Red-Black Tree - Wikipedia

9/17/2018 Red–black tree - Wikipedia
Red–black tree
A red–black tree is a kind of self-balancing binary search tree in
Red–black tree
computer science. Each node of the binary tree has an extra bit, and that bit
is often interpreted as the color (red or black) of the node. These color bits Type tree
are used to ensure the tree remains approximately balanced during Invented 1972
insertions and deletions.[2] Invented by Rudolf Bayer
Balance is preserved by painting each node of the tree with one of two Time complexity in big O notation
colors in a way that satisfies certain properties, which collectively constrain Algorithm Average Worst
how unbalanced the tree can become in the worst case. When the tree is case
modified, the new tree is subsequently rearranged and repainted to restore
Space O(n) O(n)
the coloring properties. The properties are designed in such a way that this
rearranging and recoloring can be performed efficiently.
Search O(log n)[1] O(log n)[1]
Insert O(log n)[1] O(log n)[1]
The balancing of the tree is not perfect, but it is good enough to allow it to
Delete O(log n)[1] O(log n)[1]
guarantee searching in O(log n) time, where n is the total number of
elements in the tree. The insertion and deletion operations, along with the
tree rearrangement and recoloring, are also performed in O(log n) time.[3]
Tracking the color of each node requires only 1 bit of information per node because there are only two colors. The tree
does not contain any other data specific to its being a red–black tree so its memory footprint is almost identical to a classic
(uncolored) binary search tree. In many cases, the additional bit of information can be stored at no additional memory
cost.
Contents
History
Terminology
Properties
Analogy to B-trees of order 4
Notes
Applications and related data structures
Operations
Insertion
Removal
Proof of asymptotic bounds
Set operations and bulk operations
Parallel algorithms
Popular culture
See also
References
Further reading
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red%E2%80%93black_tree 1/20
External links
History
In 1972, Rudolf Bayer[4] invented a data structure that was a special order-4 case of a B-tree. These trees maintained all
paths from root to leaf with the same number of nodes, creating perfectly balanced trees. However, they were not binary
search trees. Bayer called them a "symmetric binary B-tree" in his paper and later they became popular as 2-3-4 trees or
just 2-4 trees.[5]
In a 1978 paper, "A Dichromatic Framework for Balanced Trees",[6] Leonidas J. Guibas and Robert Sedgewick derived the
red-black tree from the symmetric binary B-tree.[7] The color "red" was chosen because it was the best-looking color
produced by the color laser printer available to the authors while working at Xerox PARC.[8] Another response from
Guibas states that it was because of the red and black pens available to them to draw the trees.[9]
In 1993, Arne Andersson introduced the idea of right leaning tree to simplify insert and delete operations.[10]
In 1999, Chris Okasaki showed how to make the insert operation purely functional. Its balance function needed to take
care of only 4 unbalanced cases and one default balanced case.[11]
The original algorithm used 8 unbalanced cases, but Cormen et al. (2001) reduced that to 6 unbalanced cases.[2]
Sedgewick showed that the insert operation can be implemented in just 46 lines of Java code.[12][13] In 2008, Sedgewick
proposed the left-leaning red–black tree, leveraging Andersson's idea that simplified algorithms. Sedgewick originally
allowed nodes whose two children are red making his trees more like 2-3-4 trees but later this restriction was added
making new trees more like 2-3 trees. Sedgewick implemented the insert algorithm in just 33 lines, significantly
shortening his original 46 lines of code.[14][15]
Terminology
A red–black tree is a special type of binary tree, used in computer science to organize pieces of comparable data, such as
text fragments or numbers.
The leaf nodes of red–black trees do not contain data. These leaves need not be explicit in computer memory—a null child
pointer can encode the fact that this child is a leaf—but it simplifies some algorithms for operating on red–black trees if
the leaves really are explicit nodes. To save execution time, sometimes a pointer to a single sentinel node (instead of a null
pointer) performs the role of all leaf nodes; all references from internal nodes to leaf nodes then point to the sentinel node.
Red–black trees, like all binary search trees, allow efficient in-order traversal (that is: in the order Left–Root–Right) of
their elements. The search-time results from the traversal from root to leaf, and therefore a balanced tree of n nodes,
having the least possible tree height, results in O(log n) search time.
Properties
In addition to the requirements imposed on a binary search tree the following must be satisfied by a red–black tree:[16]
1. Each node is either red or black.

2. The root is black. This rule is sometimes omitted. Since the root can always be changed from red to black, but not
necessarily vice versa, this rule has little effect on analysis.
3. All leaves (NIL) are black.
4. If a node is red, then both its children are black.
5. Every path from a given

node to any of its
descendant NIL nodes
contains the same number
of black nodes.
Some definitions: the number
of black nodes from the root to
a node is the node's black
depth; the uniform number of
black nodes in all paths from
root to the leaves is called the
black-height of the red–black
tree.[17]
An example of a red
red–black tree
These constraints enforce a
critical property of red–black
trees: the path from the root to the farthest leaf is no more than twice as long as the path from the root to the nearest
leaf. The result is that the tree is roughly height-balanced. Since operations such as inserting, deleting, and finding values
require worst-case time proportional to the height of the tree, this theoretical upper bound on the height allows red–black
trees to be efficient in the worst case, unlike ordinary binary search trees.
To see why this is guaranteed, it suffices to consider the effect of properties 4 and 5 together. For a red–black tree T, let B
be the number of black nodes in property 5. Let the shortest possible path from the root of T to any leaf consist of B black
nodes. Longer possible paths may be constructed by inserting red nodes. However, property 4 makes it impossible to
insert more than one consecutive red node. Therefore, ignoring any black NIL leaves, the longest possible path consists of
2*B nodes, alternating black and red (this is the worst case). Counting the black NIL leaves, the longest possible path
consists of 2*B-1 nodes.
The shortest possible path has all black nodes, and the longest possible path alternates between red and black nodes.
Since all maximal paths have the same number of black nodes, by property 5, this shows that no path is more than twice
as long as any other path.
Analogy to B-trees of order 4

A red–black tree is similar in
structure to a B-tree of
order[note 1] 4, where each node
can contain between 1 and 3
values and (accordingly)
between 2 and 4 child pointers.
In such a B-tree, each node will
contain only one value
matching the value in a black
node of the red–black tree, The same red–black
red tree as in the example above, seen as a B-tree.
with an optional value before
and/or after it in the same
node, both matching an equivalent red node of the red–black tree.
One way to see this equivalence is to "move up" the red nodes in a graphical representation of the red–black tree, so that
they align horizontally with their parent black node, by creating together a horizontal cluster. In the B-tree, or in the
modified graphical representation of the red–black tree, all leaf nodes are at the same depth.
The red–black tree is then structurally equivalent to a B-tree of order 4, with a minimum fill factor of 33% of values per
cluster with a maximum capacity of 3 values.
This B-tree type is still more general than a red–black tree though, as it allows ambiguity in a red–black tree conversion—
multiple red–black trees can be produced from an equivalent B-tree of order 4. If a B-tree cluster contains only 1 value, it
is the minimum, black, and has two child pointers. If a cluster contains 3 values, then the central value will be black and
each value stored on its sides will be red. If the cluster contains two values, however, either one can become the black node
in the red–black tree (and the other one will be red).
So the order-4 B-tree does not maintain which of the values contained in each cluster is the root black tree for the whole
cluster and the parent of the other values in the same cluster. Despite this, the operations on red–black trees are more
economical in time because you don't have to maintain the vector of values.[18] It may be costly if values are stored directly
in each node rather than being stored by reference. B-tree nodes, however, are more economical in space because you
don't need to store the color attribute for each node. Instead, you have to know which slot in the cluster vector is used. If
values are stored by reference, e.g. objects, null references can be used and so the cluster can be represented by a vector
containing 3 slots for value pointers plus 4 slots for child references in the tree. In that case, the B-tree can be more
compact in memory, improving data locality.
The same analogy can be made with B-trees with larger orders that can be structurally equivalent to a colored binary tree:
you just need more colors. Suppose that you add blue, then the blue–red–black tree defined like red–black trees but with
the additional constraint that no two successive nodes in the hierarchy will be blue and all blue nodes will be children of a
red node, then it becomes equivalent to a B-tree whose clusters will have at most 7 values in the following colors: blue, red,
blue, black, blue, red, blue (For each cluster, there will be at most 1 black node, 2 red nodes, and 4 blue nodes).
For moderate volumes of values, insertions and deletions in a colored binary tree are faster compared to B-trees because
colored trees don't attempt to maximize the fill factor of each horizontal cluster of nodes (only the minimum fill factor is
guaranteed in colored binary trees, limiting the number of splits or junctions of clusters). B-trees will be faster for
performing rotations (because rotations will frequently occur within the same cluster rather than with multiple separate
nodes in a colored binary tree). For storing large volumes, however, B-trees will be much faster as they will be more
compact by grouping several children in the same cluster where they can be accessed locally.
All optimizations possible in B-trees to increase the average fill factors of clusters are possible in the equivalent
multicolored binary tree. Notably, maximizing the average fill factor in a structurally equivalent B-tree is the same as
reducing the total height of the multicolored tree, by increasing the number of non-black nodes. The worst case occurs
when all nodes in a colored binary tree are black, the best case occurs when only a third of them are black (and the other
two thirds are red nodes).
Notes
1. Using Knuth's definition of order: the maximum number of children
Applications and related data structures
Red–black trees offer worst-case guarantees for insertion time, deletion time, and search time. Not only does this make
them valuable in time-sensitive applications such as real-time applications, but it makes them valuable building blocks in
other data structures which provide worst-case guarantees; for example, many data structures used in computational
geometry can be based on red–black trees, and the Completely Fair Scheduler used in current Linux kernels and epoll
system call implementation[19] uses red–black trees.
The AVL tree is another structure supporting O(log n) search, insertion, and removal. AVL trees can be colored red-black,
thus are a subset of RB trees. Worst-case height is 0.720 times the worst-case height of RB trees, so AVL trees are more
rigidly balanced. The performance measurements of Ben Pfaff with realistic test cases in 79 runs find AVL to RB ratios
between 0.677 and 1.077, median at 0.947, and geometric mean 0.910.[20] Kind of in between are the WAVL trees.
Red–black trees are also particularly valuable in functional programming, where they are one of the most common
persistent data structures, used to construct associative arrays and sets which can retain previous versions after
mutations. The persistent version of red–black trees requires O(log n) space for each insertion or deletion, in addition to
time.
For every 2-4 tree, there are corresponding red–black trees with data elements in the same order. The insertion and
deletion operations on 2-4 trees are also equivalent to color-flipping and rotations in red–black trees. This makes 2-4 trees
an important tool for understanding the logic behind red–black trees, and this is why many introductory algorithm texts
introduce 2-4 trees just before red–black trees, even though 2-4 trees are not often used in practice.
In 2008, Sedgewick introduced a simpler version of the red–black tree called the left-leaning red–black tree[21] by
eliminating a previously unspecified degree of freedom in the implementation. The LLRB maintains an additional
invariant that all red links must lean left except during inserts and deletes. Red–black trees can be made isometric to
either 2-3 trees,[22] or 2-4 trees,[21] for any sequence of operations. The 2-4 tree isometry was described in 1978 by
Sedgewick. With 2-4 trees, the isometry is resolved by a "color flip," corresponding to a split, in which the red color of two
children nodes leaves the children and moves to the parent node.
The original description of the tango tree, a type of tree optimized for fast searches, specifically uses red–black trees as
part of its data structure.[23]
In the version 8 of Java, the Collection HashMap has been modified such that instead of using a LinkedList to store
different elements with colliding hashcodes, a Red-Black tree is used. This results in the improvement of time complexity
of searching such an element from O(n) to O(log n).[24]
Operations
Read-only operations on a red–black tree require no modification from those used for binary search trees, because every
red–black tree is a special case of a simple binary search tree. However, the immediate result of an insertion or removal
may violate the properties of a red–black tree. Restoring the red–black properties requires a small number (O(log n) or
amortized O(1)) of color changes (which are very quick in practice) and no more than three tree rotations (two for
insertion). Although insert and delete operations are complicated, their times remain O(log n).
If the example implementation below is not suitable, there are a couple other implementations with explanations found in
Ben Pfaff's annotated C library GNU libavl (http://adtinfo.org/) (currently v2.0.2) and Eternally Confuzzled's tutorial on
red-black trees (http://eternallyconfuzzled.com/tuts/datastructures/jsw_tut_rbtree.aspx).
The details of the insert and removal operations will be demonstrated with example C code. The example code may call
upon the helper functions below to find the parent, sibling, uncle and grandparent nodes and to rotate a node left or right:
struct node* parent(struct node* n) {

return n->parent; // NULL for root node
}
struct node* grandparent(struct node* n) {

struct node* p = parent(n);
if (p == NULL)
return NULL; // No parent means no grandparent
return parent(p); // NULL if parent is root
}
struct node* sibling(struct node* n) {

if (p == NULL)
return NULL; // No parent means no sibling
if (n == p->left)
return p->right;
else
return p->left;
}
struct node* uncle(struct node* n) {

struct node* g = grandparent(n);
if (g == NULL)
return NULL; // No grandparent means no uncle
return sibling(p);
}
void rotate_left(struct node* n) {

struct node* nnew = n->right;
assert(nnew != LEAF); // since the leaves of a red-black
red tree are empty, they cannot become internal nodes
n->right = nnew->left;
nnew->left = n;
n->parent = nnew;
// handle other child/parent pointers
if (n->right != NULL)
n->right->parent = n;
if (p != NULL) // initially n could be the root
{
if (n == p->left)
p->left = nnew;
else if (n == p->right) // if (...) is excessive
p->right = nnew;
nnew->parent = p;
}
}
void rotate_right(struct node* n) {

struct node* nnew = n->left;
assert(nnew != LEAF); // since the leaves of a red-black
red tree are empty, they cannot become internal nodes
n->left = nnew->right;
nnew->right = n;
n->parent = nnew;
// handle other child/parent pointers
if (n->left != NULL)
n->left->parent = n;
if (p != NULL) // initially n could be the root
{
if (n == p->left)
p->left = nnew;
else if (n == p->right) // if (...) is excessive
p->right = nnew;
nnew->parent = p;
}
}
Diagram notes
1. The label N will be used to denote the current node in each case. At the beginning, this is the insertion node or the
replacement node and a leaf, but the entire procedure may also be applied recursively to other nodes (see case 3).
2. P will denote N's parent node, G will denote N's grandparent, S will denote N's sibling, and U will denote N's uncle
(i.e., the sibling of a node's parent, as in human family trees).
3. In between some cases, the roles and labels of the nodes are shifted, but within each case, every label continues to
represent the same node throughout.
4. In the diagrams a blue border rings the current node N in the left (current) half and rings the node that will become N
in the right (target) half. In the next step, the other nodes will be newly assigned relative to it.
5. Red or black shown in the diagram is either assumed in its case or implied by those assumptions. White represents
either red or black, but is the same in both halves of the diagram.
6. A numbered triangle represents a subtree of unspecified depth. A black circle atop a triangle means that black-height
of that subtree is greater by one compared to a subtree without this circle.
Insertion
Insertion begins by adding the node in a very similar manner as a standard binary search tree insertion and by coloring it
red. The big difference is that in the binary search tree a new node is added as a leaf, whereas leaves contain no
information in the red–black tree, so instead the new node replaces an existing leaf and then has two black leaves of its
own added.
struct node *insert(struct node* root, struct node* n) {

// insert new node into the current tree
insert_recurse(root, n);
// repair the tree in case any of the red

red-black properties have been violated
insert_repair_tree(n);
// find the new root to return

root = n;
while (parent(root) != NULL)
root = parent(root);
return root;
}
void insert_recurse(struct node* root, struct node* n) {

// recursively descend the tree until a leaf is found
if (root != NULL && n->key < root->key) {
if (root->left != LEAF) {
insert_recurse(root->left, n);
return;
}
else
root->left = n;
} else if (root != NULL) {
if (root->right != LEAF){
insert_recurse(root->right, n);
return;
}
else
root->right = n;
}
// insert new node n

n->parent = root;
n->left = LEAF;
n->right = LEAF;
n->color = RED;
}
What happens next depends on the color of other nearby nodes. There are several cases of red–black tree insertion to
handle:
1. N is the root node, i.e., first node of red–black tree
2. N's parent (P) is black

3. P is red (so it can't be the root of the tree) and N's uncle (U) is red
4. P is red and U is black
void insert_repair_tree(struct node* n) {

if (parent(n) == NULL) {
insert_case1(n);
} else if (parent(n)->color == BLACK) {
insert_case2(n);
} else if (uncle(n)->color == RED) {
insert_case3(n);
} else {
insert_case4(n);
}
}
Note that:
Property 1 (every node is either red or black) and Property 3 (all leaves are black) always holds.
Property 2 (the root is black) is checked and corrected with case 1.
Property 4 (red nodes have only black children) is threatened only by adding a red node, repainting a node from black
to red, or a rotation.
Property 5 (all paths from any given node to its leaves have the same number of black nodes) is threatened only by
adding a black node, repainting a node, or a rotation.
Case 1: The current node N is at the root of the tree. In this case, it is repainted black to satisfy property 2 (the root is
black). Since this adds one black node to every path at once, property 5 (all paths from any given node to its leaf nodes
contain the same number of black nodes) is not violated.
void insert_case1(struct node* n)

{
if (parent(n) == NULL)
n->color = BLACK;
}
Case 2: The current node's parent P is black, so property 4 (both children of every red node are black) is not invalidated.
In this case, the tree is still valid. Property 5 (all paths from any given node to its leaf nodes contain the same number of
black nodes) is not threatened, because the current node N has two black leaf children, but because N is red, the paths
through each of its children have the same number of black nodes as the path through the leaf it replaced, which was
black, and so this property remains satisfied.

{
return; /* Do nothing since tree is still valid */
}
Note: In the following cases it can be assumed that N has a grandparent node G, because its
parent P is red, and if it were the root, it would be black. Thus, N also has an uncle node U,
although it may be a leaf in case 4.
Note: In the remaining cases, it is shown in the diagram that the parent node P is the left child of
its parent even though it is possible for P to be on either side. The code samples already cover
both possibilities.
Case 3: If both the parent P and the uncle U are

red, then both of them can be repainted black and
the grandparent G becomes red to maintain
property 5 (all paths from any given node to its leaf
nodes contain the same number of black nodes).
Since any path through the parent or uncle must
pass through the grandparent, the number of black nodes on these paths has not changed. However, the grandparent G
may now violate Property 2 (The root is black) if it is the root or Property 4 (Both children of every red node are black) if it
has a red parent. To fix this, the tree's red-black repair procedure is rerun on G.
Note that this is a tail-recursive call, so it could be rewritten as a loop. Since this is the only loop, and any rotations occur
after this loop, this proves that a constant number of rotations occur.

{
parent(n)->color = BLACK;
uncle(n)->color = BLACK;
grandparent(n)->color = RED;
insert_repair_tree(grandparent(n));
}
Case 4, step 1: The parent P is red but the uncle U

is black. The ultimate goal will be to rotate the
current node into the grandparent position, but this
will not work if the current node is on the "inside" of
the subtree under G (i.e., if N is the left child of the
right child of the grandparent or the right child of the
left child of the grandparent). In this case, a left
rotation on P that switches the roles of the current node N and its parent P can be performed. The rotation causes some
paths (those in the sub-tree labelled "1") to pass through the node N where they did not before. It also causes some
paths (those in the sub-tree labelled "3") not to pass through the node P where they did before. However, both of these
nodes are red, so property 5 (all paths from any given node to its leaf nodes contain the same number of black nodes) is
not violated by the rotation. After this step has been completed, property 4 (both children of every red node are black) is
still violated, but now we can resolve this by continuing to step 2.

{
if (n == g->left->right) {
rotate_left(p);
n = n->left;
} else if (n == g->right->left) {
rotate_right(p);
n = n->right;
}
insert_case4step2(n);
}
Case 4, step 2: The current node N is now certain

to be on the "outside" of the subtree under G (left of
left child or right of right child). In this case, a right
rotation on G is performed; the result is a tree
where the former parent P is now the parent of both
the current node N and the former grandparent G.
G is known to be black, since its former child P could not have been red without violating property 4. Once the colors of P
and G are switched, the resulting tree satisfies property 4 (both children of every red node are black). Property 5 (all
paths from any given node to its leaf nodes contain the same number of black nodes) also remains satisfied, since all
paths that went through any of these three nodes went through G before, and now they all go through P.
void insert_case4step2(struct node* n)

{
if (n == p->left)
rotate_right(g);
else
rotate_left(g);
p->color = BLACK;
g->color = RED;
}
Note that inserting is actually in-place, since all the calls above use tail recursion.
In the algorithm above, all cases are called only once, except in Case 3 where it can recurse back to Case 1 with the
grandparent node, which is the only case where an iterative implementation will effectively loop. Because the problem of
repair in that case is escalated two levels higher each time, it takes maximally h⁄2 iterations to repair the tree (where h is
the height of the tree). Because the probability for escalation decreases exponentially with each iteration the average
insertion cost is practically constant.
Removal
In a regular binary search tree when deleting a node with two non-leaf children, we find either the maximum element in
its left subtree (which is the in-order predecessor) or the minimum element in its right subtree (which is the in-order
successor) and move its value into the node being deleted (as shown here). We then delete the node we copied the value
from, which must have fewer than two non-leaf children. (Non-leaf children, rather than all children, are specified here
because unlike normal binary search trees, red–black trees can have leaf nodes anywhere, so that all nodes are either
internal nodes with two children or leaf nodes with, by definition, zero children. In effect, internal nodes having two leaf
children in a red–black tree are like the leaf nodes in a regular binary search tree.) Because merely copying a value does
not violate any red–black properties, this reduces to the problem of deleting a node with at most one non-leaf child. Once
we have solved that problem, the solution applies equally to the case where the node we originally want to delete has at
most one non-leaf child as to the case just considered where it has two non-leaf children.
Therefore, for the remainder of this discussion we address the deletion of a node with at most one non-leaf child. We use
the label M to denote the node to be deleted; C will denote a selected child of M, which we will also call "its child". If M
does have a non-leaf child, call that its child, C; otherwise, choose either leaf as its child, C.
If M is a red node, we simply replace it with its child C, which must be black by property 4. (This can only occur when M
has two leaf children, because if the red node M had a black non-leaf child on one side but just a leaf child on the other
side, then the count of black nodes on both sides would be different, thus the tree would violate property 5.) All paths
through the deleted node will simply pass through one fewer red node, and both the deleted node's parent and child must
be black, so property 3 (all leaves are black) and property 4 (both children of every red node are black) still hold.
Another simple case is when M is black and C is red. Simply removing a black node could break Properties 4 (“Both
children of every red node are black”) and 5 (“All paths from any given node to its leaf nodes contain the same number of
black nodes”), but if we repaint C black, both of these properties are preserved.
The complex case is when both M and C are black. (This can only occur when deleting a black node which has two leaf
children, because if the black node M had a black non-leaf child on one side but just a leaf child on the other side, then the
count of black nodes on both sides would be different, thus the tree would have been an invalid red–black tree by violation
of property 5.) We begin by replacing M with its child C. We will relabel this child C (in its new position) N, and its sibling
(its new parent's other child) S. (S was previously the sibling of M.) In the diagrams below, we will also use P for N's new
parent (M's old parent), SL for S's left child, and SR for S's right child (S cannot be a leaf because if M and C were black,
then P's one subtree which included M counted two black-height and thus P's other subtree which includes S must also
count two black-height, which cannot be the case if S is a leaf node).
Note: In order for the tree to remain well-defined, we need every null leaf to remain a leaf after
all transformations (that it will not have any children). If the node we are deleting has a non-leaf
(non-null) child N, it is easy to see that the property is satisfied. If, on the other hand, N would
be a null leaf, it can be verified from the diagrams (or code) for all the cases that the property is
satisfied as well.
We can perform the steps outlined above with the following code, where the function replace_node substitutes child
into n's place in the tree. For convenience, code in this section will assume that null leaves are represented by actual node
objects rather than NULL (the code in the Insertion section works with either representation).
void replace_node(struct node* n, struct node* child){

child->parent = n->parent;
if (n == n->parent->left)
n->parent->left = child;
else
n->parent->right = child;
}
void delete_one_child(struct node* n)

{
/*
* Precondition: n has at most one non-leaf child.
*/
struct node* child = is_leaf(n->right) ? n->left : n->right;
replace_node(n, child);
if (n->color == BLACK) {
if (child->color == RED)
child->color = BLACK;
else
delete_case1(child);
}
free(n);
}
Note: If N is a null leaf and we do not want to represent null leaves as actual node objects, we
can modify the algorithm by first calling delete_case1() on its parent (the node that we delete, n
in the code above) and deleting it afterwards. We do this if the parent is black (red is trivial), so
it behaves in the same way as a null leaf (and is sometimes called a 'phantom' leaf). And we
can safely delete it at the end as n will remain a leaf after all operations, as shown above. In
addition, the sibling tests in cases 2 and 3 require updating as it is no longer true that the sibling
will have children represented as objects.
If both N and its original parent are black, then deleting this original parent causes paths which proceed through N to
have one fewer black node than paths that do not. As this violates property 5 (all paths from any given node to its leaf
nodes contain the same number of black nodes), the tree must be rebalanced. There are several cases to consider:
Case 1: N is the new root. In this case, we are done. We removed one black node from every path, and the new root is
black, so the properties are preserved.
void delete_case1(struct node* n)

{
if (n->parent != NULL)
delete_case2(n);
}
Note: In cases 2, 5, and 6, we assume N is the left child of its parent P. If it is the right child, left
and right should be reversed throughout these three cases. Again, the code examples take both
cases into account.
Case 2: S is red. In this case we reverse the colors of P and

S, and then rotate left at P, turning S into N's grandparent.
Note that P has to be black as it had a red child. The resulting
subtree has a path short one black node so we are not done.
Now N has a black sibling and a red parent, so we can
proceed to step 4, 5, or 6. (Its new sibling is black because it
was once the child of the red S.) In later cases, we will relabel
N's new sibling as S.

{
struct node* s = sibling(n);
if (s->color == RED) {
n->parent->color = RED;
s->color = BLACK;
if (n == n->parent->left)
rotate_left(n->parent);
else
rotate_right(n->parent);
}
delete_case3(n);
}
Case 3: P, S, and S's children are black. In this case, we

simply repaint S red. The result is that all paths passing
through S, which are precisely those paths not passing
through N, have one less black node. Because deleting N's
original parent made all paths passing through N have one
less black node, this evens things up. However, all paths
through P now have one fewer black node than paths that do not pass through P, so property 5 (all paths from any given
node to its leaf nodes contain the same number of black nodes) is still violated. To correct this, we perform the
rebalancing procedure on P, starting at case 1.

{
if ((n->parent->color == BLACK) &&

(s->color == BLACK) &&
(s->left->color == BLACK) &&
(s->right->color == BLACK)) {
s->color = RED;
delete_case1(n->parent);
} else
delete_case4(n);
}
Case 4: S and S's children are black, but P is red. In this

case, we simply exchange the colors of S and P. This does
not affect the number of black nodes on paths going through
S, but it does add one to the number of black nodes on paths
going through N, making up for the deleted black node on
those paths.

{
if ((n->parent->color == RED) &&

(s->color == BLACK) &&
(s->right->color == BLACK)) {
s->color = RED;
n->parent->color = BLACK;
} else
delete_case5(n);
}
Case 5: S is black, S's left child is red, S's right child is black, and N is the left
child of its parent. In this case we rotate right at S, so that S's left child
becomes S's parent and N's new sibling. We then exchange the colors of S
and its new parent. All paths still have the same number of black nodes, but
now N has a black sibling whose right child is red, so we fall into case 6.
Neither N nor its parent are affected by this transformation. (Again, for case 6,
we relabel N's new sibling as S.)

{
if (s->color == BLACK) { /* this if statement is trivial,

due to case 2 (even though case 2 changed the sibling to a sibling's child,
the sibling's child can't be red,
red since no red parent can have a red child). */
/* the following statements just force the red to be on the left of the left of the parent,
or right of the right, so case six will rotate correctly. */
if ((n == n->parent->left) &&
(s->right->color == BLACK) &&
(s->left->color == RED)) { /* this last test is trivial too due to cases 2-4. */
s->color = RED;
s->left->color = BLACK;
rotate_right(s);
} else if ((n == n->parent->right) &&
(s->right->color == RED)) {/* this last test is trivial too due to cases 2-4. */
s->color = RED;
s->right->color = BLACK;
rotate_left(s);
}
}
delete_case6(n);
}
Case 6: S is black, S's right child is red, and N is the left child
of its parent P. In this case we rotate left at P, so that S
becomes the parent of P and S's right child. We then
exchange the colors of P and S, and make S's right child
black. The subtree still has the same color at its root, so
Properties 4 (Both children of every red node are black) and 5
(All paths from any given node to its leaf nodes contain the
same number of black nodes) are not violated. However, N now has one additional black ancestor: either P has become
black, or it was black and S was added as a black grandparent. Thus, the paths passing through N pass through one
additional black node.
Meanwhile, if a path does not go through N, then there are two possibilities:
1. It goes through N's new sibling SL, a node with arbitrary color and the root of the subtree labeled
3 (s. diagram). Then, it must go through S and P, both formerly and currently, as they have only
exchanged colors and places. Thus the path contains the same number of black nodes.
2. It goes through N's new uncle, S's right child. Then, it formerly went through S, S's parent, and
S's right child SR (which was red), but now only goes through S, which has assumed the color of
its former parent, and S's right child, which has changed from red to black (assuming S's color:
black). The net effect is that this path goes through the same number of black nodes.
Either way, the number of black nodes on these paths does not change. Thus, we have restored Properties 4 (Both
children of every red node are black) and 5 (All paths from any given node to its leaf nodes contain the same number of
black nodes). The white node in the diagram can be either red or black, but must refer to the same color both before and
after the transformation.

{
s->color = n->parent->color;
n->parent->color = BLACK;
if (n == n->parent->left) {
s->right->color = BLACK;
rotate_left(n->parent);
} else {
s->left->color = BLACK;
rotate_right(n->parent);
}
}
Again, the function calls all use tail recursion, so the algorithm is in-place.
In the algorithm above, all cases are chained in order, except in delete case 3 where it can recurse to case 1 back to the
parent node: this is the only case where an iterative implementation will effectively loop. No more than h loops back to
case 1 will occur (where h is the height of the tree). And because the probability for escalation decreases exponentially with
each iteration the average removal cost is constant.
Additionally, no tail recursion ever occurs on a child node, so the tail recursion loop can only move from a child back to its
successive ancestors. If a rotation occurs in case 2 (which is the only possibility of rotation within the loop of cases 1–3),
then the parent of the node N becomes red after the rotation and we will exit the loop. Therefore, at most one rotation will
occur within this loop. Since no more than two additional rotations will occur after exiting the loop, at most three rotations
occur in total.
Mehlhorn & Sanders (2008) point out: "AVL trees do not support constant amortized deletion costs", but red-black trees
do.[25]
Proof of asymptotic bounds

A red black tree which contains n internal nodes has a height of O(log n).
Definitions:
h(v) = height of subtree rooted at node v

bh(v) = the number of black nodes from v to any leaf in the subtree, not counting v if it is black - called the black-
height
Lemma: A subtree rooted at node v has at least internal nodes.
Proof of Lemma (by induction height):
Basis: h(v) = 0
If v has a height of zero then it must be null, therefore bh(v) = 0. So:
Inductive Step: v such that h(v) = k, has at least internal nodes implies that such that h( ) = k+1 has at least
internal nodes.
Since has h( ) > 0 it is an internal node. As such it has two children each of which have a black-height of either bh( )
or bh( )-1 (depending on whether the child is red or black, respectively). By the inductive hypothesis each child has at
least internal nodes, so has at least:
internal nodes.
Using this lemma we can now show that the height of the tree is logarithmic. Since at least half of the nodes on any path
from the root to a leaf are black (property 4 of a red–black tree), the black-height of the root is at least h(root)/2. By the
lemma we get:
Therefore, the height of the root is O(log n).
Set operations and bulk operations

In addition to the single-element insert, delete and lookup operations, several set operations have been defined on red-
black trees: union, intersection and set difference. Then fast bulk operations on insertions or deletions can be
implemented based on these set functions. These set operations rely on two helper operations, Split and Join. With the
new operations, the implementation of red-black trees can be more efficient and highly-parallelizable.[26] This
implementation allows a red root.
Join: The function Join is on two red-black trees t1 and t2 and a key k and will return a tree containing all elements in
t1, t2 as well as k. It requires k to be greater than all keys in t1 and smaller than all keys in t2. If the two trees have the
same black height, Join simply create a new node with left subtree t1, root k and right subtree t2. If both t1 and t2
have black root, set k to be red. Otherwise k is set black. Suppose that t1 has larger black height than t2 (the other
case is symmetric). Join follows the right spine of t1 until a black node c which is balanced with t2. At this point a new
node with left child c, root k (set to be red) and right child t2 is created to replace c. The new node may invalidate the
red-black invariant because at most three red nodes can appear in a row. This can be fixed with a double rotation. If
double red issue propagates to the root, the root is then set to be black, restoring the properties. The cost of this
function is the difference of the black heights between the two input trees.
Split: To split a red-black tree into two smaller trees, those smaller than key x, and those larger than key x, first draw a
path from the root by inserting x into the red-black tree. After this insertion, all values less than x will be found on the
left of the path, and all values greater than x will be found on the right. By applying Join, all the subtrees on the left
side are merged bottom-up using keys on the path as intermediate nodes from bottom to top to form the left tree, and
the right part is asymmetric. For some applications, Split also returns a boolean value denoting if x appears in the
tree. The cost of Split is , order of the height of the tree. This algorithm actually has nothing to do with any
special properties of a red-black tree, and thus is generic to other balancing schemes such as AVL trees.
The join algorithm is as follows:
function joinRightRB(TL, k, TR)

if r(TL)=⌊r(TL)/2⌋×2:
return Node(TL,⟨k,red⟩,TR)
else
(L',⟨k',c'⟩,R')=expose(TL)
T'=Node(L',⟨k',c'⟩,joinRightRB(R',k,TR)
if (c'=black) and (T'.right.color=T'.right.right.color=red):
T'.right.right.color=black;
return rotateLeft(T')
else return T'
function joinLeftRB(TL, k, TR)
/* symmetric to joinRightRB */
function join(TL, k, TR)
if ⌊r(TL)/2⌋>⌊r(TR)/2⌋×2:
T'=joinRightRB(TL,k,TR)
if (T'.color=red) and (T'.right.color=red):
T'.color=black
return T'
else if ⌊r(TL)/2⌋>⌊r(TL)/2⌋×2
/* symmetric */
else if (TL.color=black) and (TR=black)
Node(TL,⟨k,red⟩,TR)
else
Node(TL,⟨k,black⟩,TR)
Here of a node means twice the black height of a black node, and the twice the black height of a red node.
expose(v)=(l,⟨k,c⟩,r) means to extract a tree node 's left child , the key of the node , the color of the node and the right
child . Node(l,⟨k,c⟩,r) means to create a node of left child , key , color and right child .
The split algorithm is as follows:
function split(T,k)
if (T=nil) return (nil,false,nil)
(L,(m,c),R)=expose(T)
if (k=m) return (L,true,R)
if (k<m)
(L',b,R')=split(L,k)
return (L',b,join(R',m,R))
if (k>m)
(L',b,R')=split(R,k)
return (join(L,m,L'),b,R))
The union of two red-black trees t1 and t2 representing sets A and B, is a red-black tree t that represents A ∪ B. The
following recursive function computes this union:
function union(t1, t2):

if t1 = nil:
return t2
if t2 = nil:
return t1
t<, t> ← split t2 on t1.root
return join(t1.root, union(left(t1), t<), union(right(t1), t>))
Here, Split is presumed to return two trees: one holding the keys less its input key, one holding the greater keys. (The
algorithm is non-destructive, but an in-place destructive version exists as well.)
The algorithm for intersection or difference is similar, but requires the Join2 helper routine that is the same as Join but
without the middle key. Based on the new functions for union, intersection or difference, either one key or multiple keys
can be inserted to or deleted from the red-black tree. Since Split calls Join but does not deal with the balancing criteria of
red-black trees directly, such an implementation is usually called the "join-based" implementation.
The complexity of each of union, intersection and difference is for two red-black trees of sizes
and . This complexity is optimal in terms of the number of comparisons. More importantly, since the recursive
calls to union, intersection or difference are independent of each other, they can be executed in parallel with a parallel
depth .[26] When , the join-based implementation has the same computational directed acyclic graph
(DAG) as single-element insertion and deletion if the root of the larger tree is used to split the smaller tree.
Parallel algorithms
Parallel algorithms for constructing red–black trees from sorted lists of items can run in constant time or O(log log n)
time, depending on the computer model, if the number of processors available is asymptotically proportional to the
number n of items where n→∞. Fast search, insertion, and deletion parallel algorithms are also known.[27]
The join-based algorithms for red-black trees are parallel for bulk operations, including union, intersection, construction,
filter, map-reduce, and so on.
Popular culture
A red-black-tree was referenced correctly in an episode of Missing (Canadian TV series)[28] as noted by Robert Sedgewick
in one of his lectures:[29]
Jess: "It was the red door again."

Pollock: "I thought the red door was the storage container."
Jess: "But it wasn't red anymore, it was black."
Antonio: "So red turning to black means what?"
Pollock: "Budget deficits, red ink, black ink."
Antonio: "It could be from a binary search tree. The red-black tree tracks every simple path from a node to a descendant
leaf that has the same number of black nodes."
Jess: "Does that help you with the ladies?"
See also
List of data structures
Tree data structure
Tree rotation
AA tree, a variation of the red-black tree
AVL tree
B-tree (2-3 tree, 2-3-4 tree, B+ tree, B*-tree, UB-tree)
Scapegoat tree
Splay tree
T-tree
WAVL tree
References
1. James Paton. "Red-Black Trees" (http://pages.cs.wisc.edu/~paton/readings/Red-Black-Trees/).
2. Cormen, Thomas H.; Leiserson, Charles E.; Rivest, Ronald L.; Stein, Clifford (2001). "Red–Black
Red Trees". Introduction
to Algorithms (second ed.). MIT Press. pp. 273–301. ISBN 0-262-03293-7.
3. John Morris. "Red–Black Trees" (http://www.cs.auckland.ac.nz/~jmor159/PLDS210/red_black.html).
4. Rudolf Bayer (1972). "Symmetric binary B-Trees: Data structure and maintenance algorithms" (http://www.springerlin
k.com/content/qh51m2014673513j/). Acta Informatica. 1 (4): 290–306. doi:10.1007/BF00289509 (https://doi.org/10.10
07/BF00289509).
5. Drozdek, Adam. Data Structures and Algorithms in Java (2 ed.). Sams Publishing. p. 323. ISBN 0534376681.
6. Leonidas J. Guibas and Robert Sedgewick (1978). "A Dichromatic Framework for Balanced Trees" (http://doi.ieeecom
putersociety.org/10.1109/SFCS.1978.3). Proceedings of the 19th Annual Symposium on Foundations of Computer
Science. pp. 8–21. doi:10.1109/SFCS.1978.3 (https://doi.org/10.1109/SFCS.1978.3).
7. "Red Black Trees" (http://eternallyconfuzzled.com/tuts/datastructures/jsw_tut_rbtree.aspx). eternallyconfuzzled.com.
Retrieved 2015-09-02.
8. Robert Sedgewick (2012). Red-Black BSTs (https://www.coursera.org/learn/algorithms-graphs-data-structures/lecture/
8acpe/red-black-trees). Coursera. "A lot of people ask why did we use the name red red–black. Well, we invented this
data structure, this way of looking at balanced trees, at Xerox PARC which was the home of the personal computer
and many other innovations that we live with today entering[sic] graphic user interfaces, ethernet and object-oriented
programmings[sic] and many other things. But one of the things that was invented there was laser printing and we
were very excited to have nearby color laser printer that could print things out in color and out of the colors the red
looked the best. So, that’s why we picked the color red to distinguish red links, the types of links, in three nodes. So,
that’s an answer to the question for people that have been asking."
9. "Where does the term "Red/Black Tree" come from?" (http://programmers.stackexchange.com/a/116621/40127).

programmers.stackexchange.com. Retrieved 2015-09-02.
10. Andersson, Arne (1993-08-11). Dehne, Frank; Sack, Jörg-Rüdiger; Santoro, Nicola; Whitesides, Sue, eds. "Balanced
search trees made simple" (http://user.it.uu.se/~arnea/ps/simp.pdf) (PDF). Algorithms and Data Structures
(Proceedings). Lecture Notes in Computer Science. Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg. 709: 60–71. doi:10.1007/3-
540-57155-8_236 (https://doi.org/10.1007/3-540-57155-8_236). ISBN 978-3-540-57155-1. Archived from the original
(https://www.springer.com/la/book/9783540571551) on 2000-03-17.
11. Okasaki, Chris (1999-01-01). "Red-black trees in a functional setting" (http://www.eecs.usma.edu/webs/people/okasa
ki/jfp99.ps) (PS). Journal of Functional Programming. 9 (4): 471–477. doi:10.1017/S0956796899003494 (https://doi.or
g/10.1017/S0956796899003494). ISSN 1469-7653 (https://www.worldcat.org/issn/1469-7653).
12. Sedgewick, Robert (1983). Algorithms (1st ed.). Addison-Wesley. ISBN 0-201-06672-6.
13. Sedgewick, Robert; Wayne, Kevin. "RedBlackBST.java" (http://algs4.cs.princeton.edu/code/edu/princeton/cs/algs4/Re
dBlackBST.java.html). algs4.cs.princeton.edu. Retrieved 7 April 2018.
14. Sedgewick, Robert (2008). "Left-leaning Red-Black Trees" (http://www.cs.princeton.edu/~rs/talks/LLRB/LLRB.pdf)
(PDF).
15. Sedgewick, Robert; Wayne, Kevin (2011). Algorithms (http://algs4.cs.princeton.edu) (4th ed.). Addison-Wesley
Professional. ISBN 978-0-321-57351-3.
16. Cormen, Thomas; Leiserson, Charles; Rivest, Ronald; Stein, Clifford (2009). "13". Introduction to Algorithms (3rd ed.).
MIT Press. pp. 308–309. ISBN 978-0-262-03384-8.
17. Mehlhorn, Kurt; Sanders, Peter (2008). Algorithms and Data Structures: The Basic Toolbox (http://people.mpi-inf.mpg.
de/~mehlhorn/ftp/Toolbox/SortedSequences.pdf) (PDF). Springer, Berlin/Heidelberg. pp. 154–165. doi:10.1007/978-3-
540-77978-0 (https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-540-77978-0). ISBN 978-3-540-77977-3. p. 155.
18. Sedgewick, Robert (1998). Algorithms in C++. Addison-Wesley Professional. pp. 565–575. ISBN 978-0201350883.
19. https://idndx.com/2014/09/01/the-implementation-of-epoll-1/
20. Pfaff 2004
21. http://www.cs.princeton.edu/~rs/talks/LLRB/RedBlack.pdf
22. http://www.cs.princeton.edu/courses/archive/fall08/cos226/lectures/10BalancedTrees-2x2.pdf
23. Demaine, E. D.; Harmon, D.; Iacono, J.; Pătraşcu, M. (2007). "Dynamic Optimality—Almost" (http://erikdemaine.org/p
apers/Tango_SICOMP/paper.pdf) (PDF). SIAM Journal on Computing. 37 (1): 240. doi:10.1137/S0097539705447347
(https://doi.org/10.1137/S0097539705447347).
24. "How does a HashMap work in JAVA" (http://coding-geek.com/how-does-a-hashmap-work-in-java/#JAVA_8_improve
ments). coding-geek.com.
25. Mehlhorn & Sanders 2008, pp. 165, 158
26. Blelloch, Guy E.; Ferizovic, Daniel; Sun, Yihan (2016), "Just Join for Parallel Ordered
red Sets", Symposium on Parallel
Algorithms and Architectures, Proc. of 28th ACM Symp. Parallel Algorithms and Architectures (SPAA 2016) (https://ar
xiv.org/pdf/1602.02120), ACM, pp. 253–264, doi:10.1145/2935764.2935768 (https://doi.org/10.1145/2935764.293576
8), ISBN 978-1-4503-4210-0.
27. Park, Heejin; Park, Kunsoo (2001). "Parallel algorithms for red–black trees" (http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/arti
cle/pii/S0304397500002875). Theoretical computer science. Elsevier. 262 (1–2): 415–435. doi:10.1016/S0304-
3975(00)00287-5 (https://doi.org/10.1016/S0304-3975%2800%2900287-5). "Our parallel algorithm for constructing a
red–black tree from a sorted list of n items runs in O(1) time with n processors on the CRCW PRAM and runs in
red
O(log log n) time with n / log log n processors on the EREW PRAM."
28. Missing (Canadian TV series). A, W Network (Canada); Lifetime (United States).
29. Robert Sedgewick (2012). B-Trees (https://www.coursera.org/learn/introduction-to-algorithms/lecture/HIlHd/b-trees-op
tional). Coursera. 10:37 minutes in. "So not only is there some excitement in that dialogue but it's also technically
correct which you don't often find with math in popular culture of computer science. A red black tree tracks every
simple path from a node to a descendant leaf with the same number of black nodes they got that right."
Further reading
Mathworld: Red–Black Tree (http://mathworld.wolfram.com/Red-BlackTree.html)
San Diego State University: CS 660: Red–Black tree notes (http://www.eli.sdsu.edu/courses/fall95/cs660/notes/RedBl
ackTree/RedBlack.html#RTFToC2), by Roger Whitney
Pfaff, Ben (June 2004). "Performance Analysis of BSTs in System Software" (http://www.stanford.edu/~blp/papers/liba
vl.pdf) (PDF). Stanford University.
External links
A complete and working implementation in C (https://web.archive.org/web/20140328232325/http://en.literateprogram
s.org/Red-black_tree_(C))
Red–Black Tree Demonstration (http://www.ece.uc.edu/~franco/C321/html/RedBlack/redblack.html)
OCW MIT Lecture by Prof. (http://ocw.mit.edu/courses/electrical-engineering-and-computer-science/6-046j-introductio
n-to-algorithms-sma-5503-fall-2005/video-lectures/lecture-10-red-black-trees-rotations-insertions-deletions/)Erik
Demaine on Red Black Trees -
Binary Search Tree Insertion Visualization (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_VbTnLV8plU) on YouTube –
Visualization of random and pre-sorted data insertions, in elementary binary search trees, and left-leaning red–black
trees
An intrusive red-black tree written in C++ (https://gist.github.com/pallas/10697727)
Red-black BSTs in 3.3 Balanced Search Trees (https://algs4.cs.princeton.edu/33balanced/)
Red–black BST Demo (http://algs4.cs.princeton.edu/lectures/33DemoRedBlackBST.mov)
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9/17/2018 Red–black tree - Wikipedia

1. Each node is either red or black.

5. Every path from a given

Analogy to B-trees of order 4

Applications and related data structures

struct node* parent(struct node* n) {

struct node* grandparent(struct node* n) {

struct node* sibling(struct node* n) {

struct node* uncle(struct node* n) {

void rotate_left(struct node* n) {

void rotate_right(struct node* n) {

struct node *insert(struct node* root, struct node* n) {

// repair the tree in case any of the red

// find the new root to return

void insert_recurse(struct node* root, struct node* n) {

// insert new node n

1. N is the root node, i.e., first node of red–black tree

2. N's parent (P) is black

void insert_repair_tree(struct node* n) {

void insert_case1(struct node* n)

void insert_case2(struct node* n)

Case 3: If both the parent P and the uncle U are

void insert_case3(struct node* n)

Case 4, step 1: The parent P is red but the uncle U

void insert_case4(struct node* n)

Case 4, step 2: The current node N is now certain

void insert_case4step2(struct node* n)

void replace_node(struct node* n, struct node* child){

void delete_one_child(struct node* n)

void delete_case1(struct node* n)

Case 2: S is red. In this case we reverse the colors of P and

void delete_case2(struct node* n)

Case 3: P, S, and S's children are black. In this case, we

void delete_case3(struct node* n)

if ((n->parent->color == BLACK) &&

Case 4: S and S's children are black, but P is red. In this

void delete_case4(struct node* n)

if ((n->parent->color == RED) &&

void delete_case5(struct node* n)

if (s->color == BLACK) { /* this if statement is trivial,

void delete_case6(struct node* n)

Proof of asymptotic bounds

h(v) = height of subtree rooted at node v

Proof of Lemma (by induction height):

If v has a height of zero then it must be null, therefore bh(v) = 0. So:

Therefore, the height of the root is O(log n).

Set operations and bulk operations

function joinRightRB(TL, k, TR)

The split algorithm is as follows:

function union(t1, t2):

Jess: "It was the red door again."

9. "Where does the term "Red/Black Tree" come from?" (http://programmers.stackexchange.com/a/116621/40127).

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Red–black_tree&oldid=859122802"

This page was last edited on 11 September 2018, at 21:23 (UTC).

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