Using Basic Structured Query Language: What Is SQL?

Using Basic Structured Query Language
What is SQL?
SQL (Structured Query Language) is a database computer language designed for managing data
in relational database management systems (RDBMS).
Most Relational Database Management Systems like MS SQL Server, Microsoft Access, Oracle,
MySQL, DB2, Sybase, PostgreSQL and Informix use SQL as a database querying language.
Even though SQL is defined by both ISO and ANSI there are many SQL implementation, which
do not fully comply with those definitions.
SQL, is a standardized computer language that was originally developed by IBM for querying,
altering and defining relational databases, using declarative statements. SQL is relatively simple
language, but it’s also very powerful.
SQL is pronounced SEQUEL. SQL was developed during the early 70’s at IBM.
Categories of SQL Application

What can SQL do?
 SQL can execute queries against a database

 SQL can retrieve data from a database
 SQL can insert records in a database
 SQL can update records in a database
 SQL can delete records from a database
 SQL can create new databases
 SQL can create new tables in a database
 SQL can create stored procedures in a database
 SQL can create views in a database
 SQL can set permissions on tables, procedures, and views
Even if SQL is a standard, many of the database systems that exist today implement their own
version of the SQL language.
Installing DBMS software

DBMS is a Set of programs to access the data or software system designed to store, manage, and
facilitate access to databases.
 Collection of interrelated data

 DMBS contains information about a particular enterprise
 DBMS provides an environment that it both convenient and efficient to use
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Database Applications:
 Banking:- all transactions

 Airlines:- reservations, schedules
 Universities:- registrations. Grade
 Sales:- customers, products, purchase
 Human resource:- employee records, salaries, tax deduction
 Manufacturing: production, Inventory, orders, supply chain
Purpose of Database Systems
Database management systems were developed to handle the following difficulties of typical
file-processing systems supported by conventional operating systems:
 Data redundancy and inconsistency

 Difficulty in accessing data
 Data isolation – multiple files and formats
 Integrity problems
 Atomicity of updates
 Concurrent access by multiple users
 Security problems
There are lots of different database systems, or DBMS- Database Management Systems, such as:
1. Microsoft SQL Server
 Enterprise, Developer versions, etc.

 Express version is free of charge
MS SQL Server is a Relational Database Management System developed by Microsoft Corp. MS

SQL Server is an enterprise level database competing with products like Oracle and DB2. MS
SQL Server cost much less than its comparable competitors products, hence its popularity.
MS SQL Server is a paid database server, but it has a free limited version called MSDE
(Microsoft SQL Server Desktop Engine). MSDE version of MS SQL Server is free for re-
distribution with desktop applications. As we mentioned MSDE has certain restrictions, like:
 The maximum size of a database is 2 GB

 MSDE comes with no administration tools.
 MSDE has has a governor which will slower the db server response once you exceed 5
concurrent connections to it.
MS SQL Server uses SQL as its standard database language. The SQL dialect used by MS SQL
Server is called T-SQL.
The latest MS SQL Server version available on the market is MS SQL Server 2008.
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2. Oracle
Oracle is aObject- relational database management system developed by Oracle Corporation.The

Oracle RDBMS is used in many database applications on sevarl OS platforms, including Unix
and Windows.
 Founding of Oracle
In 1977, Larry Ellison, Bob Miner, and Ed Oates started the consultancy Software Development
Laboratories, which became Relational Software, Inc. (RSI). In 1983, RSI became Oracle
Systems Corporation and then later Oracle Corporation.
 First commercially available RDBMS
In 1979, RSI introduced Oracle V2 (Version 2) as the first commercially available SQL-based
RDBMS, a landmark event in the history of relational databases.
 Objects and partitioning
Oracle8 was released in 1997 as the object-relational database, supporting many new data types.
Additionally, Oracle8 supported partitioning of large tables.
The Oracle database was the first commercial RDBMS that became available on Linux during
the summer of1999. The Oracle datatabase is more expensive compared to MS SQL Server.
 PL/SQL stored program units
PL/SQL short for Procedural Language/Structured Query Language is Oracle's server-based

extension to the SQL language.
 Portable version of Oracle Database
3. MySQL (Oracle, previously Sun Microsystems) –
MySQL can be used free of charge (open source license), MySQL is an open source relational
database management system released under GNU General Public License. The Swedish
company called MySQL AB develops MySQL. This is partly because it is completely free but
also very powerful.
MySQL is most commonly used for Web applications and for embedded applications and has
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become a popular alternative to proprietary database systems because of its speed and reliability.
MySQL can run on UNIX, Windows and Mac OS. MySQL is developed, supported and
marketed by MySQL AB.
4. Microsoft Access
it’s one of the most popular Microsoft products. MS Access comes with the professional edition
of MS Office package. MS Access is a paid product and runs only on Windows platform.
MS Access has easy to use intuitive graphical interface, which makes it one of the most popular
database software among small business.
5. IBM DB2
DB2 is relational database management system developed by IBM. DB2 is the first database
product that used SQL language. DB2 was first available on the mainframe and later moved to
UNIX, Linux and Windows platforms.
DB2 has the ability to handle millions of transactions and huge sets of data. DB2 is very scalable
and can handle serious workloads.DB2’s main competitor is Oracle. DB2 is a low cost
alternative to MS SQL Server and Oracle databases. DB2 is usually administered through multi-
platform java client GUI.
SQL Command
SQL defines following data languages to manipulate data of RDBMS.
DDL : Data Definition Language
All DDL commands are auto-committed. That means it saves all the changes permanently in the
database.
Command Description
create to create new table or database
alter for alteration
truncate delete data from table
drop to drop a table
rename to rename a table
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DML : Data Manipulation Language
DML commands are not auto-committed. It means changes are not permanent to database, they
can be rolled back.
Command Description
insert to insert a new row
update to update existing row
delete to delete a row
merge merging two rows or two tables
TCL : Transaction Control Language
These commands are to keep a check on other commands and their affect on the database. These
commands can annul changes made by other commands by rolling back to original state. It can
also make changes permanent.
Command Description
commit to permanently save
rollback to undo change
savepoint to save temporarily
DCL : Data Control Language
Data control language provides command to grant and take back authority.
Command Description
grant grant permission of right
revoke take back permission.
DQL : Data Query Language
Command Description
select retrieve records from one or more table
Create command
create is a DDL command used to create a table or a database.
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Creating a Database
To create a database in RDBMS, create command is uses. Following is the Syntax,
create database database-name;
Example for Creating Database
create database Test;
The above command will create a database named Test.
Creating a Table
create command is also used to create a table. We can specify names and datatypes of various
columns along.Following is the Syntax,
create table table-name

{
column-name1 datatype1,
column-name4 datatype4
};
create table command will tell the database system to create a new table with given table name
and column information.
Example for creating Table
create table Student(id int, name varchar, age int);
The above command will create a new table Student in database system with 3 columns, namely
id, name and age.
alter command
alter command is used for alteration of table structures. There are various uses of alter
command, such as,
 to add a column to existing table

 to rename any existing column
 to change datatype of any column or to modify its size.
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 alter is also used to drop a column.
To Add Column to existing Table
Using alter command we can add a column to an existing table. Following is the Syntax,
alter table table-name add(column-name datatype);
Here is an Example for this,
alter table Student add(address char);
The above command will add a new column address to the Student table
To Add Multiple Column to existing Table
Using alter command we can even add multiple columns to an existing table. Following is the
Syntax,
alter table table-name add(column-name1 datatype1, column-name2 datatype2,

column-name3 datatype3);
alter table Student add(father-name varchar(60), mother-name varchar(60), dob

date);
The above command will add three new columns to the Student table
To Add column with Default Value
alter command can add a new column to an existing table with default values. Following is the
Syntax,
alter table table-name add(column-name1 datatype1 default data);
alter table Student add(dob date default '1-Jan-99');
The above command will add a new column with default value to the Student table
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To Modify an existing Column
alter command is used to modify data type of an existing column . Following is the Syntax,
alter table table-name modify(column-name datatype);
alter table Student modify(address varchar(30));
The above command will modify address column of the Student table
To Rename a column
Using alter command you can rename an existing column. Following is the Syntax,
alter table table-name rename old-column-name to column-name;
alter table Student rename address to Location;
The above command will rename address column to Location.
To Drop a Column
alter command is also used to drop columns also. Following is the Syntax,
alter table table-name drop(column-name);
alter table Student drop(address);
The above command will drop address column from the Student table
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SQL queries to Truncate, Drop or Rename a Table
truncate command
truncate command removes all records from a table. But this command will not destroy the
table's structure. When we apply truncate command on a table its Primary key is initialized.
Following is its Syntax,
truncate table table-name
Here is an Example explaining it.
truncate table Student;
The above query will delete all the records of Student table.
truncate command is different from delete command. delete command will delete all the rows
from a table whereas truncate command re-initializes a table(like a newly created table).
For eg. If you have a table with 10 rows and an auto_increment primary key, if you use delete
command to delete all the rows, it will delete all the rows, but will not initialize the primary key,
hence if you will insert any row after using delete command, the auto_increment primary key
will start from 11. But in case of truncate command, primary key is re-initialized.
drop command
drop query completely removes a table from database. This command will also destroy the table
structure. Following is its Syntax,
drop table table-name
drop table Student;
The above query will delete the Student table completely. It can also be used on Databases. For
Example, to drop a database,
drop database Test;
The above query will drop a database named Test from the system.
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rename query
rename command is used to rename a table. Following is its Syntax,
rename table old-table-name to new-table-name
rename table Student to Student-record;
The above query will rename Student table to Student-record.
DML command
Data Manipulation Language (DML) statements are used for managing data in database. DML
commands are not auto-committed. It means changes made by DML command are not
permanent to database, it can be rolled back.
1) INSERT command
Insert command is used to insert data into a table. Following is its general syntax,
INSERT into table-name values(data1,data2,..)
Let’s see an example,
Consider a table Student with following fields.
S_id S_Name age

INSERT into Student values(101,'Adam',15);
The above command will insert a record into Student table.
S_id S_Name age

101 Adam 15
Example to Insert NULL value to a column
Both the statements below will insert NULL value into age column of the Student table.
INSERT into Student(id,name) values(102,'Alex');
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Or,
INSERT into Student values(102,'Alex',null);
The above command will insert only two column value other column is set to null.
S_id S_Name age

101 Adam 15
102 Alex
Example to Insert Default value to a column
INSERT into Student values(103,'Chris',default)

S_id S_Name age
101 Adam 15
102 Alex
103 chris 14
Suppose the age column of student table has default value of 14.
Also, if you run the below query, it will insert default value into the age column, whatever the
default value may be.
INSERT into Student values(103,'Chris')
2) UPDATE command
Update command is used to update a row of a table. Following is its general syntax,
UPDATE table-name set column-name = value where condition;
Lets see an example,
update Student set age=18 where s_id=102;

S_id S_Name age
101 Adam 15
102 Alex 18
103 chris 14
Example to Update multiple columns
UPDATE Student set s_name='Abhi',age=17 where s_id=103;
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The above command will update two columns of a record.
S_id S_Name age

101 Adam 15
102 Alex 18
103 Abhi 17
3) Delete command
Delete command is used to delete data from a table. Delete command can also be used with
condition to delete a particular row. Following is its general syntax,
DELETE from table-name;
Example to Delete all Records from a Table
DELETE from Student;
The above command will delete all the records from Student table.
Example to Delete a particular Record from a Table
Consider the following Student table
S_id S_Name age

101 Adam 15
102 Alex 18
103 Abhi 17
DELETE from Student where s_id=103;
The above command will delete the record where s_id is 103 from Student table.
S_id S_Name age

101 Adam 15
102 Alex 18
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TCL command
Transaction Control Language(TCL) commands are used to manage transactions in

database.These are used to manage the changes made by DML statements. It also allows
statements to be grouped together into logical transactions.
Commit command
Commit command is used to permanently save any transaaction into database.
Following is Commit command's syntax,
commit;
Rollback command
This command restores the database to last commited state. It is also use with savepoint
command to jump to a savepoint in a transaction.
Following is Rollback command's syntax,
rollback to savepoint-name;
Savepoint command
savepoint command is used to temporarily save a transaction so that you can rollback to that
point whenever necessary.
Following is savepoint command's syntax,
savepoint savepoint-name;
Example of Savepoint and Rollback
Following is the class table,
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ID NAME
1 abhi
2 adam
4 alex
Lets use some SQL queries on the above table and see the results.
INSERT into class values(5,'Rahul');

commit;
UPDATE class set name='abhijit' where id='5';
savepoint A;
INSERT into class values(6,'Chris');
savepoint B;
INSERT into class values(7,'Bravo');
savepoint C;
SELECT * from class;
The resultant table will look like,
ID NAME
1 abhi
2 adam
4 alex
5 abhijit
6 chris
7 bravo
Now rollback to savepoint B
rollback to B;
The resultant table will look like
ID NAME
1 abhi
2 adam
4 alex
5 abhijit
6 chris
Now rollback to savepoint A
rollback to A;
The result table will look like
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ID NAME
1 abhi
2 adam
4 alex
5 abhijit
DCL command
Data Control Language(DCL) is used to control privilege in Database. To perform any operation
in the database, such as for creating tables, sequences or views we need privileges. Privileges are
of two types,
 System : creating session, table etc are all types of system privilege.
 Object : any command or query to work on tables comes under object privilege.
DCL defines two commands,
 Grant : Gives user access privileges to database.

 Revoke : Take back permissions from user.
To Allow a User to create Session
grant create session to username;
To Allow a User to create Table
grant create table to username;
To provide User with some Space on Tablespace to store Table
alter user username quota unlimited on system;
To Grant all privilege to a User
grant sysdba to username
To Grant permission to Create any Table
grant create any table to username
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To Grant permission to Drop any Table
grant drop any table to username
To take back Permissions
revoke create table from username
WHERE clause
Where clause is used to specify condition while retriving data from table. Where clause is used
mostly with Select, Update and Delete query. If condititon specified by where clause is true then
only the result from table is returned.
Syntax for WHERE clause
SELECT column-name1,
column-name2,
column-name3,
column-nameN
from table-name WHERE [condition];
Example using WHERE clause
Consider a Student table,
s_id s_Name age address

101 Adam 15 Noida
102 Alex 18 Delhi
103 Abhi 17 Rohtak
104 Ankit 22 Panipat
Now we will use a SELECT statement to display data of the table, based on a condition, which
we will add to the SELECT query using WHERE clause.
SELECT s_id,
s_name,
age,
address
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from Student WHERE s_id=101;
s_id s_Name age address
101 Adam 15 Noida
SELECT Query
Select query is used to retrieve data from a tables. It is the most used SQL query. We can retrieve
complete tables, or partial by mentioning conditions using WHERE clause.
Syntax of SELECT Query
SELECT column-name1, column-name2, column-name3, column-nameN from table-

name;
Example for SELECT Query
Conside the following Student table,
S_id S_Name age address

101 Adam 15 Noida
102 Alex 18 Delhi
103 Abhi 17 Rohtak
SELECT s_id, s_name, age from Student.
The above query will fetch information of s_id, s_name and age column from Student table
S_id S_Name age

101 Adam 15
102 Alex 18
103 Abhi 17
104 Ankit 22
Example to Select all Records from Table
A special character asterisk * is used to address all the data(belonging to all columns) in a query.
SELECT statement uses * character to retrieve all records from a table.
SELECT * from student;
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The above query will show all the records of Student table, that means it will show complete
Student table as result.
S_id S_Name age address

101 Adam 15 Noida
102 Alex 18 Delhi
103 Abhi 17 Rohtak
Example to Select particular Record based on Condition
SELECT * from Student WHERE s_name = 'Abhi';

103 Abhi 17 Rohtak
Example to Perform Simple Calculations using Select Query
Conside the following Employee table.
eid Name age salary

101 Adam 26 5000
102 Ricky 42 8000
103 Abhi 22 10000
104 Rohan 35 5000
SELECT eid, name, salary+3000 from Employee;
The above command will display a new column in the result, showing 3000 added into existing
salaries of the employees.
eid Name salary+3000

101 Adam 8000
102 Ricky 11000
103 Abhi 13000
104 Rohan 8000
Like clause
Like clause is used as condition in SQL query. Like clause compares data with an expression
using wildcard operators. It is used to find similar data from the table.
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Wildcard operators
There are two wildcard operators that are used in like clause.
 Percent sign % : represents zero, one or more than one character.

 Underscore sign _ : represents only one character.
Example of LIKE clause
Consider the following Student table.
s_id s_Name age

101 Adam 15
102 Alex 18
103 Abhi 17
SELECT * from Student where s_name like 'A%';
The above query will return all records where s_name starts with character 'A'.
s_id s_Name age

101 Adam 15
102 Alex 18
103 Abhi 17
Example
SELECT * from Student where s_name like '_d%';
The above query will return all records from Student table where s_name contain 'd' as second
character.
s_id s_Name age

101 Adam 15
Example
SELECT * from Student where s_name like '%x';
The above query will return all records from Student table where s_name contain 'x' as last
character.
s_id s_Name age
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102 Alex 18
Order By Clause
Order by clause is used with Select statement for arranging retrieved data in sorted order. The
Order by clause by default sort data in ascending order. To sort data in descending order DESC
keyword is used with Order by clause.
Syntax of Order By
SELECT column-list|* from table-name order by asc|desc;
Example using Order by
Consider the following Emp table,
eid name age salary

401 Anu 22 9000
402 Shane 29 8000
403 Rohan 34 6000
404 Scott 44 10000
405 Tiger 35 8000
SELECT * from Emp order by salary;
The above query will return result in ascending order of the salary.
eid name age salary

403 Rohan 34 6000
402 Shane 29 8000
405 Tiger 35 8000
401 Anu 22 9000
404 Scott 44 10000
Example of Order by DESC
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Consider the Emp table described above,
SELECT * from Emp order by salary DESC;
The above query will return result in descending order of the salary.
eid name age salary

404 Scott 44 10000
401 Anu 22 9000
405 Tiger 35 8000
402 Shane 29 8000
403 Rohan 34 6000
Group By Clause
Group by clause is used to group the results of a SELECT query based on one or more columns.
It is also used with SQL functions to group the result from one or more tables.
Syntax for using Group by in a statement.
SELECT column_name, function(column_name)

FROM table_name
WHERE condition
GROUP BY column_name
Example of Group by in a Statement
Consider the following Emp table.
eid name age salary

401 Anu 22 9000
402 Shane 29 8000
403 Rohan 34 6000
404 Scott 44 9000
405 Tiger 35 8000
Here we want to find name and age of employees grouped by their salaries
SQL query for the above requirement will be,
SELECT name, age
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from Emp group by salary
Result will be,
name age
Rohan 34
shane 29
anu 22
Example of Group by in a Statement with WHERE clause
Consider the following Emp table
eid name age salary

401 Anu 22 9000
402 Shane 29 8000
403 Rohan 34 6000
404 Scott 44 9000
405 Tiger 35 8000
SQL query will be,
select name, salary

from Emp
where age > 25
group by salary
Result will be.
name salary
Rohan 6000
Shane 8000
Scott 9000
You must remember that Group By clause will always come at the end, just like the Order by
clause
HAVING Clause
having clause is used with SQL Queries to give more precise condition for a statement. It is used
to mention condition in Group based SQL functions, just like WHERE clause.
Syntax for having will be,
select column_name, function(column_name)

FROM table_name
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WHERE column_name condition
GROUP BY column_name
HAVING function(column_name) condition
Example of HAVING Statement
Consider the following Sale table.
oid order_name previous_balance customer

11 ord1 2000 Alex
12 ord2 1000 Adam
13 ord3 2000 Abhi
14 ord4 1000 Adam
15 ord5 2000 Alex
Suppose we want to find the customer whose previous_balance sum is more than 3000.
We will use the below SQL query,
SELECT *
from sale group customer
having sum(previous_balance) > 3000
Result will be,

11 ord1 2000 Alex
Distinct keyword
The distinct keyword is used with Select statement to retrieve unique values from the table.
Distinct removes all the duplicate records while retrieving from database.
Syntax for DISTINCT Keyword
SELECT distinct column-name from table-name;
Example
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Consider the following Emp table.
eid name age salary

401 Anu 22 5000
402 Shane 29 8000
403 Rohan 34 10000
404 Scott 44 10000
405 Tiger 35 8000
select distinct salary from Emp;
The above query will return only the unique salary from Emp table
salary
5000
8000
10000
AND & OR operator
AND and OR operators are used with Where clause to make more precise conditions for
fetching data from database by combining more than one condition together.
AND operator
AND operator is used to set multiple conditions with Where clause.
Example of AND
eid name age salary

401 Anu 22 5000
402 Shane 29 8000
403 Rohan 34 12000
404 Scott 44 10000
405 Tiger 35 9000
SELECT * from Emp WHERE salary < 10000 AND age > 25
The above query will return records where salary is less than 10000 and age greater than 25.
eid name age salary

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402 Shane 29 8000
405 Tiger 35 9000
OR operator
OR operator is also used to combine multiple conditions with Where clause. The only difference
between AND and OR is their behaviour. When we use AND to combine two or more than two
conditions, records satisfying all the condition will be in the result. But in case of OR, atleast one
condition from the conditions specified must be satisfied by any record to be in the result.
Example of OR
eid name age salary

401 Anu 22 5000
402 Shane 29 8000
403 Rohan 34 12000
404 Scott 44 10000
405 Tiger 35 9000
SELECT * from Emp WHERE salary > 10000 OR age > 25
The above query will return records where either salary is greater than 10000 or age greater than
25.
402 Shane 29 8000

403 Rohan 34 12000
404 Scott 44 10000
405 Tiger 35 9000
SQL Constraints
SQL Constraints are rules used to limit the type of data that can go into a table, to maintain the
accuracy and integrity of the data inside table.
Constraints can be divided into following two types,
 Column level constraints : limits only column data

 Table level constraints : limits whole table data
Constraints are used to make sure that the integrity of data is maintained in the database.
Following are the most used constraints that can be applied to a table.
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 NOT NULL
 UNIQUE
 PRIMARY KEY
 FOREIGN KEY
 CHECK
 DEFAULT
NOT NULL Constraint
NOT NULL constraint restricts a column from having a NULL value. Once NOT NULL
constraint is applied to a column, you cannot pass a null value to that column. It enforces a
column to contain a proper value. One important point to note about NOT NULL constraint is
that it cannot be defined at table level.
Example using NOT NULL constraint
CREATE table Student(s_id int NOT NULL, Name varchar(60), Age int);
The above query will declare that the s_id field of Student table will not take NULL value.
UNIQUE Constraint
UNIQUE constraint ensures that a field or column will only have unique values. A UNIQUE
constraint field will not have duplicate data. UNIQUE constraint can be applied at column level
or table level.
Example using UNIQUE constraint when creating a Table (Table Level)
CREATE table Student(s_id int NOT NULL UNIQUE, Name varchar(60), Age int);
The above query will declare that the s_id field of Student table will only have unique values
and wont take NULL value.
Example using UNIQUE constraint after Table is created (Column Level)
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ALTER table Student add UNIQUE(s_id);
The above query specifies that s_id field of Student table will only have unique value.
Primary Key Constraint
Primary key constraint uniquely identifies each record in a database. A Primary Key must
contain unique value and it must not contain null value. Usually Primary Key is used to index the
data inside the table.
Example using PRIMARY KEY constraint at Table Level
CREATE table Student (s_id int PRIMARY KEY, Name varchar(60) NOT NULL, Age
int);
The above command will creates a PRIMARY KEY on the s_id.
Example using PRIMARY KEY constraint at Column Level
ALTER table Student add PRIMARY KEY (s_id);
The above command will creates a PRIMARY KEY on the s_id.
Foreign Key Constraint
FOREIGN KEY is used to relate two tables. FOREIGN KEY constraint is also used to restrict
actions that would destroy links between tables. To understand FOREIGN KEY, let's see it using
two table.
Customer_Detail Table :
c_id Customer_Name address

101 Adam Noida
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102 Alex Delhi
103 Stuart Rohtak
Order_Detail Table :
Order_id Order_Name c_id

10 Order1 101
11 Order2 103
12 Order3 102
In Customer_Detail table, c_id is the primary key which is set as foreign key in Order_Detail
table. The value that is entered in c_id which is set as foreign key in Order_Detail table must be
present in Customer_Detail table where it is set as primary key. This prevents invalid data to be
inserted into c_id column of Order_Detail table.
Example using FOREIGN KEY constraint at Table Level
CREATE table Order_Detail(order_id int PRIMARY KEY,

order_name varchar(60) NOT NULL,
c_id int FOREIGN KEY REFERENCES Customer_Detail(c_id));
In this query, c_id in table Order_Detail is made as foriegn key, which is a reference of c_id
column of Customer_Detail.
Example using FOREIGN KEY constraint at Column Level
ALTER table Order_Detail add FOREIGN KEY (c_id) REFERENCES

Customer_Detail(c_id);
Behaviour of Foriegn Key Column on Delete
There are two ways to maintin the integrity of data in Child table, when a particular record is
deleted in main table. When two tables are connected with Foriegn key, and certain data in the
main table is deleted, for which record exit in child table too, then we must have some
mechanism to save the integrity of data in child table.
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 On Delete Cascade : This will remove the record from child table, if that value of
foriegn key is deleted from the main table.
 On Delete Null : This will set all the values in that record of child table as NULL, for
which the value of foriegn key is deleted from the main table.
 If we don't use any of the above, then we cannot delete data from the main table for
which data in child table exists. We will get an error if we try to do so.
ERROR : Record in child table exist
CHECK Constraint
CHECK constraint is used to restrict the value of a column between a range. It performs check
on the values, before storing them into the database. Its like condition checking before saving
data into a column.
Example using CHECK constraint at Table Level
create table Student(s_id int NOT NULL CHECK(s_id > 0),

Name varchar(60) NOT NULL,
Age int);
The above query will restrict the s_id value to be greater than zero.
Example using CHECK constraint at Column Level
ALTER table Student add CHECK(s_id > 0);
29 | P a g e
SQL Functions
SQL provides many built-in functions to perform operations on data. These functions are useful
while performing mathematical calculations, string concatenations, sub-strings etc. SQL
functions are divided into two catagories,
 Aggregrate Functions
 Scalar Functions
Aggregrate Functions
These functions return a single value after calculating from a group of values.Following are
some frequently used Aggregrate functions.
1) AVG()
Average returns average value after calculating from values in a numeric column.
Its general Syntax is,
SELECT AVG(column_name) from table_name
Example using AVG()
30 | P a g e
Consider following Emp table
eid name age salary

401 Anu 22 9000
402 Shane 29 8000
403 Rohan 34 6000
404 Scott 44 10000
405 Tiger 35 8000
SQL query to find average of salary will be,
SELECT avg(salary) from Emp;
Result of the above query will be,
avg(salary)
8200
2) COUNT()
Count returns the number of rows present in the table either based on some condition or without
condition.
Its general Syntax is,
SELECT COUNT(column_name) from table-name
Example using COUNT()
eid name age salary

401 Anu 22 9000
402 Shane 29 8000
403 Rohan 34 6000
404 Scott 44 10000
405 Tiger 35 8000
SQL query to count employees, satisfying specified condition is,
31 | P a g e
SELECT COUNT(name) from Emp where salary = 8000;
count(name)
2
Example of COUNT(distinct)
eid name age salary

401 Anu 22 9000
402 Shane 29 8000
403 Rohan 34 6000
404 Scott 44 10000
405 Tiger 35 8000
SQL query is,
SELECT COUNT(distinct salary) from emp;
count(distinct salary)
4
3) MAX()
MAX function returns maximum value from selected column of the table.
Syntax of MAX function is,
SELECT MAX(column_name) from table-name
Example of MAX()
eid name age salary

401 Anu 22 9000
402 Shane 29 8000
403 Rohan 34 6000
404 Scott 44 10000
32 | P a g e
405 Tiger 35 8000
SQL query to find Maximum salary is,
SELECT MAX(salary) from emp;
MAX(salary)
10000
4) MIN()
MIN function returns minimum value from a selected column of the table.
Syntax for MIN function is,
SELECT MIN(column_name) from table-name
Example of MIN()
Consider following Emp table,
eid name age salary

401 Anu 22 9000
402 Shane 29 8000
403 Rohan 34 6000
404 Scott 44 10000
405 Tiger 35 8000
SQL query to find minimum salary is,
SELECT MIN(salary) from emp;
Result will be,
MIN(salary)
6000
33 | P a g e
5) SUM()
SUM function returns total sum of a selected columns numeric values.
Syntax for SUM is,
SELECT SUM(column_name) from table-name
Example of SUM()
eid name age salary

401 Anu 22 9000
402 Shane 29 8000
403 Rohan 34 6000
404 Scott 44 10000
405 Tiger 35 8000
SQL query to find sum of salaries will be,
SELECT SUM(salary) from emp;
Result of above query is,
SUM(salary)
41000
Scalar Functions
Scalar functions return a single value from an input value. Following are soe frequently used
Scalar Functions.
34 | P a g e
Join in SQL
SQL Join is used to fetch data from two or more tables, which is joined to appear as single set of
data. SQL Join is used for combining column from two or more tables by using values common
to both tables. Join Keyword is used in SQL queries for joining two or more tables. Minimum
required condition for joining table, is (n-1) where n, is number of tables. A table can also join to
itself known as, Self Join.
Types of Join
The following are the types of JOIN that we can use in SQL.
 Inner
 Outer
 Left
 Right
Cross JOIN or Cartesian Product
This type of JOIN returns the cartesian product of rows from the tables in Join. It will return a
table which consists of records which combines each row from the first table with each row of
the second table.
Cross JOIN Syntax is,
35 | P a g e
SELECT column-name-list
from table-name1
CROSS JOIN
table-name2;
Example of Cross JOIN
The class table,
ID NAME
1 abhi
2 adam
4 alex
The class_info table,
ID Address
1 DELHI
2 MUMBAI
3 CHENNAI
Cross JOIN query will be,
SELECT *
from class,
cross JOIN class_info;
The result table will look like,
ID NAME ID Address
1 abhi 1 DELHI
2 adam 1 DELHI
4 alex 1 DELHI
1 abhi 2 MUMBAI
2 adam 2 MUMBAI
4 alex 2 MUMBAI
1 abhi 3 CHENNAI
2 adam 3 CHENNAI
4 alex 3 CHENNAI
INNER Join or EQUI Join
36 | P a g e
This is a simple JOIN in which the result is based on matched data as per the equality condition
specified in the query.
Inner Join Syntax is,
from table-name1
INNER JOIN
table-name2
WHERE table-name1.column-name = table-name2.column-name;
Example of Inner JOIN
The class table,
ID NAME
1 abhi
2 adam
3 alex
4 anu
ID Address
1 DELHI
2 MUMBAI
3 CHENNAI
Inner JOIN query will be,
SELECT * from class, class_info where class.id = class_info.id;
ID NAME ID Address
1 abhi 1 DELHI
2 adam 2 MUMBAI
3 alex 3 CHENNAI
37 | P a g e
Natural JOIN
Natural Join is a type of Inner join which is based on column having same name and same
datatype present in both the tables to be joined.
Natural Join Syntax is,
SELECT *
from table-name1
NATURAL JOIN
table-name2;
Example of Natural JOIN
The class table,
ID NAME
1 abhi
2 adam
3 alex
4 anu
ID Address
1 DELHI
2 MUMBAI
3 CHENNAI
Natural join query will be,
SELECT * from class NATURAL JOIN class_info;
ID NAME Address
1 abhi DELHI
2 adam MUMBAI
3 alex CHENNAI
38 | P a g e
In the above example, both the tables being joined have ID column(same name and same
datatype), hence the records for which value of ID matches in both the tables will be the result of
Natural Join of these two tables.
Outer JOIN
Outer Join is based on both matched and unmatched data. Outer Joins subdivide further into,
 Left Outer Join

 Right Outer Join
 Full Outer Join
Left Outer Join
The left outer join returns a result table with the matched data of two tables then remaining
rows of the left table and null for the right table's column.
Left Outer Join syntax is,
from table-name1
LEFT OUTER JOIN
table-name2
on table-name1.column-name = table-name2.column-name;
Left outer Join Syntax for Oracle is,
select column-name-list
from table-name1,
table-name2
on table-name1.column-name = table-name2.column-name(+);
Example of Left Outer Join
The class table,
ID NAME
1 abhi
2 adam
3 alex
4 anu
39 | P a g e
5 ashish
ID Address
1 DELHI
2 MUMBAI
3 CHENNAI
7 NOIDA
8 PANIPAT
Left Outer Join query will be,
SELECT * FROM class LEFT OUTER JOIN class_info ON (class.id=class_info.id);
ID NAME ID Address
1 abhi 1 DELHI
2 adam 2 MUMBAI
3 alex 3 CHENNAI
4 anu null null
5 ashish null null
Right Outer Join
The right outer join returns a result table with the matched data of two tables then remaining
rows of the right table and null for the left table's columns.
Right Outer Join Syntax is,
from table-name1
RIGHT OUTER JOIN
table-name2
Right outer Join Syntax for Oracle is,
40 | P a g e
from table-name1,
table-name2
on table-name1.column-name(+) = table-name2.column-name;
Example of Right Outer Join
The class table,
ID NAME
1 abhi
2 adam
3 alex
4 anu
5 ashish
ID Address
1 DELHI
2 MUMBAI
3 CHENNAI
7 NOIDA
8 PANIPAT
Right Outer Join query will be,
SELECT * FROM class RIGHT OUTER JOIN class_info on (class.id=class_info.id);
ID NAME ID Address
1 abhi 1 DELHI
2 adam 2 MUMBAI
3 alex 3 CHENNAI
null null 7 NOIDA
null null 8 PANIPAT
Full Outer Join
The full outer join returns a result table with the matched data of two table then remaining rows
of both left table and then the right table.
41 | P a g e
Full Outer Join Syntax is,
from table-name1
FULL OUTER JOIN
table-name2
Example of Full outer join is,
The class table,
ID NAME
1 abhi
2 adam
3 alex
4 anu
5 ashish
ID Address
1 DELHI
2 MUMBAI
3 CHENNAI
7 NOIDA
8 PANIPAT
Full Outer Join query will be like,
SELECT * FROM class FULL OUTER JOIN class_info on (class.id=class_info.id);
ID NAME ID Address
1 abhi 1 DELHI
2 adam 2 MUMBAI
3 alex 3 CHENNAI
4 anu null null
5 ashish null null
null null 7 NOIDA
null null 8 PANIPAT
42 | P a g e
Set Operation in SQL
SQL supports few Set operations to be performed on table data. These are used to get meaningful
results from data, under different special conditions.
Union
UNION is used to combine the results of two or more Select statements. However it will
eliminate duplicate rows from its result set. In case of union, number of columns and datatype
must be same in both the tables.
Example of UNION
43 | P a g e
The First table,
ID Name
1 abhi
2 adam
The Second table,
ID Name
2 adam
3 Chester
Union SQL query will be,
select * from First

UNION
select * from second
ID NAME
1 abhi
2 adam
3 Chester
Union All
This operation is similar to Union. But it also shows the duplicate rows.
44 | P a g e
Example of Union All
The First table,
ID NAME
1 abhi
2 adam
The Second table,
ID NAME
2 adam
3 Chester
Union All query will be like,
select * from First

UNION ALL
ID NAME
1 abhi
2 adam
2 adam
3 Chester
Intersect
Intersect operation is used to combine two SELECT statements, but it only retuns the records
which are common from both SELECT statements. In case of Intersect the number of columns
and datatype must be same. MySQL does not support INTERSECT operator.
45 | P a g e
Example of Intersect
The First table,
ID NAME
1 abhi
2 adam
The Second table,
ID NAME
2 adam
3 Chester
Intersect query will be,
select * from First

INTERSECT
The result table will look like
ID NAME
2 adam
Minus
Minus operation combines result of two Select statements and return only those result which
belongs to first set of result. MySQL does not support INTERSECT operator.
46 | P a g e
Example of Minus
The First table,
ID NAME
1 abhi
2 adam
The Second table,
ID NAME
2 adam
3 Chester
Minus query will be,
select * from First

MINUS
ID NAME
1 abhi
SQL View
A view in SQL is a logical subset of data from one or more tables. View is used to restrict data
access.
Syntax for creating a View,
CREATE or REPLACE view view_name AS

SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table_name
WHERE condition
Example of Creating a View
Consider following Sale table,

11 ord1 2000 Alex
47 | P a g e
12 ord2 1000 Adam
13 ord3 2000 Abhi
14 ord4 1000 Adam
15 ord5 2000 Alex
SQL Query to Create View
CREATE or REPLACE view sale_view as select * from Sale where customer =

'Alex';
The data fetched from select statement will be stored in another object called sale_view. We can
use create seperately and replace too but using both together works better.
Example of Displaying a View
Syntax of displaying a view is similar to fetching data from table using Select statement.
SELECT * from sale_view;
Force View Creation
force keyword is used while creating a view. This keyword force to create View even if the table
does not exist. After creating a force View if we create the base table and enter values in it, the
view will be automatically updated.
Syntax for forced View is,
CREATE or REPLACE force view view_name AS

FROM table_name
WHERE condition
Update a View
Update command for view is same as for tables.
Syntax to Update a View is,
UPDATE view-name
set value
WHERE condition;
48 | P a g e
If we update a view it also updates base table data automatically.
Read-Only View
We can create a view with read-only option to restrict access to the view.
Syntax to create a view with Read-Only Access
CREATE or REPLACE force view view_name AS

FROM table_name
WHERE condition with read-only
The above syntax will create view for read-only purpose, we cannot Update or Insert data into
read-only view. It will throw an error.
Types of View
There are two types of view,
 Simple View
 Complex View
Simple View Complex View

Created from one table Created from one or more table
Does not contain functions Contain functions
Does not contain groups of data Contains groups of data
49 | P a g e

Using Basic Structured Query Language: What Is SQL?

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Using Basic Structured Query Language

Categories of SQL Application

 SQL can execute queries against a database

Installing DBMS software

 Collection of interrelated data

 Banking:- all transactions

Purpose of Database Systems

 Data redundancy and inconsistency

1. Microsoft SQL Server

 Enterprise, Developer versions, etc.

MS SQL Server is a Relational Database Management System developed by Microsoft Corp. MS

 The maximum size of a database is 2 GB

Oracle is aObject- relational database management system developed by Oracle Corporation.The

 First commercially available RDBMS

 Objects and partitioning

 PL/SQL stored program units

PL/SQL short for Procedural Language/Structured Query Language is Oracle's server-based

 Portable version of Oracle Database

3. MySQL (Oracle, previously Sun Microsystems) –

SQL defines following data languages to manipulate data of RDBMS.

DDL : Data Definition Language

TCL : Transaction Control Language

DCL : Data Control Language

DQL : Data Query Language

create is a DDL command used to create a table or a database.

To create a database in RDBMS, create command is uses. Following is the Syntax,

create database database-name;

Example for Creating Database

create database Test;

The above command will create a database named Test.

create table table-name

Example for creating Table

create table Student(id int, name varchar, age int);

 to add a column to existing table

To Add Column to existing Table

alter table table-name add(column-name datatype);

Here is an Example for this,

alter table Student add(address char);

To Add Multiple Column to existing Table

alter table table-name add(column-name1 datatype1, column-name2 datatype2,

Here is an Example for this,

alter table Student add(father-name varchar(60), mother-name varchar(60), dob

To Add column with Default Value

alter table table-name add(column-name1 datatype1 default data);

Here is an Example for this,

alter table Student add(dob date default '1-Jan-99');

To Modify an existing Column

alter table table-name modify(column-name datatype);

Here is an Example for this,

alter table Student modify(address varchar(30));

alter table table-name rename old-column-name to column-name;

Here is an Example for this,

alter table Student rename address to Location;

The above command will rename address column to Location.

alter table table-name drop(column-name);

Here is an Example for this,

alter table Student drop(address);

SQL queries to Truncate, Drop or Rename a Table