.
 It can be placed between two rotating friction wheels (fig. a)
 These wheels moves board upward direction as shown in (fig. b)
 When desired height of board is obtaining, brake shoe are applied against the board.
 These brake shoes hold at cretin height for certain period of time.
 When blow is required brake shoes are released.
 Board is free to fall down due to gravitational force.
 This force gives required amount of blow.
 Board is allowed to travel through fixed guide for proper alignment of upper &
lower die.
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b) PRESS FORGING:
 The machine which is work on pressure to perform forging process is known as
press forging.
 This process consists of slow squeezing of metal in closed impression dies, instead
of Appling repeated blow by hammers.
 Generally two types of presses are used
i. HYDRAULIC PRESSES:
 These presses are used for heavy work.
 Hydraulic presses are less fast than mechanical presses.
 But hydraulic presses produce greater squeezing force than mechanical presses.
ii. MECHANICAL PRESSES:
 These presses are used for light work.
 Mechanical presses are faster than hydraulic presses.
 But mechanical presses not able to produce greater squeezing force than hydraulic
presses.
 In this presses more complicated shapes and better dimensional accuracy can be
easily achieved.
 The alignment of the die is very easy as compared to drop hammer forging.
 These presses and dies have longer life than hammer forging.
 Press forging requires less skill operators.
 These presses produce less noise and vibration.
c) MACHINE FORGING:
 This process also known as hot heading or up-setting.
 This process consists of applying pressure longitudinally on a hot bar clamped or
gripped between grooved dies.
 Forging is done on the end of the bar. Forging is done on various shapes of metals.
 But most commonly used shape is round shape metals.
 The equipments used for forging is forging machine or up-setter.
 Generally it gives forging pressure in a horizontal direction.
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Fig. 1.5 Machine Forging

 These dies are so designed such that complete operation is performed in several
stages and gradually final shape is obtained.
 Operation performed with a die and punch called heading tool.
 Fig. 1.5 shows step by step operation done on the round bar.
 Die is either made hallow to receive the round bar through it or in two parts to open
out and receive the bar.
 Heading tool is advanced in to die.
 Many strokes of the heading tool may be needed to complete the forging.
 In this process dies does not have draft as well as flash, so it gives better
dimensional accuracy.
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1.10 Difference between drop forging and press forging:
Sr.
Drop Forging Press Forging
No.
This process involves fast squeezing This process involves slow squeezing
1) of metal in dies by applying repeated of metal in dies by applying pressure
blows by hammers. force.
The dies used relatively more draft The dies used relatively less draft and
2) and therefore more complicated therefore more complicated shape
shape cannot be forged. can be forged.
3) Alignment of two dies is difficult. Alignment of two dies is easy.
The life of machines and dies are The life of machines and dies are
4)
shorter. longer.
This process requires highly skilled This process does not require highly
5)
operator. skilled operator.
This process has more noise and This process has less noise and
6)
vibrations. vibrations.
7) Production rate is slower. Production rate is faster.
8) Less dimensional accuracy. Better dimensional accuracy.
1.11 Difference between open die forging and close die:
Sr.
Open Die Forging Close Die Forging
No.
1) It is the simplest forging process. It is the complex forging process.
This process requires simple and This process requires complex and
2)
inexpensive dies. expensive dies.
It is useful only for small scale It is useful for small scale as well as
3)
production. large scale production.
It is very difficult to hold close It is very easy to maintain close
4)
tolerances. tolerances.
Relatively poor utilization of Relatively good utilization of
5)
materials. materials.
This process requires highly skilled This process does not require highly
6)
operator. skilled operator.
This forging process has less This forging process has better
7)
dimensional accuracy. dimensional accuracy.
This forging process has less This forging process has better
8)
reproducibility. reproducibility.
9) This forging process has less die cost. This forging process has high die cost.
In this process machining is necessary In this process machining is not
10)
to obtain final shape. necessary to obtain final shape.
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1.12 Difference between hammer forging & press forging:
Sr.
No.
Hammer Forging Press Forging
A large no of blows of hammer are
1) Press action is slow squeezing.
required in rapid succession.
A hammer blow produces shocks &
2) vibrations to the machine structure, its It produces less vibration.
foundation and surroundings.
Applicable for large volume
3) Applicable for low volume production
production.
4) Surface finish is poor. Better surface finish is achieved.
It does not provide a uniform shape to It provides a uniform shape to
5)
component. component.
Capacity of press is upto 20 to
6) Size of hammer is limited upto 10 tones.
1500 tones.
1.13 Forging tools:
 Common hand forging tools are used for carrying out forging operations manually
 Certain common hand forging tools are employed
 These are also called blacksmith’s tools
 For a blacksmith is one who works on the forging of metals in their hot state
 The main hand forging tools are as under.
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 Some of the hand forging tool are shown in Fig. and their applications are described
as under.
a) Tongs :
 The tongs are generally used for holding work while doing a forging operation
 Various kinds of tongs are classified as
1. Flat tongs
2. Straight-lip fluted tongs
3. Rivet or ring tongs
4. Gad tongs
1. Flat tongs:
 Flat tongs are used mainly for holding work of rectangular section
2. Straight lip fluted tongs:

 . Straight-lip fluted tongs are commonly used for holding square, circular and
hexagonal bar stock
3. Rivet or ring tongs:
 Rivet or ring tongs are widely used for holding bolts, rivets and other work of
circular section
4. Gad tongs:
 Gad tongs are used for holding general pick-up work, either straight or tapered
b) Flatter:
 Flatter is shown in Fig.
 It is commonly used in forging shop to give smoothness &
 Accuracy to articles which have already been shaped by fullers and swages
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c) Swage:
 Swage (Fig.) is used for forging work
 which has to be reduced or finished to round, square or hexagonal form
 It is made with half grooves of dimensions to suit the work being reduced
 It consists of two parts
 The top part having a handle.
 The bottom part having a square shank.
 This fits in the hard die hole on the anvil face.
d) Fullers:
 Fuller (Fig.) is used in forging shop
 For necking down a forgeable job
 It is made in top & bottom tools as in the case of swages
 Fuller is made in various shapes & sizes according to needs
 The size denoting the width of the fuller edge
e) Punch:
 Punch (Fig.) is used in forging shop
 For making holes in metal part
 When it is at forging heat
f) Rivet Header :
 Rivet header (Fig.) is used in forging shop for producing rivets heads on parts.
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g) Chisels :
 Chisels are used for cutting metals
 Forms necking before to breaking
 They may be hot or cold
 depending on whether the metal to be cut is hot or cold
 A hot chisel generally used in forging shop is shown in Fig.
 The main difference between the two is in the edge.
 The edge of a cold chisel is hardened & tempered with an angle of about 60°
 while the edge of a hot chisel is 30° & the hardening is not necessary
 The edge is made slightly rounded for better cutting action
h) Hammers :
 There are two major kinds of hammers are used in hand forging :
 The hand hammer used by the smith himself
 The sledge hammer used by the striker
 Hand hammers may further be classified as
(a) Ball Peen Hammer, (b)Straight Peen hammer, (c) Cross Peen Hammer
 Sledge hammers may further be classified as
(a) Double Face (b) Straight Peen (c) Cross Peen Hammer
 Hammer heads are made of cast steel &

 Their ends are hardened and tempered
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 The striking face is made slightly convex
 The weight of a hand hammer varies from about 0.5 to 2 kg
 Whereas the weight of a sledge hammer varies from 4 to 10 kg
i) Set Hammers :
 A set hammer generally used in forging shop is shown in Fig.
 It is used for finishing corners in shouldered work
 where the flatter would be inconvenient
 It is also used for drawing out the gorging job
j) Anvil :
 An anvil is a most commonly used tool in forging shop shown in Fig.
 It acts as a support for blacksmith’s work during hammering
 The body of the anvil is made of mild steel/ wrought iron
 with a tool steel face welded on the body
 but the beak or horn used for bending curves is not steel faced
 The round hole in the anvil called pritchel hole is generally used for bending rods of
small diameter & as a die for hot punching operations
 The square or hardie hole is used for holding square shanks of various fittings
 Anvils in forging shop may vary up to about 100 to 150 kg &
 they should always stand with the top face about 0.75 m from the floor
 This height may be attained by resting the anvil on a wooden or cast iron base in the
forging shop
k) Swage Block :
 Swage block generally used in forging shop is shown in Fig
 It is mainly used for heading, bending, squaring, sizing, and forming operations on
forging jobs
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 It is 0.25 m or even more wide
 It may be used either flat or edgewise in its stand
l) Drift :
 Drift generally used in forging shop is shown in Fig
 It is a tapered rod made of tool steel
 Holes are opened out by driving through a larger tapered punch called a drift
m) Hardie :
 Hardie is a type of chisel used in forging shop
 It is shown in Fig. Its taper head is fixed into the Hardie hole of the anvil
 The cutting edge being upward
 The part to be cut is kept over the cutting edge of the fixed Hardie on anvil &
 another chisel is placed over the job & the cutting is performed by hammering
n) Shovel :
 Shovel generally used in forging shop is shown in Fig
 It is used to place coal or coke in the furnace
 It is also used to set coal pieces in furnace & remove ash from furnace
o) Poker :
 Poker is shown in fig. It is employed for removing clinker from the furnace &
 To loose the compact coal pieces in the furnace.
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p) Rake :
 Rake is shown in fig. It is used to put coal pieces on tuyres
q) Beak Iron :
 Beak iron generally used in forging shop is shown in Fig
 It is also known as small anvil made of forged steel
 Its upper front end consists of horn & Upper back end consists of flat tail
 Its taper shank is inserted into the hardie hole of the anvil
 It is commonly used as anvil for small forge work
1.14 Forging die design:

 The design of forging dies requires knowledge of strength, ductility, sensitivity to
deformation rate and melting point of the workpiece material.
 The terminology for forging die is as shown in fig. 1.6.
 Some of this consideration is similar to those for casting.
 For most of the forging, the parting line is usually at the largest cross-section of the
part for symmetrical parts, the parting line at the center of the forging.
 But for more complex shapes the parting line may not be lie in the center of the
forging.
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Fig. 1.6 Standard Terminology of Forging Die
 The flash materials allowed to flow into a gutter, so that extra flash does not
increase the forging load unnecessarily.
 The length of the land is usually 2 to 5 times the flash thickness.
 Numbers of gutter design have been developed throughout the years.
 To removal of the workpiece from the dies in almost all forging process draft angles
are necessary.
 At the time of cooling, forging shrinks both Radialy and longitudinally.
 To overcome this cause, internal draft angles are made larger than external draft
angles.
 Internal draft angles are about 7° to 10°, and external draft angles are about 3° to 5°.
 Selection of proper radii for corners and fillets is important to give smooth flow of
metal in a die cavity as well as to improve die life.
 Small radii and fillets are not allowed due to stress concentration and fatigue
cracking of the dies.
 Allowances are provided in forging die design because machining of forging of
forging may be necessary to obtain final desired dimensional as well as surface
finish.
 To produce a smooth and accurate cavity with parting plane more care is required.
 In a die, better and economical results are will be obtained if the following points
are considered:
i. The die should part along a single flat plane, if at all possible. If not then parting
plane should follow counter of the workpiece.
ii. The parting line should be lies in one plane and not close to the upper or lower
edge.
iii. Proper draft angles should be provided – at least 3° for aluminum and 5° to 7°
for steel. Also 1° to 5° draft is provided in press forging and 3° to 10° in drop
forging.
iv. Filets radii should be provided.
v. Ribs should be low and wide.
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vi. The various sections should be balanced to avoid extreme differences in metal
flow.
vii. Full advantage should be taken of fiber flow lines.
viii. Dimensional tolerances should not be closer than necessary.
ix. Forged component should be easily able to achive a radial flow grains or fibers.
x. Too thin section should be avoided for easy flow of metal.
1.13 Die materials and lubricants:
I. DIE MATERIALS:
 In most of the forging operation large parts are forged at elevated temperature.
 Therefore the general requirements for die materials are:
a) Good strength and toughness at elevated temperatures.
b) Good harden ability and ability to harden uniformaly.
c) Resistance to mechanical and thermal shocks.
d) It should have high wear resistance.
 Selection of proper die material depends on following factors:
i. Size of the die components.
ii. The properties and composition of the workpiece.
iii. Complexity of shape.
iv. Forging temperature.
v. Cost of the die material.
vi. Number of forging is required.
vii. Heat transfer from hot workpiece to die.
 Common die materials are tool and die steel containing chromium, nickel,
molybdenum, and vanadium.
 Dies are made from die block , which are forged from casting.
 These dies are machined and finished to the desired shape and surface finish.
II. Lubrication:
 Lubricants generally reduce friction and wear.
 They also act as thermal conductor between hot workpiece and cool dies.
 It can slow the cooling rate of workpiece and improving metal flow or grain flow.
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 It also acts as a parting agent.
 Wide variety of lubricants can be used in forging:
a) For hot forging:
i. Graphite.
ii. Glass.
iii. Molybdenum disulfide.
 In hot forging lubricants are usually applied directly in to the dies.
b) For cold forging:
i. Mineral oils.
ii. Soaps.
 In cold forging, Lubricants are generally applied on the workpiece.
1.14 Defects in forging:
 All defects in forging are given below with the reasons:
a) Defective structure of metal; Reason – defective original metal.
b) Presence of cold shuts or cracks at corners; Reason – improper forging and
faulty die design.
c) Incomplete component; Reason – less metal used, faulty die design and
inadequate metal flow.
d) Mismatched forging; Reason – die halves not properly aligned.
e) Burnt and overheated metal; Reason – improper heating.
f) Fiber flow lines or grain flow lines disconnected; Reason – very rapid
plastic flow of metal.
g) Scale pits; Reason – formed by squeezing of scale into metal during forging.
h) Oversize components; Reason – worn out dies, incorrect dies.
i) Cold Shuts:
 Short cracks at corners and at right angles to the surface of forging.
 Cause: Metal surface folding against itself during forging.
 Remedy: Die design should make properly.
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j) Pitting:
 Small pits (Depressions) on surface.
 Cause: It is caused by scale. When scales are removed from surface,
depressions remain which are known as scale pits.
 Remedy: Pure ingots should be selected and dies must be cleaned
properly after operation.
k) Die shift:
 Cause: It is caused by misalignment between top and bottom forging
dies.
 Remedy: Proper mechanism should be used to avoid mismatching.
l) Incomplete filling of dies:
 Undersize of forging due to less amount of metal.
 Cause: It is caused by wrong amount of metal, insufficient number
of blows, incorrect die design or low temperature of stock.
 Remedy: Ingot size must be sufficient, hammering should be done
properly, die should be designed correctly and temperature of stock
should be sufficient.
m) Dents:
 Dents are the result of careless work.
 Also fig. 1.7 shows common examples of defects in forged parts
Fig. 1.7 Examples Of Defects In Forged Parts
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1.15 Forged parts:
I. Gear blank:
 It can be made by upsetting the bar stock.
 The pattern of the grain flow lines in the bar stock is as shown in fig. 1.8 (a).
 When bar stock is placed in dies such that the flow lines are vertical.
 The grain pattern produced will be radial and gear blank will give greatest strength to
the teeth as shown in fig. 1.8 (b).
 All teeth will be equally strong.
 This is desired because each tooth considered as a cantilever beam and grain flow lines
will be parallel with expected tensile and compressive stress along the face of the gear
teeth.
 If the bar stock is placed in the die in such a manner that its flow lines are horizontal,
then the grain pattern produced will be shown in fig. 1.8 (c).
 The teeth cut on such blank will not be of the same strength.
 Because gear blank has expected stresses are perpendicular to the flow lines of bar
stock.
Fig 1.8 Forging Sequence for Gear Blank

OR
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I. Gear Blank:
 The size of the heated stock is reduced with compensation of length i.e.
upsetting is carried out.
 After heating or upsetting, stock is forged in first impression die.
 Stock is forged in next impression die or blocking die.
 Then the finished part is trimmed in blanking die.
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II. Connecting rod:
Fig. 1.9 Forging Sequence for Connecting Rod
Fig 1.10 Practical Forging Process for Connecting Rod
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 It can be made by forging the bar stock.
 The blank shape gradually changes, as shown in fig. 1.9 (a) of connecting rod.
 Performing processes, such as Fullering and Edging [fig. 1.9(b) and fig. 1.9(c)] are
used to distribute the material into various regions of the blank.
 In Fullering, material is distributed away from an area.
 In Edging, it is gathered into a localized area.
 The part is then formed into the rough shape of a connecting rod by a process called
blocking using blocker dies.
 The final operation is the finishing of the forging in close die forging that gives the
forging its final shape.
 The flash is removed usually by a trimming operation (fig. 1.9)
OR
II. Connecting Rod:
 The heated stock is elongated by reducing its cross section in first die. The
operation is known as “Fullering”.
 The metal is redistributed, increasing the cross section at certain places and
reducing at others as required filling the cavities of the die. The operation is known
as “Edging”.
 General shape is given in first blocking die.
26
 Finished shape is given to forging in final impression die.
 Flash is removed.
 VI. Heat treatment and machining is done as per requirement.
III. Crank shaft :

 Stock is redistributed & size is increases at certain place
 Reduced at others by roll forging
 After preliminary roll forging, the stock is again roll forged
 This stock is then forged on first impression / block dies
 Final shape is given to the forging in next blocking dies
27
 Then finished part is trimmed in blanking die

 To remove excess metal / flash
IV. Spanner:
 Heated stock is elongated by reducing its cross section in first die Called as Fullering
 Metal is redistributed, increasing the cross section at certain places

 Reducing at others as required filling the cavities of the die Called as Edging
 General shape is given in first blocking die
28
 Finished shape is given to forging in final impression die

V. Cam Shaft:
 Stock is redistributed & size is increases at certain place
 Reduced at others by roll forging
 After preliminary roll forging, the stock is again roll forged
 This stock is then forged on first impression / block dies
29
 Final shape is given to the forging in next blocking dies

30
Chapter 2. Press and Press Work

2.0 Introduction:
 Presses are widely used for mass production of similar components.
 The process of press consists of shearing out and then plastically working the metal
to the desired finished shape.
 It is also called as chipless manufacturing processes.
 In metal cutting process may be used for producing different shapes and size of
components by same set of tools.
 But in press working each new dissimilar component required a new set of tools.
 The tools used in press working are much costlier than other metal cutting
operation.
 These are used in telephone industry, automobile industry, aircraft industry,
electrical goods manufacturing & radio industry
 Definition Of Press Work:
 In the press work the metal forming machine tool designed to shape or cut metal by
applying mechanical force or pressure. Metal is formed to the desired shape without
removal of chips.
 Parts Produced By Press Work:
 Washer, switch panels, automotive body panels, motor cover bracket, steel net, cage,
filters, fuel tank, filter cap, brackets, wheel rims, cover plates, clamps, frames,
channels, side panel, door panels, bonnets, fenders.
2.1 Materials Used In Press Work :
 The main material used for press works are aluminium, copper, brass, mild steel.
 The galvanized iron (G.I) sheets also used for press work.
 Duralumin, Y-alloys is used for deep drawing operation.
 Copper alloys such as naval brass, cartridge brass, and Babbitt metal are used for
blanking & punching operation.
 Other materials used in press work are stainless steel & its alloys, different types of
steels & its alloys.
31
2.2 Classification Of Presses:
 Basically classified into two groups :
a) Manually operated – hand, ball or fly press
b) Power operated – mechanical, hydraulic etc
 But Presses are briefly classified as :
A. According To The Type & Design Of Frame :
1. Inclinable 2. Straight Side 3. Adjustable Bed
4. Gap Frame 5. Horning 6. Open End
B. According To The Positions Of Frame :
1. Inclinable 2. Inclined
3. Vertical 4. Horizontal
C. According To The Actions :
1. Single Action 2. Double Action 3. Triple Action
D. According To The Mechanism Used For Applying Power To Ram :
1. Crank 2. Eccentric 3. Cam
4. Toggle 5. Screw 6. Knuckle
7. Rack & Pinion 8. Hydraulic 9. Pneumatic
E. According To The Number Of Drive Gears :
1. Single Drive 2. Twin Drive 3. Quadruple Drive
F. According To The Number Of Crankshaft Used :
1. Single Crank 2. Double Crank
G. According To The Method Of Transmission Of Power From Motor To

Crankshaft :
1. Direct 2. Non – Geared 3. Single Geared
4. Double Geared 5. Multiple Geared

H. According To The Purpose For Which Used :
1. Shears 2. Brakes 3. Punching
4. Seaming 5. Extruding 6. Coining
7. Straightening 8. Transfer 9. Forging
32
2.3 Fly Press:
 It is also called as hand press / ball press
 Simplest type of all presses
 It is Hand operated
 Also called as single side fly press
 CONSTRUCTION : -
 It consist of robust cast iron frame
 Top portion of frame forms the nut
 Vertical screw which can go through the nut
 Screw carries an arm
 Arm supports two cast iron weights (balls) at two ends
 Handle used for rotating the arm
 Frame extended below the nut to form guides
 Ram attached at the bottom of the screw
 ram carries punch at its bottom
 Die is fixed at the press base
 WORKING : -
 Sheet metal placed over the die
 Arm gets quick rotation with the help of handle
 Heavy balls stores kinetic energy for long time movement of screw
 Movement of screw causes movement of ram & punch downwards
 Stroke of the collar adjusted with help of Stop Collar / Arrestor
 Advance type of fly press is double side Press
33
Fig. 2.1 Fly Press Fig. 2.2 Double Side Fly Press
2.4 Double Side Fly Press:
 In this arm &ball weights are replaced by a heavy fly wheel having handles to rotate
 Fly press generally used for doing rough work like punching & bending
 Action of punch in fly & power presses are similar
 But main difference is,
 In fly press ram is moved by screw
 In power press ram is moved by crankshaft
2.5 Power Press:
 In power press ram is driven by crank &connecting rod (pitman)
 Punch attached to ram & die attached to the bolster plate
 Inclinable power press shown in fig., Used for all types of press work
 It is in vertical positions, driven by belt
 Fitted over the fly wheel
 Fly wheel & crankshaft are connected by clutch
34
 Clutch is operated by foot leaver. Crankshaft is held in that position with the help of
brake. At top there is a hand wheel “H”. Used to adjust the brake.
 It is also called as mechanical press. Power presses are also hydraulically driven
Fig. 2.3 Power Press

2.6 Inclinable Gap Frame:
 Fig shows this type of frame
 Most commonly used press in industry
 Its important quality is its tilt back (easy to adjust)
 It can be locked in its inclined position
 Its back is open to remove scrap & product components by gravity
 That's why it is also called as open back inclinable (OBI) press
 Shut height is less than gape frame press
35
Fig. 2.4 Inclinable Gap Frame Press Fig. 2.5 Gap Frame Press
2.7 Gap Frame:
 It cannot able to be inclined
 Its back may be open / close
 It is more rigid & stable
 They have more openings than inclinable frame
 Easy to attach larger dies
 Shut height is more than inclinable frame press
 It is also called as solid frame press
 Because base & top frame is connected rigidly
 Its frame has a fixed position always
2.8 Straight Side Press :
 Generally it is used for providing larger bed area & high tonnage
 This type of frame offers grater rigidity & gives longer strokes
 It carries straight sides, which are normally vertical
 It consist of platen / bed to support die
 Vertical columns on sides & crown mounted on these columns
 Crown carries total working mechanism of the press
 They have different types :
36
a) Solid Frame Type
b) Arch Type
c) Tie Rod Type
d) Pillar Type
a) Solid Frame Type:
 In which bed, columns & crown forms integral to form a single unit Straight Side
Presses
Fig. 2.6 Solid Frame Type Press Fig. 2.7 Arch Type Press
b) Arch Type:
 Frame has an arch shape to offer larger area of the bed
c) Tie Rode Type:
 In this bed, columns, crown are separate parts
 These parts are held together by means of four tie rods
 These rods are placed at four corners
 It is Commonly used in industry
37
Fig. 2.8 Tie Rode Type Press Fig. 2.9 Pillar Type Press
d) Pillar Type:
 Also called as open frame type press
 It consists of four sturdy vertical pillars
 At bottom, pillars are mounted in bed
 At top, pillars are mounted in crown
 All pillars are clamped by means of nuts
 These presses generally carry a hydraulic drive
2.9 Horning Press:
 It consists of a vertical frame
 Top of frame overhangs towards the in front
 In this overhangs contains drive mechanism of the press
 It consist cylindrical post called “ horn ”
 Top surface of the horn is made flat
 Horn is used for supporting the dies & tabular work
38
Fig. 2.10 Horning Press Fig. 2.11 Adjustable Bed Type Press
2.10 Adjustable Bed Type Press:
 It carries a knee type bed, So that it is also called as knee press
 Bed / knee can be adjusted at a desired height. By moving knee up /down with the
help of screw provide below it
 So that it provides variable shut height. It has less strength. It is not made in heavier
design
2.11 Open End Press:
 It has solid type vertical frame with all sides are open
 All gears & flywheel are mounted at the back of frame
 Ram works through guides at the front. It is generally used for lighter press works
Fig. 2.12 Open End Press
39
2.12 Crank Press:
 It consists of crankshaft driven by fly wheel
 Crankshaft supported in bearing fitted in the frame
 Rotary motion of the crankshaft is converted into reciprocating motion with help of
connecting rod
Fig. 2.13 Crank Press Fig. 2.14 Eccentric Press

2.13 Eccentric Press:
 It consists of eccentric drive mechanism for its ram
 Eccentric is placed inside driving shaft
 One end of connecting rod is connected to the eccentric housing
 Other end is connected to the ram
 Eccentric shaft revolves due to offset
 Between eccentric center & connecting rod Centre
 Length of the stroke in such presses is smaller than the crank press
2.14 Cam Driven Press:
 In this process cam is used for moving the ram
 Suitable springs brings back the ram to its original position
 Connecting rod is not used in this drive
 But it is same process like eccentric drive
 This press has limited size
 Not commonly used
40
Fig. 2.15 Cam Driven Press Fig. 2.16 Toggle Press

2.15 Toggle Press:
 The toggle mechanism used only on double action & triple action presses for driving
outer ram
 Crank shaft drive is used for the inner ram
 Old presses carries this mechanism in the crown
 But now, new presses carries this mechanism at the bottom
 That’s why it is also called as inverted drive /under drive presses
2.16 Screw Press:
 It is also called as power screw press
 It consist of a vertical frame
 Top end of frame as a nut
 It carries flywheel at its top & engages the ram at its bottom
 Flywheel is driven by a friction disc
 Rotating screw lowers & rises the ram
 Speed of the flywheel is increases with the help of friction drive
 Intensity of the blow increased by adjusting the height of the die
 So that ram movement is very slow
 So that it is used for sheet metal work
41
Fig. 2.17 Screw Press Fig. 2.18 Knuckle Press

2.17 Knuckle Press:
 This press carries knuckle–joint mechanism for driving the ram
 It consist of two knuckle levers & connecting lever
 Upper end of the upper knuckle connected to the crown of the machine
 Similarly lower end of the lower knuckle is connected to the ram
 Then lower end of the upper knuckle & upper end of the lower knuckle are
connected to the one end of the connecting lever
 They are connected to each other with the help of common wrist pin
 And other end of the connecting lever is connected to the crank shaft
 Dig. shows connecting rod moving clockwise direction
 Connecting lever is being pulled towards right
 & ram being raised
 In one complete rotation knuckle levers get one highest angular position
 When crank becomes horizontal on the right side
 At this stage ram gates its upper most position
 When crank comes to left side horizontal position
 Two knuckle levers come in vertical straight line
 & ram goes to its lower most position to provide required blow with grate force
 Largely used for coining, extruding, squeezing, sizing, embossing operations
42
2.18 Rack & Pinion Press:
 It is used when very long stroke of ram is required
 Ram is attached to the bottom of the vertical rack
 This rack is driven by a pinion
 Tonnage of this press is limited
 Because load applied by the teeth of the rack & pinion
 Ram movement is slow but uniform
 These presses are used in now a days
Fig. 2.19 Rack & Pinion Press Fig. 2.20 Hydraulic Press
2.19 Hydraulic Press:
 It gives longer stroke than mechanical presses
 Intensity of blow can be easily adjusted
 It consist of double acting cylinder & piston
 Ram is directly connected to the piston rod
 Movement of ram is slower but uniform
 Largely used for deep drawing operations
 Also used for extruding, press forging, plastic moulding operations
 These presses requires grater maintenance than mechanical presses
43
2.20 Presses are also classified according to the purpose for which used
1. Blanking 2. Perforating 3. Piercing 4. Punching
5. Shearing 6. Notching 7. Coining 8. Trimming
9. Shaving 10. Slitting 11. Lancing 12. Angle Bending
13. Curling 14. Cupping 15. Bulging 16. Embossing
1. Blanking Operation:
 It is the first operation to be performed
 Flat shapes called blanks cut from the parent metal sheets
 The die used for banking is called as blanking dies
 Metal removed from parent metal is called as product & parent metal called as scrap
Fig. 2.21 Blanking Operation Fig. 2.22 Perforating Operation

2. Perforating Operation:
 This is used for making holes
 Metal removed from parent metal is called as scrap & parent metal is called as
product
 It is used for making large number of identical holes on metal sheets
 Diameter of the punch is more than thickness of the metal sheets
44
3. Piercing Operation:
product. It is used for making limited number of holes on metal sheets
 Diameter of the punch is less than thickness of the metal sheets
Fig. 2.23 Piercing Operation Fig. 2.24 Punching Operation

4. Punching Operation:
product. Punch is round in shape Dies requires some clearance
5. Shearing Operation:
 In this operation sheet metal cut along a single line generally straight line
Fig. 2.25 Shearing Operation Fig. 2.26 Notching Operation
45
6. Notching Operation:
 It similar like blanking operation
 But it operated on the edges of the sheet metal
7. Trimming Operation:
 It is used for removing excess metal, irregular outlines, waved edges
 Metal removed from surface is more
 Dies used are trimming dies
Fig. 2.27 Trimming Operation Fig. 2.28 Shaving Operation

8. Shaving Operation:
 It also similar operation to the trimming operation
 But small amount of metal to be removed
 Dies used are shaving dies
9. Slitting operation:
 It is the operation of making an unfinished cut through limited length only
Fig. 2.29 Slitting Operation Fig. 2.30 Lancing Operation

10. Lancing Operation:
 It consist of cutting the sheet metal through a small length & bending small cut
portion downwards
46
11. Angle Bending Operation:
 It consist of bending of sheet metal at a sharp angle
 Angle & shape of punch & die forms the desired shape
 This is given to the sheet metal. Punch & die are provided allowances for spring
back. Spring back means sheet metal tries to come its original shape
Fig. 2.31 Angle Bending Operation Fig. 2.32 Curling Operation

12. Curling Operation:
 It is the operation through which the edge of a metal piece is curled around
 Punch & die are both made to contain the cavity for cutting
 Punch move downwards for forming edges of workpiece into a curl
 Workpiece is ejected out by the plunger
13. Cupping Operation:
 It is drawing operation used to produce a cup shaped part from sheet metal blank
 Cup produced may be cylindrical, rectangular, square etc
Fig. 2.33 Cupping Operation Fig. 2.34 Bulging operation

14. Bulging operation:
 It is reshaping process
 In which wall of a drawn cup are expanded into different shape.
47
15. Drawing operation:
 The drawing is the operation of production of cup shaped parts from flat sheet
metal blanks by bending and plastic flow of the metal.
 The operation is also known as cupping. The drawing operation is illustrated in Fig.
Fig. 2.35 Drawing operation Fig. 2.36 Coining operation

16. Coining Operation:
 The coining is the operation of production of coins, medals or other ornamental
parts by squeezing operation.
 The coining is the operation of production of coins, medals or other ornamental
parts by squeezing operation.
17. Embossing Operation:
 It is the process through which specific shapes are produced on sheet metal blanks
with the help of punch & dies
 It is used for decorative purpose / names , trade marks
 Punch operates relatively at low speed to allow metal to stretch
Fig. 2.37 Embossing Operation Fig. 2.38 Cutting Of Metal In Punches & Dies Setup
48
2.21 Cutting of metal in punch & die setup:
 Both tensile & compressive stresses act on the metal
 Stretching metal beyond its elastic limit. This causes plastic deformation &
reduction of area
 Then fracture of metal is produced. Clearance must be provided between punch &
die. Clearances reduces crack formation
2.22 Cutting Die Terminology:
 Both tensile & compressive stresses act on the metal
 Stretching metal beyond its elastic limit
 This causes plastic deformation & reduction of area
 Then fracture of metal is produced
 Clearance must be provided between punch & die
 Clearances reduces crack formation
 It is also called as chipless manufacturing process
 Also called as cold stampings
 Punch & die block assembly is called as die set
 Cutting die is used for punching & blanking operation
 Low part of a press on which bolster plate is mounted is called as bed
 It is thick plate attached to the press bed
 It is used for locating & supporting die assembly
 Female part of the tool is called as Die
 Plate which contains a die cavity is called Die Block
 Male part of the tool is called as Punch. The part moved directly / indirectly by ram
is called as Punch
 Lower shoe is mounted on bolster plate called as Die Holder
 Die block mounted on bolster plate. Upper shoe is mounted on ram is called as
punch holder. One plate is inserted between punch & upper shoe / punch holder is
called as Back up plate / pressure plate
 This plate controls excessive pressure on punch holder
 This plate distribute equal pressure all over part of the punch
49
 This reduces crushing of punch. Stripper plate is used for controlling the movement
of the metal strips. Stripper plate is also guides the metal strips. In press operation,
there is size difference between die & punch
 Punch diameter is less than diameter of die opening. This difference is called as
clearance. Clearance is very important, so that punch can enter the die
 Separated portion from the metal strip falls downwards due to gravitational force
Fig. 2.39 Cutting Die Terminology
50
2.23 PARTS OF STANDARD DIE SET
 Die Accessories
 The die accessories are used in conjunction with the dies and punches for systematic
operation, correct location, and removal of finished products. The following are the
different die accessories.
 Stops: The stops are used for correct spacing of the sheet metal as it is fed below the punch
to give the greatest output in given length of the plate. Button stop and lever stop.
 Button stop: The button stop illustrated in Fig. is the simplest of the designs. A small pin or
a button 2 is fixed to the die block 4 at a measured distance from the punch axis. After the
end of each cut, the plate 3 is lifted and pushed aside till the edge of the next slot bears
against the button 2. This makes the accurate spacing. The button stop is used in hand
presses and in slow acting power presses.
Fig. Button Stop Fig. Pilots
51
 Pilots: The pilot illustrated in Fig. enables the correct location of the blank when it is fed by
mechanical means. The pilot enters into the previously pierced hole and moves the blank to
the correct position to be finally spaced by the stops. The pilots are fitted to the punch
holders.
 Strippers: The main function of the stripper is to strip or discard the workpiece from the
punch or the die after the end of the cutting or forming operations. Fig. illustrates a stripper
attached to the punch holder. The stripper plate 3 is connected to the holder by means of
two helical springs 2. The punch 1 passes through a hole in the stripper 3. When the punch
descends to cut or form a material placed on the die block, the stripper plate 3 bears against
the blank and holds it down by the spring pressure. In the upward stroke of the punch, the
blank is stripped off from the punch cutting edge and prevents it from being lifted along
with the punch by the stripper plate.
Fig. Strippers Fig. Knockout
 Knockout: The knockout is also a type of stripper which forces the cut blank out of the
die. Fig. illustrates a knockout fitted on an inverted blanking die. As the die holder 2
descends, the plate 4 is sheared and the blank rests on the knockout plate 5. The
position of the knockout plate is depressed due to the spring compression. As the
plunger moves in the upward stroke, the knockout plate 5 ejects the blank 4 out of the
cutting edges.
 Pressure pad: As the punch 1 moves downward, the pressure pad which is a plate
actuated by spring tension 2, bears against the metal 3 being drawn out on the die face
52
4 with sufficient pressure. This result in ironing of the metal as it plastically flows
between the punch and the die, and eliminates wrinkling in the process of being drawn
out to the shape required. A spring plunger 5 acting from the bottom of the plate serves
the same function as a pressure pad by maintaining a flat bottom surface of the cup.
Fig. Pressure Pad

 Function of die accessories:
 Stripper: To remove scrap material from the punch as it cleans the die block
 Strip Feeder: It is used for feeding the strip mostly in automatic operations.
 Pilots: The pilot positions, the stock strip accurately and bring it into proper position
for blanking and piercing operations. They act as guides during the piercing or
blanking operations
 Stops: The stops are used for correct spacing of the sheet metal as it is fed below the
punch to give the greatest output in given length of the plate
 Knock out: The function of knock out is to eject the finished components from the die
cavity
 Strip Feeder: It is used for feeding the strip mostly in automatic operations.
 Pressure pad: It is used for drawing operation for maintaining flat surface of the cup.
2.24 Types Of Dies:
a) COMPOUND DIES
b) COMBINATION DIES
c) PROGRESSIVE DIES
53
2.25 Compound Dies:
 In this type of dies, two / more operation may be performed at one station
 Only cutting operations are performed on this dies so it is also called as cutting dies
 Fig. shoes compound die in which a washer is made by one stroke of the press
 Washer is produced by simultaneous blanking & piercing operation
 These dies are more accurate & economical in mass production as compared to
single operation dies
Fig. 2.40 Compound Dies

2.26 Combination Dies:
 In this also, more than one operation may be performed at one station
 But it differs from compound dies
 In this cutting operation is combined with bending / drawing operation
 Die ring which is mounted on the die shoe is hallow in shape at bottom side
 In this hallow portion flange of pads moves up / downwards
 These pads are placed proper position with the help of springs
 Drawing punch of required shape is attached to the die shoe
 Blanking punch is hold in punch holder
 Drawing die have some shape on it
 The knock out pin is used to remove finished product from the die & punch
54
OR
 In a combination die more than one operation can be performed on one station.
 Combination die is a press tool in which a cutting operation ( usually blanking) is combined with
a shaping or deforming operation ( such as bending, drawing, coining etc.)
 A combination die is a single station die, but a double action press is used.
 In a blanking and drawing combination die first of all the blanking punch is actuated and it
separates the blank from the strip and then it exerts sufficient pressure on the edges of the
blank to serve as blank holder when the drawing punch descends and draws the blank into the
desired shape.
 The die consists of die ring and a blanking punch.
 The die ring is mounted on the die-shoe and counter bored at the bottom to allow the flange of a
pad to travel up and down.
 A drawing punch of required shape is fastened to the die shoe.
 The blanking punch is secured to the punch holder.
 A spring stripper strips the skeleton from the blanking punch.
 A knockout extending through the center opening and through the punch stem ejects the part on
the upstroke as it comes in contact with the knockout bar on the press.

Fig. 2.41 Combination Dies
55
2.27 Progressive Die:
 This dies have number of operation stages
 At each station, an operation is performed on workpiece in press
 Between stroke, the piece in the metal strip is transferred to the next station
 A finished workpiece is made at each stroke of the press
Fig. 2.42 Progressive Die
56
2.28 Difference between compound die & combination die.
Sr.
Drop Forging Press Forging
No.
Any two cutting operations can be Both cutting and forming operations
1)
performed at one station. can be performed at one station.
Both operations performed in a single
2) Two separate strokes of press.
stoke of press
Care need to be taken to produce jobs
Jobs produced with high accuracy and
3) with high accuracy and close
close tolerance.
tolerance
Blanking, piercing or punching Blanking, drawing, bending
4)
operations are performed. operations performed.
5) e.g. washer e.g. drawing cup shaped part.
2.29 Difference between Blanking And Punching:

Sr.
Blanking Punching
No.
Blanking is the operation of cutting a Punching is the cutting of a slug from
1)
shape from a metal strip. the metal to produce a hole.
The piece detached from strip is The piece detached from strip is
2)
known a blank known as slug.
The removed blank is used for further The slug detached from strip i s scrap
3)
operation (or waste).
In this operation the punched sheet in
In this operation the blank is useful
4) which the hole has been made is the
product and left out strip is waste.
useful product and slug is the waste.
Blanking is always the first Punching is mostly the successive
5)
operation. operation.
57
2.30 Clearance:
 The die opening must be sufficiently larger than the punch to produce clean surface of
the metal.
 This difference in dimensions between the mating members of a die set is called as
‘clearance’.
 This clearance is applied in following manner:
 When the hole has to be held to size i.e. the hole in the sheet metal is to be accurate
(punching operation), and slug is to be discarded.
 The punch is made to the size of the hole and the die opening size is obtained by adding
clearance to the punch size.
 In blanking operation, where the slug or blank is the desired part and has to be held to
size, the die opening size equals the blank size and the punch size is obtained by subtract.
 Clearance is an important factor in the design of a sheet metal cutting process. As
discussed earlier, cutting clearance is the straight line, lateral distance between the edge of
the punch and the edge of the die hole.
 The way the metal separates, hence the cut, will be largely determined by the
clearance.
 Optimization of cutting clearances, dependent upon specific process factors, will
provide a quality cut.
 When clearances are correctly employed, the mechanics of sheet metal cutting should
occur as described in the preceding section.
 Improper values could compromise the cutting process. More clearance than required
causes the sheet metal to get forced between the cutting edges.
 Fracture occurs incorrectly and the resulting edge is usually not desirable.
 If not enough cutting clearance is provided, the fracture lines propagating from the
punch and die will not line up.
 Non-continuous fracture lines, in the sheet metal, usually result in secondary shearing
and a deformed edge surface.
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 The greater the sheet metal thickness, the higher the clearance value should be, In
manufacturing industry there is a range of optimum values for specific processes,
clearances may span from 1% to 30% of sheet thickness.
 Generally, typical values span from 3% to 8% of sheet thickness.
 A large factor is the type of work material and its temper.
 Aluminum alloy sheet metal might have an optimum clearance value of 4%, a brass
sheet 6% and a hard steel sheet 7.5%.
 If the hole size is small relative to total sheet thickness, extra clearance could be
needed.
 The sheet metal cutting clearance value may be added to either the punch or die,
depending on if it is a blanking or a punching operation.
 Basically, given a certain size, does the hole have to be that size or is it important that
the blank be that size.
 For a blank of a certain size the hole in the die should be the correct size, therefore,
subtract the clearance from the punch. In blanking, the punch will be smaller than the
desired blank size.
 When punching, for a hole of a certain size, the punch should be the correct size.
 In this case the clearance is added to the hole in the die making it larger than the
desired hole size.
Fig. 2.41 Clearance Fig. 2.42 Clearance in blanking & piercing operation
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2.31 press working operations with example of each:

 Blanking: washer, gear, switch panels, automotive body panels, motor cover bracket
 Punching: washer Piercing: automotive body panels
 Notching : automotive body panels
 Perforating : steel net, cage, grill making, filters, utensils
 Trimming : automotive body panels Shaving: automotive body panels Slitting:
automotive body panels
 Lancing: automotive body panels
 Angle bending: frames, bridge construction, fabrication work, building construction,
channels making
 Curling: utensils
 Tube forming: piping industries, oil refineries, water supply system
 Embossing :art work, name plates
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Chapter 3. Welding Processes

 Introduction:
Welding is a materials joining process which produces coalescence of materials by
heating them to suitable temperatures with or without the application of pressure or
by the application of pressure alone, and with or without the use of filler material.
Weldability is the ease of a material or a combination of materials to be welded
under fabrication conditions into a specific, suitably designed structure, and to
perform satisfactorily in the intended service
 Definition: Welding is a process of joining similar metals by application of heat with or
without application of pressure and addition of filler materials
 Advantages of welding:
 Strong and tight joining;
 Cost effectiveness;
 Simplicity of welded structures design;
 Welding processes may be mechanized and automated.
 Disadvantages of welding:
 Internal stresses, distortions and changes of micro-structure in the weld region;
 Harmful effects: light, ultra violate radiation, fumes, high temperature.
 Applications of welding:
Welding is used for making permanent joints. It is used in the manufacture of
automobile bodies, aircraft frames, railway wagons, machine frames, structural works,
tanks, furniture, boilers, general repair work and ship building. Buildings and bridges
structures;
 Automotive, ship and aircraft constructions;
 Pipe lines;
 Tanks and vessels;
 Railroads;
 Machinery elements.
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 Welding processes classification: Depending on method of heat generation
American welding society classifies welding as
 Arc welding
 Carbon Arc Welding;
 Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW)
 Submerged Arc Welding (SAW)
 Metal Inert Gas Welding (MIG, GMAW)
 Tungsten Inert Gas Arc Welding (TIG, GTAW)
 Electroslag Welding (ESW)
 Plasma Arc Welding (PAW)
 Resistance Welding (RW)
 Spot Welding (RSW)
 Flash Welding (FW)
 Resistance Butt Welding (UW)
 Seam Welding (RSEW)
 Gas Welding (GW)
 Oxyacetylene Welding (OAW)
 Oxyhydrogen Welding (OHW)
 Pressure Gas Welding (PGW)
 Solid State Welding (SSW)
 Forge Welding (FOW)
 Cold Welding (CW)
 Friction Welding (FRW)
 Explosive Welding (EXW)
 Diffusion Welding (DFW)
 Ultrasonic Welding (USW)
 Thermit Welding (TW)
 Electron Beam Welding (EBW)
 Laser Welding (LW)
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 Gas Welding (GW)
Gas Welding is a welding process utilizing heat of the flame from a welding torch. The
torch mixes a fuel gas with Oxygen in the proper ratio and flow rate providing
combustion process at a required temperature. The hot flame fuses the edges of the
welded parts, which are joined together forming a weld after Solidification.
The flame temperature is determined by a type of the fuel gas and proportion of oxygen
in the combustion mixture: 4500°F - 6300°F (2500°C - 3500°C). Depending on the
proportion of the fuel gas and oxygen in the combustion mixture, the flame may be
chemically neutral (stoichiometric content of the gases), oxidizing (excess of oxygen),
carburizing (excess of fuel gas). Filler rod is used when an additional supply of metal to
weld is required. Shielding flux may be used if protection of weld pool is necessary.
Most of commercial metals may be welded by Gas Welding excluding reactive metals
(titanium, zirconium) and refractory metals (tungsten, molybdenum).
 Gas Welding Equipment:
 Fuel gas cylinder with pressure regulator;
 Oxygen cylinder with pressure regulator;
 Welding torch;
 Blue oxygen hose;
 Red fuel gas hose;
 Trolley for transportation of the gas cylinders.
 Advantages of Gas Welding:
 Versatile process;
 Low cost, portable equipment;
 Electricity supply is not required.
 Disadvantages of Gas Welding:
 High skill operator is required;
 Flame temperature is lower, than in arc welding;
 Fumes evolved by shielding fluxes;
 Some metals cannot be welded (reactive and refractory metals).
The most popular methods of Gas Welding are:
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 Oxyacetylene Welding (OAW)
 Oxyhydrogen Welding (OHW)
 Pressure Gas Welding (PGW)
 Oxyacetylene Welding (OAW):

Oxyacetylene Welding is a Gas Welding process using a combustion mixture of acetylene
(C2H2) and oxygen (O2) for producing gas welding flame. Oxyacetylene flame has a temperature
of about 6000°F (3300°C). Combustion of acetylene proceeds in two stages:
1. Inner core of the flame. C2H2 + O2 = 2CO + H2
2. Outer envelope of the flame: CO + H2 + O2 = CO2 + H2O
Acetylene is safely stored at a pressure not exceeding 300 psi (2000 kPa) in special steel
cylinders containing acetone. Outside of cylinder acetylene is used at a absolute pressure not
exceeding 30 psi (206 kPa). Higher pressure may cause explosion.
Oxy-acetylene gas welding is accomplished by melting the edges or surface to be joined
by gas flame and allowing the molten metal to flow together, thus forming a solid
continuous joint upon cooling. With material thicker than 15 mm, additional metal called
filler metal is added to the weld in the form of welding rod. The composition of the filler
rod is usually the same or nearly the same as that of the part being welded. To remove
the impurities and oxides present on the surfaces of metal to be joined and to obtain a
satisfactory bond a flux is always employed.
Common mixtures of gases are oxygen and acetylene, oxygen and hydrogen, oxygen and
other fuel gas, and air and acetylene. The oxygen- acetylene mixture is used to a much
greater extent than the other and has a prominent place in the welding industry. The
temperature of the oxy-acetylene flame in its hottest region is about 3,200°C.
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 Advantages of Gas Welding

1. Equipment is versatile
2. Same equipment can be used for oxy acetylene cutting and brazing by varying the
torch size
3. Heat can controlled easily
 Disadvantages of Gas Welding
1. Slower process
2. Risk is involved in handling gas cylinders
 TYPES OF FLAMES
 Neutral Flame:
 A neutral flame is obtained when equal amounts of oxygen and acetylene are mixed and
burnt in a torch. The flame is recognized by two sharply defined zones, the inner white
cone flame and the outer blue flame envelope. Applications: Steel, stainless steel, cast
iron and aluminium.
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 Oxidising Flame:
 This flame has an excess of oxygen over that require for a neutral flame. To obtain an
oxidising flame, the flame is first se condition. Then the acetylene valve is turned down
gradually to reduce the amount of acetylene giving an excess of oxygen. Applications:
Brass and Bronze.
 Carburizing Flame:
 A carburising or reducing flame is obtained when acetylene is supplied than which is
theoretically required flame is recognised by three distinct sections: the inner cone
(which is not sharply defined) and outer envelope as for the neutral flame. The third
zone surrounds the inner cone and extends into the outer enveloping zone. Application:
Carbon Steels.
Fig Types of Gas Flames
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 Principles of arc welding
Arc welding is a welding process, in which heat is generated by an electric arc struck
between an electrode and the work piece.
Electric arc is luminous electrical discharge between two electrodes through ionized
gas.
Any arc welding method is based on an electric circuit consisting of the following parts:
 Power supply (AC or DC);
 Welding electrode;
 Work piece;
 Welding leads (electric cables) connecting the electrode and work piece to the
power supply.
Electric arc between the electrode and work piece closes the electric circuit. The arc
temperature may reach 10000°F (5500°C), which is sufficient for fusion the work piece
edges and joining them.
When a long join is required the arc is moved along the joint line. The front edge of the
weld pool melts the welded surfaces when the rear edge of the weld pool solidifies forming
the joint.
When a filler metal is required for better bonding, filling rod (wire) is used either as
outside material fed to the arc region or as consumable welding electrode, which melts and
fills the weld pool. Chemical compositions of filler metal are similar to that of work piece.
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Molten metal in the weld pool is chemically active and it reacts with the surrounding
atmosphere. As a result weld may be contaminated by oxide and nitride inclusions
deteriorating its mechanical properties. Neutral shielding gases (argon, helium) and/or
shielding fluxes are used for protection of the weld pool from atmospheric contamination.
Shields are supplied to the weld zone in form of a flux coating of the electrode or in other
forms.
 Advantages of Metal Arc Welding (MAW):
 Simple, portable and inexpensive equipment;
 Wide variety of metals, welding positions and electrodes are applicable;
 Suitable for outdoor applications.
 Disadvantages of Metal Arc Welding (MAW):
 The process is discontinuous due to limited length of the electrodes;
 Weld may contain slag inclusions;
 Fumes make difficult the process control.
 Comparison of A.C. and D.C. arc welding
Alternating Current (from Transformer) Direct Current (from Generator)
1 More efficiency Less efficiency
2 Power consumption less Power consumption more
3 Cost of equipment is less Cost of equipment is more
4 Higher voltage – hence not safe Low voltage – safer operation
5 Not suitable for welding non ferrous metals suitable for both ferrous non ferrous metals
6 Not preferred for welding thin sections preferred for welding thin sections
7 Any terminal can be connected to the work Positive terminal connected to the work
or electrode Negative terminal connected to the electrode
 Metal Inert Gas Welding (MIG, GMAW)

Metal Inert Gas Welding (Gas Metal Arc Welding) is a arc welding process, in which the
weld is shielded by an external gas (Argon, helium, CO2, argon + Oxygen or other gas
mixtures). Consumable electrode wire, having chemical composition similar to that of the
parent material, is continuously fed from a spool to the arc zone. The arc heats and melts
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both the work pieces edges and the electrode wire. The fused electrode material is supplied
to the surfaces of the work pieces, fills the weld pool and forms joint.
Due to automatic feeding of the filling wire (electrode) the process is referred to as a semi-
automatic. The operator controls only the torch positioning and speed.
 Applications: Aluminium, Copper, Nickel & their alloys, Variety of Steels.
 Advantages of Metal Inert Gas Welding (MIG, GMAW):
 Continuous weld may be produced (no interruptions);
 High level of operators skill is not required;
 Slag removal is not required (no slag);
 Disadvantages of Metal Inert Gas Welding (MIG, GMAW):
 Expensive and non-portable equipment is required;
 Outdoor applications are limited because of effect of wind, dispersing the shielding
gas.
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Tungsten Inert Gas Arc Welding (TIG, GTAW)

Tungsten Inert Gas Arc Welding (Gas Tungsten Arc Welding) is a welding process, in
which heat is generated by an electric arc struck between a tungsten non-consumable
electrode and the work piece. The weld pool is shielded by an inert gas (Argon, helium,
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Nitrogen) protecting the molten metal from atmospheric contamination. The heat
produced by the arc melts the work pieces edges and joins them. Filler rod may be used, if
required. Tungsten Inert Gas Arc Welding produces a high quality weld of most of metals.
Flux is not used in the process.
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Advantages of Tungsten Inert Gas Arc Welding (TIG, GTAW):
 Weld composition is close to that of the parent metal;
 High quality weld structure
 Slag removal is not required (no slag);
 Thermal distortions of work pieces are minimal due to concentration of heat in
small zone.
Disadvantages of Tungsten Inert Gas Arc Welding (TIG, GTAW):
 Low welding rate;
 Relatively expensive;
 Requires high level of operators skill.
Plasma Arc Welding (PAW)
Plasma Arc Welding is the welding process utilizing heat generated by a constricted arc
struck between a tungsten non-consumable electrode and either the work piece
(transferred arc process) or water cooled constricting nozzle (non-transferred arc
process).
Plasma is a gaseous mixture of positive ions, electrons and neutral gas molecules.
Transferred arc process produces plasma jet of high energy density and may be used for
high speed welding and cutting of Ceramics, steels, Aluminum alloys, Copper alloys,
Titanium alloys, Nickel alloys.
Non-transferred arc process produces plasma of relatively low energy density. It is used for
welding of various metals and for plasma spraying (coating). Since the work piece in non-
transferred plasma arc welding is not a part of electric circuit, the plasma arc torch may
move from one work piece to other without extinguishing the arc.
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Advantages of Plasma Arc Welding (PAW):

 Requires less operator skill due to good tolerance of arc to misalignments;
 High welding rate;
 High penetrating capability (keyhole effect);
Disadvantages of Plasma Arc Welding (PAW):
 Expensive equipment;
 High distortions and wide welds as a result of high heat input.
Resistance Welding (RW)
Resistance Welding is a welding process, in which work pieces are welded due to a
combination of a pressure applied to them and a localized heat generated by a high electric
current flowing through the contact area of the weld. Heat produced by the current is
sufficient for local melting of the work piece at the contact point and formation of small
weld pool (”nugget”). The molten metal is then solidifies under a pressure and joins the
pieces. Time of the process and values of the pressure and flowing current, required for
formation of reliable joint, are determined by dimensions of the electrodes and the work
piece metal type. AC electric current (up to 100 000 A) is supplied through copper
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electrodes connected to the secondary coil of a welding transformer.
The following metals may be welded by Resistance Welding:
 Low carbon steels - the widest application of Resistance Welding
 Aluminum alloys
 Medium carbon steels, high carbon steels and Alloy steels (may be welded, but the
weld is brittle)
Advantages of Resistance Welding:
 High welding rates;
 Low fumes;
 Cost effectiveness;
 Easy automation;
 No filler materials are required;
 Low distortions.
Disadvantages of Resistance Welding:

 High equipment cost;
 Low strength of discontinuous welds;
 Thickness of welded sheets is limited - up to 1/4” (6 mm);
Applications:
Resistance Welding (RW) is used for joining vehicle body parts, fuel tanks, domestic
radiators, pipes of gas oil and water pipelines, wire ends, turbine blades, railway tracks.
The most popular methods (Types) of Resistance Welding are:
 Spot Welding (RSW)
 Flash Welding (FW) (Projection Welding)
 Resistance Butt Welding (UW)
 Seam Welding (RSEW)
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Spot Welding (RSW)

Spot Welding is a Resistance Welding (RW) process, in which two or more overlapped
metal sheets are joined by spot welds.The method uses pointed copper electrodes
providing passage of electric current. The electrodes also transmit pressure required for
formation of strong weld.Diameter of the weld spot is in the range 1/8” - 1/2” (3 - 12 mm).
Applications:
Spot welding is widely used in automotive industry for joining vehicle body parts.
Flash Welding (FW) (Projection Welding)
Flash Welding is a Resistance Welding (RW) process, in which ends of rods (tubes, sheets)
are heated and fused by an arc struck between them and then forged (brought into a
contact under a pressure) producing a weld. The welded parts are held in electrode clamps,
one of which is stationary and the second is movable.
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Flash Welding method permits fast (about 1 min.) joining of large and complex parts.
Welded parts are often annealed for improvement of Toughness of the weld. Steels,
Aluminum alloys, Copper alloys, Magnesium alloys, Copper alloys and Nickel alloys may be
welded by Flash Welding. Thick pipes, ends of band saws, frames, aircraft landing gears are
produced by Flash Welding.
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Seam Welding (RSEW)
Seam Welding is a Resistance Welding (RW) process of continuous joining of overlapping

sheets by passing them between two rotating electrode wheels. Heat generated by the
electric current flowing through the contact area and pressure provided by the wheels are
sufficient to produce a leak-tight weld.
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Seam Welding is high speed and clean process, which is used when continuous tight weld is
required (fuel tanks, drums, domestic radiators).
 Role Of Fluxes In Joining Processes:
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 A flux is a material used for removal of oxides and other undesirable substances.
 Flux is a material used to prevent dissolve or facilitate removal of oxide.
 During welding, flux chemically reacts with the oxides and a slag is formed that floats to
and covers the top of the molten puddle of metal and thus keep put atmospheric oxygen
and other gases.
 Examples:
 The flux material is fusible and nonmetallic. Fluxes are available in powder, paste or
liquid
 For welding aluminum and its alloy: - Flux may contain potassium chloride, lithium
chloride etc
 For welding Copper and copper alloy:- Borax (fused), di-sodium phosphate, magnesium
silicate, lime etc
 For welding ferrous metal :- Mixture of borax, sodium carbonate and potassium
bicarbonate; sodium carbonate and sodium bicarbonate; borax ,sodium carbonate and
sodium nitrate or borax alone used as flux
 For welding carbon steel:- Dehydrated borax and calcium oxide dissolved in liquid
 For welding alloy steel:- Mixture of boric acid , Dehydrated borax and calcium fluorides
 Role Of Fluxes In Joining Processes
 Difference between arc welding and resistance welding:

Sr.
No.
Arc Welding Resistance Welding
1) It is also called as fusion welding It is also called as plastic welding
Arc is produced by heating with an
Arc is produced by heat due to
electric arc, mostly without
2) resistance to flow of current by work
application of pressure and filler
& by application of pressure
material
3) Filler metal may used Filler metal is not used
4) Low welding speed High welding speed can achieved
5) Supply can be A.C or D.C. Supply is A.C only.
6) Striking voltage is high voltage require is low
7) No external pressure is required External pressure is required.
Welding of similar and dissimilar Both similar and dissimilar metal
8)
welding is quite difficult. can be welded easily.
9) Reliability & reproducibility depends Reliability & reproducibility does not
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on skill of worker depends on skill of worker
10) More skilled operator can do the job. Less skilled operator can do the job.
In some arc welding process like TIG,
In this, inert gases like argon, helium,
11) MIG, Plasma arc we use inert gases
CO2 etc. are not used.
like argon, helium, CO2 etc.
Difference between spot welding and seam welding:

Sr.
No.
Spot Welding Seam Welding
It is a welding process in which two It is a welding process in which two
1) or more sheets of metal are joined by metal sheets are joined by seam
spot welding. welding
This method uses pointed copper This method uses circular rolling
2)
electrodes. electrodes.
It cannot produce gas-tight or liquid It produces gas-tight or liquid tight
3)
tight joints. joints.
Welding can be done along any welding can be done only along the
4)
pattern. straight or uniform curved lines.
Two sheets of 12.5mm thickness can The thickness of the sheet is limited
5)
be welded by spot welding. upto 3mm.
It is widely used in automotive
6) industry for joining vehicle body It is widely used for welding process
parts. vessels and tanks.
Soldering:
Soldering is a method of joining two metal work pieces by means of a third metal (solder)
at a relatively low temperature, which is above the melting point of the solder but below
the melting point of either of the materials being joined. Flow of the molten solder into the
gap between the work pieces is driven by the capillary force. The solder cools down and
solidifies forming a joint. The parent materials are not fused in the process.
Soldering is similar to Brazing. The difference is in the melting point of the filler alloy:
solders melt at temperatures below 840°F (450°C); brazing filler materials melt at
temperatures above this point.
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Soldering methods
 Hand soldering, Iron soldering, Torch soldering,Wave soldering, Reflow soldering
 Soft soldering: It is used extensively in sheet-metal work for joining parts that
are not exposed to the action of high temperatures and are not subjected to
excessive loads and forces. Soft soldering is also employed for joining wires and
small parts. The solder, which is mostly composed of lead and tin, has a melting
range of 150 to 350°C. A suitable flux is always used in soft soldering. Its
function is to prevent oxidation of the surfaces to be soldered or to dissolve
oxides that settle on the metal surfaces during the heating process. Although
corrosive, zinc chloride is the most common soldering flux. Rosin is non-
corrosive, but it does not have the cleaning properties of zinc chloride. A blow
torch or soldering iron constitutes the equipment for heating the base metals and
melting the solder and the flux.

Hard soldering: It employs solders which melt at higher temperatures and are
stronger than those used in soft soldering. Silver soldering is a hard soldering
method, and silver alloyed with tin is used as solder. The temperatures of the various
hard solders vary from about 600 to 900°C. The fluxes are mostly in paste form and are
applied to the joint with a brush before heating. In hard soldering, a blow torch
constitutes the equipment.
 steps in hand soldering
o Parts to be soldered must be thoroughly cleaned.
o The flux is applied on the surfaces to be joined.
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o The joint is then heated to the melting temperature of the solder by soldering
iron.
o Solder is applied which melts and flows into the joint.
Advantages of soldering
 Low power is required;
 Low process temperature;
 No thermal distortions and residual stresses in the joint parts;
 Microstructure is not affected by heat;
 Easily automated process;
 Dissimilar materials may be joined;
 High variety of materials may be joined;
 Thin wall parts may be joined;
 Moderate skill of the operator is required.
Disadvantages of soldering
 Careful removal of the flux residuals is required in order to prevent corrosion;
 Large sections cannot be joined;
 Fluxes may contain toxic components;
 Soldering joints can not be used in high temperature applications;
 Low strength of joints.
Brazing
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Brazing is a method of joining two metal work pieces by means of a filler material at a
temperature above its melting point but below the melting point of either of the materials
being joined. Flow of the molten filler material into the gap between the work pieces is
driven by the capillary force. The filler material cools down and solidifies forming a strong
metallurgical joint, which is usually stronger than the parent (work piece) materials. The
parent materials are not fused in the process. Brazing is similar to Soldering. The difference
is in the melting point of the filler alloy: brazing filler materials melt at temperatures above
840°F (450°C); soldering filler materials (solders) melt at temperatures below this point.
The difference between brazing and welding processes is more sufficient: in the welding
processes edges of the work pieces are either fused (with or without a filler metal) or
pressed to each other without any filler material; brazing joins two parts without melting
them but through a fused filler metal.
Brazing methods
 Torch brazing, Furnace brazing, Vacuum brazing, Induction brazing, Resistance
brazing, Dip, Infrared brazing
It is the process to join two metal pieces heated to suitable temperatures by using a filler
metal. Filler metals should have melting point lower than the base metals. During
brazing, the base metals are not melted.
1. The surface to be joined are cleaned and fitted closely together.
2. A flux is applied to all surfaces where the filler metal is to flow.
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3. After that joint is heated to the proper brazing temperature. Solid filler metal may
be pre placed on the metal pieces and thus melted as the metal pieces are heated,
or it may be applied to the metal pieces after the brazing temperature is reached.
Butt joint, seam joint, lap joint, pipe joint and edge joint are obtained from
the brazing process.
Fluxes: Compositions of borates, fluorides, chlorides, borax, and boric acid are the flux
materials. These are in the form of powder, paste or slurry.
Filler metals: Brass, Bronze, Copper, Silicon and Silver alloys. These are in the form of wire,
strips, performs, powder or paste.
Applications:
Assembly of pipe fittings, Carbide tips to tools, Radiators, heat exchangers, electrical
parts, repair of castings and joining of special materials like stainless steels.
Advantages of brazing
 Low thermal distortions and residual stresses in the joint parts;
 Microstructure is not affected by heat;
 Easily automated process;
 Dissimilar materials may be joined;
 High variety of materials may be joined;
 Thin wall parts may be joined;
 Moderate skill of the operator is required.
Disadvantages of brazing
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 Careful removal of the flux residuals is required in order to prevent corrosion;
 No gas shielding may cause porosity of the joint;
 Large sections cannot be joined;
 Fluxes and filler materials may contain toxic components;
 Relatively expensive filler materials.
Difference between soldering and brazing:

Soldering. Brazing.
1. Process of joining the metals by 1. Process of joining the metals by
melting filler metal only and without melting filler metal only and without
melting of base metal is called as melting of base metal is called as
soldering. The melting point of filler brazing. The melting point of filler
metal is below 450oc. metal is above 450 oc up to 850oc.
2. The filler metal is called as solder. 2. The filler metal is called as spelter.
3. The joint is weak. 3. The joint is strong.
4. Filler material is generally alloy of 4. Filler material is generally alloy of
tin and lead. brass.
5. Used for mounting electronic 5. used for joining pipes, pipe bends,
components on PCB and joining sheet two metals having different melting
metal parts not subjected to high temperatures etc.
temperature and load. etc.
6. Depending on heating method 6. Depending on heating method
soldering processes are classified as brazing processes are classified as
Torch soldering, Furnace soldering, Dip Torch brazing, Furnace brazing,
soldering, Wave soldering etc. Resistance brazing, Diffusion brazing
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etc.
7. Zinc chloride is most common 7. Borax is most common brazing flux.
soldering flux.
87

Automobile Manufacturing Process (17403) : Chapter 1. Forging

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Automobile Manufacturing Process (17403) : Chapter 1. Forging

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AUTOMOBILE MANUFACTURING PROCESS (17403)

1.5 Advantages of forging:

Fig. 1.1 Open Die Forging Processes

Fig. 1.2 a Pair of Fullers and Swages

Fig. 1.3 Close Die Forging

Board being raised Raised board held a proper height

Fig. 1.5 Machine Forging

2. Straight lip fluted tongs:

 Hammer heads are made of cast steel &

1.14 Forging die design:

Fig. 1.7 Examples Of Defects In Forged Parts

Fig 1.8 Forging Sequence for Gear Blank

 After heating or upsetting, stock is forged in first impression die.

 Stock is forged in next impression die or blocking die.

 Then the finished part is trimmed in blanking die.

Fig. 1.9 Forging Sequence for Connecting Rod

Fig 1.10 Practical Forging Process for Connecting Rod

 General shape is given in first blocking die.

 VI. Heat treatment and machining is done as per requirement.

III. Crank shaft :

 After preliminary roll forging, the stock is again roll forged

 This stock is then forged on first impression / block dies

 Final shape is given to the forging in next blocking dies

 Then finished part is trimmed in blanking die

 Metal is redistributed, increasing the cross section at certain places

 General shape is given in first blocking die

 Then finished part is trimmed in blanking die

 After preliminary roll forging, the stock is again roll forged

 This stock is then forged on first impression / block dies

 Then finished part is trimmed in blanking die

Chapter 2. Press and Press Work

G. According To The Method Of Transmission Of Power From Motor To

4. Double Geared 5. Multiple Geared

Fig. 2.3 Power Press

Fig. 2.12 Open End Press

Fig. 2.13 Crank Press Fig. 2.14 Eccentric Press

Fig. 2.15 Cam Driven Press Fig. 2.16 Toggle Press

Fig. 2.17 Screw Press Fig. 2.18 Knuckle Press

Fig. 2.21 Blanking Operation Fig. 2.22 Perforating Operation

Fig. 2.23 Piercing Operation Fig. 2.24 Punching Operation

Fig. 2.25 Shearing Operation Fig. 2.26 Notching Operation

Fig. 2.27 Trimming Operation Fig. 2.28 Shaving Operation

Fig. 2.29 Slitting Operation Fig. 2.30 Lancing Operation

Fig. 2.31 Angle Bending Operation Fig. 2.32 Curling Operation

Fig. 2.33 Cupping Operation Fig. 2.34 Bulging operation

Fig. 2.35 Drawing operation Fig. 2.36 Coining operation

Fig. 2.39 Cutting Die Terminology

Fig. Button Stop Fig. Pilots

Fig. Strippers Fig. Knockout

Fig. Pressure Pad

Fig. 2.40 Compound Dies

Fig. 2.41 Combination Dies

Fig. 2.42 Progressive Die

2.29 Difference between Blanking And Punching:

2.31 press working operations with example of each:

Chapter 3. Welding Processes

 Oxyacetylene Welding (OAW):

 Advantages of Gas Welding