Ministry of Population and Environment

DEPARTMENT OF ENVIRONMENT (DoEnv)

SahidSukra Marg, Kupondole, Lalitpur
Nepal

Air Quality Management Action Plan for

Kathmandu Valley

Submitted by

Quest Forum Pvt. Ltd.

Koteshwor, Kathmandu, Nepal

June 2017

1
 Acknowledgement

We take this opportunity to thank all those who were instrumental in compiling and
shaping this study report.

Quest Forum Pvt. Ltd. is very much thankful to Department of Environment and
especially Mr. DurgaDwadi, Director General, Mr. Shankar Prasad Paudel, Senior
Chemist, and all Environment Inspectorsfor entrusting us in ―Preparation of Air
Quality Management Action Plan for Kathmandu Valley”. We take this
opportunity also to thank all the Stakeholders for their support in monitoring and
providing required information.

We are also thankful to the members of Steering Committee for providing us

feedback and suggestion. We take this opportunity also to thank all the industries for
their support in monitoring and providing required information.

We take this opportunity also to thank Federation of Nepalese Brick Industries,

Kathmandu Brick Industries Association, Nepal Oil Corporation, Wool Dyeing
Associations, Dairy Association, Department of Road, Kathmandu Valley
Development Authority, Hospitals, Municipalities and Ministry of Health for their
support in the study.

Quest Forum would also like to express its thankfulness to the organizations, experts
and authors of the documents, which have been consulted in the work.

Quest Forum

2017

I
 The Study Team

The following Experts and Staffs were involved in this study:

1. Mr. Chiranjibi Gautam, Team Leader,

2. Dr. Rashila Deshar, Environmental Expert
3. Mr. Dinesh P. Sah, Monitoring Expert
4. Mr. Pankaj Kumar Shah, Electrical Engineer
5. Mr. MukeshGoswami, Mechanical Engineer
6. Mr. Prakash Dhakal, Monitoring Assistant

II
 Abbreviations

APP : Agriculture Perspective Plan

BC : Black Carbon
BTK : Bull‘s Trench Kilns
CBS : Center of Bureau Of Statistics
CEQ : Council On Environmental Quality
CO : Carbon Monoxide
CO2 : Carbon Dioxide
CP : Cleaner Production
DCSI : Department of Cottage and Small Industries
DG : Diesel Generator
EIA : Environmental Impact Assessment
EIS : Environmental Impact Statement
EPA : Environment Protection Act
EPI : Environment Performance Index
EPR : Environment Protection Regulation
ESPS : Environment Sector Program Support
FBTK : Fixed Chimney Bull‘s Trench Kilns
FSMP : Forestry Sector Master Plan
GCV : Gross Calorific Value
IEE : Initial Environmental Examination
LPM : Liter Per Minute
m/s : Meter per Second
m3 : Cubic Meter
mg : Miligram
mg/Nm3 : Milligram per Normal Meter Cube
MOPE : Ministry of Population and Environment
NCS : National Conservation Strategy For Nepal
NEIA : National Environmental Impact Assessment
NEP : National Environmental Policy
NEPA : National Environmental Policy Act
NEPAP : Nepal Environmental Policy And Action Plan
NOx : Oxides Of Nitrogen
o
C : Degree Celcius
PM : Particulate Matters
PM10 : Particulate Matter less than 10 micron
PM2.5 : Particulate Matter less than 2.5 micron
SDC : Swiss Agency For Development And Cooperation
SO2 : Sulphur Dioxide
SOx : Oxides of Sulphur
SPM : Suspended Particulate Matters
VSBK : Vertical Shaft Brick Kiln

III
 Table of Content
Acknowledgement .............................................................................................................. I
The Study Team ................................................................................................................ II
Abbreviations .................................................................................................................. III
Table of Content .............................................................................................................. IV
List of Tables ................................................................................................................... VI
List of Figures ................................................................................................................. VII
Chapter One ....................................................................................................................... 1
1. Introduction of Kathmandu Valley .............................................................................. 1
1.1 Location and Land Use of Kathmandu Valley .................................................... 1
1.2 Kathmandu Valley Population and Projection ..................................................... 2
1.3 Cultural and Religious Importance of Kathmandu Valley .................................. 3
1.4 Socio-Economic Importance of Kathmandu Valley ............................................ 4
1.5 Climate Condition in the Kathmandu Valley....................................................... 4
Chapter Two ....................................................................................................................... 7
Assessment of Ambient Air Quality of Kathmandu Valley ........................................... 7
2.1 Ambient Air Quality Monitoring System in Kathmandu Valley ........................ 7
2.2 Status of Particulate Pollution in the Kathmandu Valley (TSP, PM10, PM2.5,
PM1) .......................................................................................................................... 7
2.3 Assessment of the Level of Particulate Pollution in the Kathmandu Valley .... 13
2.4 Assessment of Gaseous Pollution in Kathmandu Valley .................................. 16
2.5 Impact of Air Pollution in Kathmandu Valley .................................................. 18
Chapter Three .................................................................................................................. 24
Assessment of Sources of Air Pollutants in the Valley ................................................. 24
3.1 Transport Sector ................................................................................................ 24
3.2 Industry Sector .................................................................................................. 29
3.3 Waste Management ............................................................................................ 33
3.4 Domestic Sources............................................................................................... 34
3.5 Agriculture Sector .............................................................................................. 35
3.6 Construction Activities ...................................................................................... 35
3.7 Total Emission Load From Different Sources .................................................. 36
Chapter Four .................................................................................................................... 39
Review of Relevant National Policies/Strategies/Legislations and Administrative
Recommendations: ........................................................................................................... 39
4.1 Environmental Policy and Legislative Framework ........................................... 39

IV
 4.2 Transport Sector Policies and Legislations ....................................................... 41
4.3 Industry Sector Policies and Legislations ......................................................... 46
4.4 Energy Sector Policies and Legislations ........................................................... 47
4.5 Summary of Recommendations of Various Committees .................................. 48
4.6 Summery of Recommendations of Stakeholders Consultation Meetings.......... 59
Chapter Five ..................................................................................................................... 62
An Integrated Urban Air Quality Management Framework ...................................... 62
5.1 Air Quality Management Decision Support System ......................................... 63
5.2 Policies and Legal Framework .......................................................................... 66
5.3 Sectoral Policies ................................................................................................ 66
5.4 Regional and Global AQM................................................................................ 67
5.5 Communication and Public Awareness ............................................................. 67
Chapter Six ....................................................................................................................... 68
Strategies and Action Plan on Air Quality Management of Kathmandu Valley ....... 68
6.1 Strategies on Ambient Urban Air Quality Management ................................. 68
6.2 Action Program on Ambient Air Quality Management of Kathmandu Valley 68
References ......................................................................................................................... 92
Annex 1: Air Quality Management Action Plan for Kathmandu Valley in Nepali ... 93
Annex 2: Stakeholder Consultation meeting and National Workshop ....................... 93

V
 List of Tables

Table Page
Particular
No. No.
1.1 Land use Statistics 2
2.1 National Ambient Air Quality Standard for Nepal 13
WHO Air Quality Guideline Values and Interim Targets for Particulate
2.2 13
Matter (Annual Mean Averages and 24-Hour Average)
2.3 Compliance Status of PM10 with NAAQS of Nepal 15
2.4 Main Pollutants of Concern with Health/Environmental Impacts 18
Mean annual PM2.5, Total deaths from pollution, total welfare losses, and
2.5 23
total forgone labor output, in Nepal in its Neighbors
3.1 Road Networks of Kathmandu Valley 26
3.2 Emissions Load from Transport Sector 28
3.3 Existing brick kiln technologies 29
3.4 Emission Standards and Chimney Height for Brick Kilns in Nepal 30
3.5 Mass emission load of the specific Kilns (kg of SPM/1000 fired bricks) 31
3.6 Emission load and resuspension of dust in different kilns 31
3.7 Boilers Types and Compliance Status with Standard 32
3.8 Emission Load from Industrial Boilers 32
3.9 Estimating of PM load from other industries 33
3.10 Industrial Pollution Load 33
3.11 Contribution of Particulate Pollutants from Domestic Cooking 34
3.12 Emission Load from Construction Activities in Valley 35
3.13 Distribution of DG sets in Valley 35
3.14 Total Emission from Different Sources in Tones per year 36
4.1 Objectives and Targets of National Sustainable Transport Strategy 42
4.2 Strategic Actions of National Sustainable Transport Strategy 43
4.3 Recommendation of task force on Air Pollution Control in Kathmandu valley 49
4.4 Summary of recommendations of stakeholders consultation meeting 59
6.1 A Strategic Framework for Air Quality Management in Kathmandu Valley 69
Clean Air Action Plan for Kathmandu Valley- AQM Decision Support
6.2 78
System
Clean Air Action Plan for Kathmandu Valley-Environmentally Sustainable
6.3 79
Transport System
Clean Air Action Plan for Kathmandu valley- Environment friendly
6.4 84
Construction Activities
Clean Air Action Plan for Kathmandu Valley-Reducing Emissions of
6.5 85
Industries in Valley
Clean Air Action Plan for Kathmandu Valley-Environmentally Sound
6.6 87
Management of Wastes (dealing with toxic air pollutants)
Clean Air Action Plan for Kathmandu Valley-Promoting Cleaner Fuel and
6.7 88
Technology to Minimize Domestic Pollution (Indoor Air Pollution)
6.8 Clean Air Action Plan for Kathmandu Valley-Public Awareness 88
Clean Air Action Plan for Kathmandu Valley-Strengthening the Policy and
6.9 89
Legislative Framework
Clean Air Action Plan for Kathmandu Valley-Institutional Arrangement for
6.10 90
Effective Implementation
6.11 Clean Air Action Plan for Kathmandu Valley-Financing the Action Plan 91

VI
 List of Figures

Figure Page
Particulars
No. No.
1.1 Land use change in Kathmandu Valley 1
1.2 Quantification of land use patterns (1967-2010) 2
1.3 Population growth rate projection in Kathmandu valley 3
1.4 Population growth rate and Population Density in Kathmandu valley 3
1.5 Wind pattern of Kathmandu valley and sketch in vertical west-east cross section 5
1.6 Average wind speed and temperature profile in Kathmandu valley in winter 5
2.1 TSP concentration at ratnapark on June 09, 2017 8
2.2 24- Hour average TSP (one day data only ) in Kathmandu valley in May 2017 8
2.3 Monthly and annual average of TSP in Putlisadak 2003-2005 8
2.4 PM10 in Ratnaprk and Pulchowk in January 2017 9
2.5 24- Hour Average PM10 (one day data only) in Kathmandu valley in May 2017 9
2.6 Annual average concentration PM 10 10
Monthly average for PM 10 in 2005 for all stations in Kathmandu Ambient Air
2.7 10
Quality Programe
2.8 Result of Pm 10 measurement at Thamel residential station during winter season 10
2.9 PM 2.5 in Ratnapark in January 2017 11
2.10 24- Hour Average PM2.5 (one day data only) in Kathmandu valley in May 2017 11
PM 2.5 monthly average concentrations for 2005, Thamel residential stations,
2.11 12
compared with monthly PM 10 concentrations
Result of PM 2.5 measurement at Thamel residential station during winter
2.12 12
season
2.13 PM 2.5 shown in newspaper of Nagrik Daily 12
Ratio between measured concentrations of PM2.5 and Pm 10, based on 24 hour
2.13 15
result during the year 2005
NO2 average concentrations measured during the winter season in 2004/2005
2.14 17
compared to 2003/2004
2.15 Monthly average benzene concentrations measured in Kathmandu valley 2005 18
2.16 Total and Percentage death by Air pollution by Region 21
2.17 Top tern reason for outpatients visit in Nepal 21
2.18 Air Borne diseases among inpatients in Nepal 2071/72 22
3.1 Growth of vehicles in Bagmati zone 24
3.2 Vehicles with Euro standard and Without Euro standard 25
3.3 Import of Vehicular fuels (gasoline and diesel) 26
3.3 Road network system in Kathmandu Valley 27
3.4 Different types of Boilers used in Kathmandu Valley 32
3.5 Complaisance status of Incinerators with standard 34
5.1 An Integrated air quality management framework 62
5.2 Air quality management decision support system 63

VII
 Chapter One

1. Introduction of Kathmandu Valley

1.1 Location and Land Use of Kathmandu Valley
Kathmandu Valley comprises three districts- Kathmandu, Lalitpur and Bhaktapur with
2 2 2
395 Km , 385 Km and 119 Km , respectively and making the valley agglomeration
with the total area of 899 square kilometers. It is located between 27o37'30" N and
27o45'0" N latitude, and 85o15'0" E and 85o22'30" E longitude and lies between the
Himalayas in the north and the Mahabharat range in the south. It is about 1400 m above
m.s.l with bowl –like structure surrounded by Phulchowki Hill (3132m) in South West,
Shivapuri (2713m) in North, Champa Devi (2400m) in South West and Nagarjun
(2100m) in the West. The river Bagmati, and its tributaries- Vishnumati, Manohara,
HanumanteKhola, Dhobi Khola and NakhuKhola drain the valley in a centripetal pattern
converging on the center and existing via the narrow Bagmati George near Chobbar in
the Southern part of the valley.

Land use change in Kathmandu Valley

Unplanned rapid urbanization is a major issue on the development of the Kathmandu
Valley (Figure 1). Figure 1 shows the five land use maps for the years 1967, 1978, 1991,
2000 and 2010 as studied by Thapa (2012). All together twelve land use classes are
mapped for each year. Looking at the spatial patterns, the built-up area and the
agricultural area have noticeable expansion from 1967 to 2010. The agricultural area has
stretched far away since the 1960s while built-up area has swallowed the primary
agricultural areas steadily. The agricultural landscape is still occupying almost half of the
valley landscape with small changing variation in different decades. However, the forest
cover around the valley still makes a significant portion of the total area of the valley.
The built-up area has expanded rapidly and consistently, mostly in valley floor,
increasing from 3% to 21% of the total landscape. A significant decreasing trend is
observed in shrubs land. However, the natural forest landscape had low decreasing trend
in the later decades. The water areas covering less than 2% areas remained somewhat
unchanged. The open space occupies a least share (<0.3%) of the landscape in the valley
in all period (Figure 1.2 and Table 1.1).

Figure 1.1: Land use change in Kathmandu Valley

Source: Thapa, 2008

1
 Source: Thapa, 2008
Figure1.2: Quantification of land use patterns (1967-2010)

Table 1.1: Land use statistics

Land use Type 1967 1978 1991 2000 2010
(%) (%) (%) (%) (%)
Urban/Built up* 2.94 4.91 9.22 14.19 23

Open space 0.15 0.14 0.20 0.25 0.2

Water 1.95 2.02 1.96 1.85 0.9

Agriculture 52.07 51.40 56.46 53.83 47

Shrubs 19.81 17.71 11.87 10.44 9

Forest 23.08 23.83 20.29 19.43 20

Source: Thapa, 2012

*Includes built up areas, industrial areas, roads, airport, institutional areas, government
secretariat area, and royal palace

1.2 Kathmandu Valley Population and Projection

As mentioned above, Kathmandu Valley comprises three districts namely Kathmandu,
Lalitpur and Bhaktapur with two metropolitan cities out of six such cities of Nepal and
sixteen municipalities. Population in Kathmandu Valley is increasing rapidly. Total
population of valley of 766345 in 1981 increased to 1105379 in 1991 with around 44%
growth in the decade. The trend of high growth continued in the following decades with
49% from 1991 to 2001 and with 51% from 2001 to 2011and that led the population in
the valley to 1656951 in 2001 and 2510788 in 2011. With 51% growth from 2001 to
2011, the total population of Kathmandu Valley is expected to reach 5744964 by 2031.
The population growth and projection for Kathmandu valley is shown in Figure 1.3.

2
 7000000

6000000 5744964

5000000

4000000 3804612

3000000 2510788

2000000 1656951
1105379
1000000 766345

0
1981 1991 2001 2011 2021 2031

Figure 1.3: Population growth projection in Kathmandu Valley

Population of Kathmandu Valley is 2.5 million with annual population growth rate of
4.2% and population density 2799.8/Km2 (CBS, 2011). The high population growth can
be seen outside the Ring Road, especially in the north and east. Four VDCs showed more
than 12% annual growth rate in the last decade (Figure 1.4). On the other hand three
quarter of population density inside the Ring Road have over 200 person/ha in 2011.
Similarly, old town area has over 1,000 person/ha density and outside the Ring Road
reached 80 person/ha (Figure 1.4).

Figure 1.4 Population Growth Rate and Population Density in Kathmandu Valley

1.3 Cultural and Religious Importance of Kathmandu Valley

Kathmandu valley is known to the whole world for its rich cultural heritage illustrated by
seven groups of monuments and buildings which displays the full range of historic and
artistic achievements. Out of the ten UNESCO world heritage sites in Nepal, Kathmandu
Valley hosts seven of them, namely Kathmandu Durbar Square, Patan Durbar Square,

3
Bhaktapur Durbar Square, Swayambhu, Bauddhanath, Pashupatinath and Changu
Narayan. As Buddhism and Hinduism developed and changed over the centuries
throughout Asia, both religions prospered in Nepal and produced a powerful artistic and
architectural fusion beginning at least from the 5th century AD, but truly coming into its
own in the three-hundred-year period between 1500 and 1800 AD. These monuments
were defined by the outstanding cultural traditions of the Newars, manifested in their
unique urban settlements, buildings and structures with intricate ornamentation
displaying outstanding craftsmanship in brick, stone, timber and bronze that are some of
the most highly developed in the world.

1.4 Socio-Economic Importance of Kathmandu Valley

Nepal known to the world for its natural beauty and cultural heritage has been
recommended by Rough Guides, the British Publication as the number one destination to
visit in 2016. Tourism is the largest industry in Nepal and the one of the main source of
foreign exchange and revenue. Kathmandu is the capital city of Nepal, and the only
international airport of the nation being in the middle of the Valley, it is the first
destinations for the hundreds of thousands of tourists visiting Nepal. Kathmandu valley
in itself with its natural beauty, cultural diversity, archeological and heritage sites, and
religious importance is amongst the most favorite place in the world where many people
dream to visit. On the other hand, being the capital city and proximity to international
market, is the center for administrative and commercial activities. Almost half of the
industrial units are located in Kathmandu valley, nearly 500 tourists‘ standard hotels with
over 4000 beds are in the valley, and approximately 65% vehicles registered in Nepal are
plying in the streets of the valley. Degradation to the environmental qualities in the
valley will not only have the direct impact on the health of people living here but also
will seriously hamper the national economy particularly the tourism sector and damage
the invaluable archeological and heritage site.

1.5 Climate Condition in the Kathmandu Valley

A temperate climate prevails in Kathmandu valley. There are three dominant seasons in
the valley; winter, spring, summer and autumn; with three months each season and
December is the harbinger of winter. The range of temperature is below 0oC in winter
and reaches more than 30oC in summer. The Kathmandu Valley experiences four distinct
seasons: pre-monsoon, monsoon, post-monsoon and winter. The rainy season is from
June to September when 80% of the rainfall occurs. The annual rainfall of the valley is
around 1300 mm.

The bowl shaped Kathmandu Valley is located in the middle section of the Himalayan
range and is surrounded by Phulchowki Hill (3132 m) in south west, Shivapuri (2713 m)
in north, Champa Devi (2400 m) in southwest and Nagarjun (2100 m) in west. The
central part of the valley is flat at an elevation of 1300 m above sea level. The valley is
completely surrounded by rather steep rising mountains and hills ranging from 500 m to
3000 m above the valley floor (Ramana and Ramanathan, 2004). The valley has two
narrow river gorges in the southwest and northwest edges and low lying hills on the
southeast edge separate the Kathmandu Valley from the neighboring Banepa Valley
(Figure 1.5). Winds usually enter into the valley through the southwest or northwest
gorges and exit through the southeast Sanga Hill (Figure 1.5). As the valley is
surrounded by high hills and mountains, horizontal dilution of the air emissions from the
valley area is restricted or limited especially with low temperature and calm winds. The

4
air pollutants become trapped and accumulate in the valley without dilution by vertical
dispersion (Sapkota and Dhaubadel, 2002).

Source: Aryal et al. 2009

Figure 1.5: Wind pattern of Kathmandu Valley and sketch in vertical west-east cross
section.

Source: Aryal et al. 2009

Figure 1.6: Average wind speed and temperature profile of Kathmandu Valley in winter.

Figure 1.6 shows the average diurnal temperature and wind speed profiles in the
Kathmandu Valley during winter (December 2006–February 2007). The diurnal
temperature profile shows that the temperature sharply rises during the day and reaches
its peak value at around 14:00 LST. Temperature drops slowly after 14:00 LST and
reaches the lowest value in the morning at 5:00 LST. Similarly, surface wind in the
valley is calm from18:00 LST to 10:00 LST. The wind speed also increases throughout
the daytime period and peaks at around 14:00–15:00 LST. The wind speed is strongly
correlated with temperature. Owing to temperature and wind features, the Kathmandu
Valley experiences a strongly stable and stratified cold air pond at night during winter
(December–February).

5
6
 Chapter Two

Assessment of Ambient Air Quality of Kathmandu Valley

2.1 Ambient Air Quality Monitoring System in Kathmandu Valley
Air quality monitoring in the valley have started in the early 90s using the high volume
and medium volume samplers as campaign monitoring. In late 90s and early 2000s, with
increasing public concerns on the deteriorating air quality in the valley, Ministry of
Population and Environment with support from DANIDA established the permanent air
quality monitoring system with six permanent stations- 2 as roadside stations, 1
residential stations, 2 urban background stations and 1 background stations. This system
started in 2002 continued till 2006 and the monitoring data are available for the period.
The system used continuous monitoring for PM10 or PM2.5 and used passive samplers
for the gaseous pollutants. More recently in late 2016, Ministry of Population and
Environment established two roadside stations in the valley with focus on particulate
pollutants-TSP, PM10, PM2.5 and PM1.0. In addition to this some civil society
organization are also continuously monitoring PM2.5 and publishing the results in
newspaper daily basis, the authenticity of the results obtained are yet to be verified. In
order to understand the high level of particulate pollution in the valley in the dry day of
May 2017, 24-hour average data for TSP, PM10 and PM2.5 are collected using the high
volume samplers. The status of the air quality of Kathmandu Valley is assessed with the
data obtained from the following sources:
 Two roadside stations established by MOPE in late 2016
 Campaign monitoring using high volume sampler in the dry days of May 2017
 Published results of the civil society monitoring
 Three years‘ data (2002 to 2004) from the air quality monitoring system of
MOPE/DANIDA

2.2 Status of Particulate Pollution in the Kathmandu Valley (TSP, PM10,

PM2.5, PM1)
Total Suspended Particulates (TSP):
The results obtained from the monitoring station established by Ministry of Population
and Environment are being disseminated through the webpage of MOPE
(www.pollution.gov.np), and the results obtained on June 9, 2017 are presented in Figure
2.1 which shows the one hour average, 8-hour average, 24-hour average, and the annual
average. Lots of construction activities are going these days in the valley in the form of
expansion of roads, construction of new roads, excavation of paved roads for drinking
water pipe lying, and construction of residential and commercial buildings. Because of
these construction activities and the movement of vehicles suspended dust is the major
concern of general public and everyone visiting the Kathmandu Valley. In order to
understand the level of dust pollution for a particular dry day, 24-hour monitoring was
carried out in 10 different locations in the valley (roadsides, residential areas,
background areas) using a high volume sampler. The results obtained are presented in
Figure 2.2 (these are the only one dry day averages). TSP has always been a problem in
the roadsides.The monthly and annual averages results obtained during 2003 to
2005inPutalisadak roadside station is shown in Figure 2.3.

7
 TSP at Ratnapark, µg/m³
600 535 526
500
400 346
300
200
76
100
0
1 hrs, Avg 8 hrs, Avg 24 hrs. avg Annual, Avg

Figure 2.1: TSP Concentration at Ratnapark on June 9, 2017 (www.pollution.gov.np)

TSP in Kathmandy Valley in May 2017

µg/m3 (24-hour Average)
4749
5000
4000
3000
2000 1289 1232 1340
518 838 737
1000 321 467
115
0

Figure 2.2: 24-Hour Average TSP (one-day data only) in Kathmandu Valley in May, 2017
(QUEST Nepal)

Monthly and Annual Average of TSP in

Putalisadak, µg/m3
1400
1200
1000
800
600
400
200
0

2003 2004 2005

Figure 2.3: Monthly and Annual Average of TSP in Putalisadak, 2003-2005

(MOPE/ESPS)
8
PM10 (Particulate Matter with Aerodynamic Diameter 10 Micron or Less)
From the human health point of view, smaller particulates are the main concern specially
PM10 and the smaller ones. The status of the PM10 in the Kathmandu Valley on June 9
2017 from the MOPE station at Ratnaparkis presented in Figure 2.4.The results of PM10
concentration of one-daycampaign monitoring in 10 different location of Kathmandu
Valley in the month of May 2017 are shown in Figure 2.5. This monitoring was only
done to understand the highest level of pollution in a very dry day, and the high level of
pollution observed are therefore for a day only. The annual averages of PM10 for the
year of 2003, 2004 and 2005 in the road side stations (average of two stations at
Putalisadak and Patan), the residential station (Thamel), urban background stations
(average of two stations at Kirtipur and Bhaktapur), valley background station
(Matchhegau) and also the whole valley averages (averages of all stations) are presented
in Figure 2.6.The monthly variation of PM10 in 2005 in all the six type of stations
mentioned above are presented in Figure 2.7. The results of campaign monitoring of 6
hourly concentrations of PM10 conducted during November 2004 to February 2005 are
presented in Figure 2.8 which show a very consistent pattern, related to the
meteorological conditions, and to the intensity of emissions.

PM 10 at Ratnapark, µg/m³
250
198
200 180
150 133
100
38
50
0
1 hrs, Avg 8 hrs, Avg 24 hrs. avg Annual, Avg

Figure 2.4 PM10 in Ratnapark and Pulchok in January 2017 (MOPE)

PM10 in Kathmandy Valley in May 2017

µg/m3 (24-hour Average)
3500
2928
3000
2500
2000
1500
1000 696 545 620
278 336 362 315
500 178 72
0

Figure 2.5: 24-Hour Average PM10(one day data only) in Kathmandu Valley in May,
2017 (QUEST Nepal)
9
 PM10: Annual Average Comparison 2003, 2004 and 2005

250
2003
microgram per cubic metre

200
196 197 197
2004
2005
149
150 137
125
134 129
121
105 NAAQS: 120 ug/m3 (24 hr)
95 avg)
100 83

53 54
43
50

0
Roadside Residential Urban Valley Valley Avg (all
background background stations)

Figure 2.6 Annual average PM10 concentrations: Results from 2003, 2004 and 2005. Roadside areas are
represented by PU and PA (averaged), residential areas by Thamel, urban background areas are
represented by BHA and TU (averaged), and Valley background by MA. (MOPE/ESPS)
Figure 2.7 Monthly averages for PM10 in 2005 for all stations in the Kathmandu Ambient Air
Quality Programme
350
Putalisadak
300
Patan
PM10 microg/m3

250

200 Thamel

150 Bhaktapur

100
Kirtipur
50
Matsyagaon
0
Jan- Feb- Mar- Apr- May- Jun- Jul- Aug- Sep- Oct- Nov- Dec-
05 05 05 05 05 05 05 05 05 05 05 05

Source (MOPE/ESPS database)

Figure 2.8Results of PM10 measurements at Thamel residential station during winter season: 6
hourly sampling, 29 Nov – 9 Feb 2005. For each day, data are shown separately for nighttime (00 –
6am), morning (6am-12), afternoon (12-6pm) and evening (6pm – 00).
PM10 measurements at Thamel. 6 hr sampling PM10 Night (00:00-06:00)
600 PM10 Morning (06:00-12:00)
PM10 Aft'n (12:00-18:00)
500 PM10 Evening (18:00-24:00)
PM10 microg/m3

400

300

200

100

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-F
07
10
29

Source (MOPE/ESPA database)

10
PM2.5 (Particulate Matter with Aerodynamic Diameter 2.5 Micron or Less)
In recent years, more focus has been provided in the monitoring of the smaller particles,
like the PM2.5, about one-thirtieth of the width of a human hair, can penetrate deep into
the lungs and the cardiovascular system, posing the greatest risks to human health. The
monitoring stations recently established by MOPE also provide highest priority in
monitoring PM2.5 and even the system monitors PM1.0. The results of this system
obtained on June 9, 2017 are presented in Figure 2.9. The results of PM2.5
concentrations of one-day campaign monitoring in 10 different location of Kathmandu
Valley in the month of May 2017 are shown in Figure 2.10. This monitoring was done to
understand the highest level of pollution in a very dry day, and the high level of pollution
observed are therefore for a day only. The air quality monitoring system established in
2002 also had the provision of monitoring PM10 and PM2.5 alternatively. For the year
2005,two systems were used at Thamelto monitor PM10 and PM2.5 and the obtained
results are presented in Figure 2.11. Results of PM2.5 measurements at Thamel residential
stationduring winter season: 6 hourly sampling, 29 Nov – 9 Feb 2005 for each day
(nighttime (00 – 6am), morning (6am-12), afternoon (12-6pm) and evening (6pm – 00))
are shown in Figure 2.12. As mentioned earlier, the results published in a Newpaper on
daily basis for PM2.5 as hourly averages are presented in Figure 2.13.
PM 2.5 at Ratnapark, µg/m³
50 47
38
40
30 25.3 27

20
10
0
1 hrs, Avg 8 hrs, Avg 24 hrs. avg Annual, Avg

Figure 2.9 PM2.5 in Ratnaparkin January 2017 (MOPE)

PM2.5in Kathmandy Valley in May 2017

µg/m3 (24-hour Average)
250 226
195 190
200 147 134 115
150 95
100
50 11 21 1
0

Figure 2.10: 24-Hour Average PM2.5(one-day data only) in Kathmandu Valley in May,
2017 (QUEST Nepal)

11
 Thamel PM2.5
250 Thamel PM10

200
microg/m3

150

100

50

0
5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 05 5 5
n-0 eb- 0 r- 0 pr -0 ay-0 un- 0 l-0 ug-0 p- 0 Oct - v- 0 ec- 0
Ja F Ma A M J Ju A Se No D
Figure 2.11 PM2.5 monthly averaged concentrations for 2005, Thamel residential
station, compared with monthly PM10 concentrations
PM2.5 measurements at Thamel. 6 hr sampling campaign PM2.5 Night (00:00-06:00)
600 PM2.5 Morning (06:00-12:00)
PM2.5 Aft'n (12:00-18:00)
500 PM2.5 Evening (18:00-24:00)
PM2.5 microg/m3

400

300

200

100

0
-04
-04
-04
-04
-04
-04
-04
-04
-04
-04

-Ja 4
-Ja 5
-Ja 5
-Ja 5
-Ja 5
-Ja 5
-Ja 5
-Ja 5
-Ja 5
-Ja 5
-Ja 5
-Fe 5
-Fe 5
-Fe 5
5
-0
n- 0
n- 0
n- 0
n- 0
n- 0
n- 0
n- 0
n- 0
n- 0
n- 0
n- 0
b-0
b-0
b-0
ov
ec
ec
ec
ec
ec
ec
ec
ec
ec
ec
-D
-D
-D
-D
-D
-D
-D
-D
-D
-D
-N

01
04
07
10
13
16
19
22
25
28
31
03
06
09
02
05
08
11
14
17
20
23
26
29
29

Figure 2.12Results of PM2.5 measurements at Thamel residential stationduring winter

season: 6 hourly sampling, 29 Nov – 9 Feb 2005. For each day, data are shown
separately for nighttime (00 – 6am), morning (6am-12), afternoon (12-6pm) and evening
(6pm – 00).

12
 Figure 2.13 PM2.5 shown in the newspaper of Nagarik Daily

2.3 Assessment of the Level of Particulate Pollution in the Kathmandu Valley

Ministry of Population and Environment in 2003 has set the National Ambient Air
Quality Standard for Nepal through widespread consultation with stakeholders on the
basis of regional practices and WHO recommendations. This standard was reviewed in
2012and the PM2.5 parameters were added. The amended standard for Nepal is
presented in Table 2.1 and the WHO guideline values with the basis for the selection of
the level are presented in Table 2.2. WHO does not have the TSP values and the focus is
on PM10 and PM2.5.

Table 2.1: National Ambient Air Quality Standard for Nepal

Parameter Unit Time Max. Method of Measurement
Weighted Concn. in
Average Ambient Air
Annual
High Volume Sampling (avg
TSP µg/m3 24-hour 230
flow ≥ 1.1 m3/min
8-hour
Annual
Low volume sampler or β- Ray
PM10 µg/m3 24-hour 120
Absorption Method
8-hour
Annual
Low volume sampler or β- Ray
PM2.5 µg/m3 24-hour 50
Absorption Method
8-hour
Oxides of Annual 40
Diffusive Sampling or Gas
Nitrogen µg/m3 24-Hour 80
Phase Chemiluminescence
(as NO2) 1-Hour
Annual 50 Diffusing Sampling or
Sulfur Dioxide
µg/m3 24-Hour 70 Ultraviolet Fluorescence
(SO2)
1-Hour method
24-hour
Non dispersive UV absorption
Ozone (O3) µg/m3 8-Hour 100
method
1-Hour
8-hour 10
Carbon Monoxide Non Dispersive Infra Red
mg/m3 1-Hour
(CO) (NDIR) method
15-minute 100
Annual 0.5
ASS Method after using EPM
Lead (Pb) µg/m3 24-Hour
2000 or equivalent filter paper
1-Hour
Note:
 Annual arithmetic mean of minimum 104 measurements in a year taken twice a
week 24 hourly at uniform intervals
 24 hourly values shall be met 95% of the time in a year. 18 days per calendar
year the standard may be exceeded but not on two consecutive days.

Table 2.2WHO Air Quality Guideline Values and Interim Targets for Particulate
Matter (Annual Mean Averages and 24-Hour Average)
24-Hr Average Basis for selected level Annual Basis for selected
µg/m3 Average µg/m3 level
PM10 PM2.5 PM10 PM2.5
Interim Based on the published risk These levels are
150 75 70 35
Target-I coefficients from multi- associated with about
13
 24-Hr Average Basis for selected level Annual Basis for selected
µg/m3 Average µg/m3 level
centre studies and meta- a 15% higher long
analysis (about 5% increase term mortality risk
of short-term mortality over relative to AQG level
AQG value
In addition to other
Based on the published risk health benefits, these
coefficients from multi- levels lower the risks
Interim centre studies and meta- of premature
100 50 50 25
Target-II analysis (about 2.5% mortality
increase of short-term approximately 6% (2-
mortality over AQG value 11%) relative to IT-I
level
In addition to other
Based on the published risk health benefits, these
coefficients from multi- levels lower the risks
Interim centre studies and meta- of premature
75 37.5 30 15
Target-III analysis (about 1.2% mortality
increase of short-term approximately 6% (2-
mortality over AQG value 11%) relative to IT-I
level
These are the lowest
level at which total,
cardiopulmonary and
Air lung cancer mortality
Based on relationship
Quality have been shown to
50 25 between 24-hour and annual 20 10
Guideline increase with more
PM10 and PM2.5 levels
(AQG) than 95% confidence
in response to long-
term response to
PM2.5

The level of TSP in the valley specifically along the roadsides is significantly high. The
results of one-day monitoring for a dry day in the month of May 2017 show as high as
4749 µg/m3 which is more than 20 times higher than the national standard. The latest
annual average (June 9, 2017) at Ratnapark is as high as 526 µg/m3 which is slightly
better than the previous annual averages obtained in the similar location (Putalisadak)-
728 µg/m3 in 2005, 687µg/m3 in 2004 and 677 µg/m3 in 2003. The results from 2003 to
date shows Kathmandu valley is highly polluted in terms of suspended particulates, and
it is visible and troublesome to see children and elderly citizen with masks in the streets.

The smaller particles that are the real concern from human health point of view are also
found significantly high. The annual averages result of PM10 and PM2.5 from the
MOPE station at Ratnapark are 180 µg/m3 and 38 µg/m3, respectively. Nepal does not
have the standard for annual averages, it is significantly high compared to the above
mentioned WHO guideline values. PM10 is 9 times and PM2.5 is 3.8 times higher than
WHO guideline values. Annual averages during 2003 to 2005 shows good improving
trend coming down to 121 uµ/m3 in 2005 from 129µg/m3 in 2004 and 134 ug/m3in 2003,
although these values are also 6 to 7 times higher than the WHO guideline.

A status on the compliance with the national standard of PM10 for the year 2003 to 2005
is shown in Table 2.3. Ambient air quality in the roadsides of the Valley exceeded the
national standard more than 240 days to 310 days in a year.It is clear that the number of
days with non-compliance is far too high. Of special concern are the high number of
days with non-compliance at the urban residential (Thamel) and the urban background
14
station Bhaktapur, as these stations represent the outdoor air quality that a large part of
the population in the Valley is exposed to. It must be noted here that compared to WHO
guideline value of 50 µg/m3, the national standard 120 µg/m3 is almost 2.5 times higher.

Table 2.3 Compliance Status of PM10 with NAAQS of Nepal (NAAQS for PM10 is a 95-percentile for
24 hr averages, up to 18 days per year with exceedances of NAAQS is allowed).

Share of days on which PM10 > 120 g/m3 (NAAQS) out of total number of days with
valid results. No. days on which PM10>120 g/m3 is shown in brackets.
Year Putalisadak Patan Thamel Bhaktapur Kirtipur Matsyagaon
77% 81% 46% 32% 9% 3%
2005
(227 days) (285 days) (157 days) (81 days) (30 days) (10 days)
83% 85% 54% 40% 20% 7%
2004
(304 days) (310 days) (190 days) (139 days) (72 days) (22 days)
83% 76% 57% 48% 20% 5%
2003
(289 days) (240 days) (187 days) (174 days) (71 days) (16 days)

source: MOEST database

MOPE has recently reviewed the NAAQS for Nepal to include PM2.5 which is now the
main pollutants highly focused in many developed and developing countries because of
its impact on human health.MOPE/ESPS in 2005 has monitored PM2.5 in parallel to
PM10 continuous for one year to determine the PM2.5/PM10 ratio and the obtained
results are presented in Figure 2.13.

Ratio PM2.5/PM10, Thamel residential station

1
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
01/01/2005

01/02/2005

01/03/2005

01/04/2005

01/05/2005

01/06/2005

01/07/2005

01/08/2005

01/09/2005

01/10/2005

01/11/2005

01/12/2005

source: MOEST database

Figure 2.13 Ratio between measured concentrations of PM2.5 and PM 10, based on 24 hour results
during the year 2005. The trend line illustrates the yearly variation in the ratio.

The trend line in above figure 2.13shows that day-to-day ratio may vary quite a lot
(following changes in meteorology and emission patterns), the ratio seems to vary
around 0.50-0.75. The ratio is clearly higher during the dry season, and it falls gradually
during the wet season, with a minimum of around 0.5 during the month of July. A
possible explanation for this phenomenon is the higher turbulence in the lowest part of
15
the atmosphere during the wet season. The months of the wet season (May-June-July and
August) also introduce high temperatures at ground level in the valley, creating a vertical
mixing to much higher altitudes of the air than during the dry (and colder) season. This
will have a higher effect on smaller particles (PM2.5) than coarse (PM10) particles, and
therefore tend to reduce PM2.5 concentrations more strongly than PM10 concentrations,
causing the ratio of PM2.5/PM10 to drop during these months. Further investigation of this
phenomenon should be sought (ESPS/MOPE).

ESPS/MOPE has also done the campaign monitoring of 6 hourly concentrations of

PM2.5 and PM10 and the results (Figure 2.12) show a very consistent pattern, related to
the meteorological conditions, and to the intensity of emissions. At nighttime and in the
afternoon, both PM2.5 and PM10 are lowest which can be explained by the low
emissions occurring between midnight and 6am. However, the outdoor PM2.5 and PM10
concentrations are not much lower during nighttime than in the afternoon, and the
emissions are high in the afternoon. This is due to the occurrence of thermal inversions
in the winter season: During evening, nighttime and morning, cold air close to the
surface of the valley will be ―trapped‖ by warmer air at higher altitudes, causing a very
low mixing layer. As the sun rises in the morning and slowly heat the air at the valley
floor, the mixing layer increases, and the air close to the valley floor will be mixed and
diluted with air masses from higher altitudes, causing the outdoor air concentrations to
fall in the afternoon. This pattern is particularly consistent during December for
PM2.5.The general pattern for PM10 in the nighttime and afternoon is slightly different
than for PM2.5. The heavier PM10 particles have a higher sedimentation rate than
PM2.5 particles. As the wind speeds is typicallyvery low during nighttime, the larger
particles will have a tendency to deposit on surfaces, whereas smaller particles (PM2.5)
will stay suspended for longer periods of time. This may explain why PM10 is reduced
more significantly than PM2.5 at nighttime (ESPS/MOPE). This pattern is seen in the
hourly averages published daily in NagarikNewpaper (Figure 2.13)

2.4 Assessment of Gaseous Pollution in Kathmandu Valley

The focus of ambient air quality monitoring in the Kathmandu Valley is on particulate
pollutants and the recently established two stations by MOPE also does not monitor the
gaseous pollutants although the National Ambient Air Quality Standard of Nepal (Table
2.1) has included gaseous pollutants. The national standard for Nitrogen Dioxide (NO2),
Sulfur Dioxide (SO2), Carbon Monoxide (CO), lead and benzene are taken from the
WHO air quality guideline. The continuous air quality monitoring station established in
2002 by MOPE/ESPS also did not have the continuous monitoring system for gaseous
pollutants. However, that system included monitoring of NO2, SO2, and Benzene by
using the passive samplers which were analyzed in Denmark by an internationally
accredited laboratory and also by national private accredited laboratory. There are no
other efforts that can provide reliable information on the status of these gaseous
pollutants, therefore the results of MOPE/ESPS are presented and analyzed here.

Nitrogen Dioxide (NO2)

The NO2 measured from November 2003 to March 2004 and November 2004 to March
2005 are compared in the following figure 2.14.From the figure the level of NO2
concentrations are found to be quite constant from the winter season (dry season) in
2003/2004 to the winter season in 2004/2005, and it was found that NO2 concentration is
quite below to the national annual average value of NAAQS. However, over the years
there have been significant rise in the vehicular numbers, there is the need to start

16
monitoring of NO2 using the same method used by MOPE/ESPS utilizing the developed
capacity of national laboratories.

35.0 Nov 03-Mar 04

31
30.0 27 27 27
Nov 04-Mar 05
NO2 microg/m3

25.0

20.0 17 18

15.0 13 13

10.0

5.0 2 3

0.0
background

background
residential

average
roadside
(PA-PU

overall
Valley
(BHA-TU
Urban

(THA)
Urban
avg)

Valley
Urban

(MA)
avg)

Figure 2.14 NO2 average concentrations measured during the winter season in 2004/2005 compared
to 2003/2004 (source: MOPE/ESPS)

Sulfur dioxide (SO2)

MOPE/ESPS only did campaign monitoring of SO2during September 2004 for two
weeks in three stations-Patan, Thamel and Kirtipur and the results show that the level of
SO2 varied from the lowest of 0.13 µg/m3 at Thamel to maximum of 5.31 µg/m3 at
Kirtipur. This clearly shows that the level of SO2 during that period was quite low as
compared to national standard. Over the years, there have been significant rise in the use
of fossil fuel but the quality of the fuel has also been significantly improved in terms of
sulfur content. These days the EURO IV quality diesel is being imported with sulfur
content of 50 ppm.

Benzene
The monthly averages for the benzene for the year 2005 in all the six monitoring stations
of MOPE/ESPS is presented in Figure 2.15 which shows that all the results are below the
NAAQS standard for benzene with20 µg/m3 annual averages in Kathmandu Valley.
Benzene concentrations tend to increase during the winter season. This is explained by
the fact that benzene concentrations is generally higher during the dry and cold season,
when there is no precipitation to wash out benzene. Benzene is partly soluble in water
and thus quite effectively removes from the gaseous phase during rainfall, and it is more
prominent in those areas where the occurrence of thermal inversion is higher. As now the
fuel quality imported is significantly improved compared to 2005 with significant
reduction of benzene in petrol, it can be said that the air quality of Valley is in
compliance with NAAQS in terms of benzene. However, it is recommended to continue
monitoring benzene as part of the AQM system.

17
 25 Putalisadak
Patan
Thamel
NAAQS 20 ug/m3 (yearly average)
20
Bhaktapur
Kirtipur
Machhegaun
microgram per cubic meter

15

10

0
Apr-05

Aug-05
May-05

Nov-05

Dec-05
Jan-05

Feb-05

Jun-05

Jul-05

Sep-05

Oct-05
Mar-05

source: MOPE/ESPS
Figure 2.15 Monthly average benzene concentrations measured in Kathmandu Valley 2005.

2.5 Impact of Air Pollution in Kathmandu Valley

It can be concluded from the assessment of particulate and gaseous pollutants done in the
above headingsthat the main concerns of pollutants are the particulate pollutants.
However, in the context of the valley becoming a mega city and due to its bowl-shape
and climate conditions, all the pollutants will be of concern for future.Therefore a list of
pollutants of Kathmandu Valley concern to human health and environmental impacts are
presented in Table 2.4.

Table 2.4: Main Pollutants of Concern with Health/Environmental Impacts

Pollutant Health/Environmental Effects

TSP, the large particles, can corrode metals and masonry, soil
structures and motor vehicles. Incurs huge costs for cleaning of
clothes, windows, floors, repainting, etc. And demand more other
Particulate resources like water and soaps for cleaning and generate wastewater
Matter-Total effluents.
Suspended Dust the leaf surfaces of crops, trees and shrubs, which may injure or
Particles (TSP) inhibit the growth of these valuable plants.
Impair visibility and reduce solar radiation. It can also adversely
affect property values; aesthetics in urban, country-side;
transportation safety; etc
Both short-term and long-termexposure to ambient levels of PM
isconsistently associated with respiratoryand cardiovascular illness
Particulate and mortalityas well as other ill-health effects.
Matter-(PM10 Recent reviews byWHO havesuggested exposure to a finerfractionof
and PM2.5) particles (PM2.5, which typicallymake up around two thirds of
PM10emissions and concentrations) give astronger association with
the observedillhealth effects, but also warn that
18
 Pollutant Health/Environmental Effects
there is evidence that the coarse fractionbetween (PM10 – PM2.5)
also has someeffects on health.
At high levels NO2causes inflammation of the airways.Long term
exposure may affect lungfunction and respiratory symptoms.NO2also
enhances the response to allergensin sensitive individuals.
High levels of NOx can have an adverse effect on
vegetation,including leaf orneedle damage and reduced growth.
Nitrogen
Deposition of pollutants derivedfromNOx emissions contribute to
Oxides (NOx)
acidificationand/or eutrophication of sensitivehabitats leading to loss
of biodiversity,often at locations far from theoriginal emissions.
NOX also contributes to theformationof secondary particles and
ground levelozone, both of which are associatedwith ill-health
effects. Ozone alsodamages vegetation.
Causes constriction of the airways of thelung. This effect is
particularly likely tooccur in people suffering from asthmaand
chronic lung disease.
Precursor to secondary PM andthereforecontributes to the ill-health
effectscaused by PM10 and PM2.5.
Sulfur Dioxide Potential damage to ecosystems athigh levels, including degradation
(SO2) of
chlorophyll, reduced photosynthesis,
raised respiration rates and changesin protein metabolism. Deposition
ofpollution derived from SO2emissionscontribute to acidification of
soilsand waters and subsequent loss ofbiodiversity, often at locations
farfrom the original emissions.
Carbon Reduces capacity of blood to carry oxygen to tissues and blocks
Monoxide important biochemical reactions in cells. People with heart and brain
(CO) problems are at particular risk.
Common health effects are irritation to eyes and nose, and it also
Ozone (O3) reduces lung function and increases respiratory symptoms leading to
increased mortality.
Benzene A known human carcinogen and therefore there are no safe limits.
Polycyclic A known human carcinogen and therefore there are no safe limits.
aromatic
hydrocarbons
(PAHs)
High exposures lead to adverse effects on kidneys, gastrointestinal
Lead tract, the joints and reproductive systems, and damage to nervous
system. Also affects intellectual development in young children.
It is precursor to secondary PM and thus will have health effects of
Ammonia
PM2.5/PM10. It can cause damage of aquatic ecosystem due to
(NH3)
eutrophication and acidification.
Impact on Human Health:
There is a close, quantitative relationship between exposure to high concentrations of
small particulates (PM10 and PM2.5) and increased mortality or morbidity, both daily
and over time. Conversely, when concentrations of small and fine particulates are
reduced, related mortality will also go down – presuming other factors remain the
same. Small particulate pollution has health impacts even at very low concentrations
– indeed no threshold has been identified below which no damage to health is
19
observed. The WHO 2005 guideline limits aimed to achieve the lowest concentrations
of PM possible. ―WHO Air Quality Guidelines" estimate that reducing annual
average particulate matter (PM10) concentrations from levels of 70 μg/m3, to the
WHO guideline level of 20 μg/m3, could reduce air pollution-related deaths by
around 15%. In addition, there are serious risks to health not only from exposure to
PM, but also from exposure to ozone (O3), nitrogen dioxide (NO2) and sulfur dioxide
(SO2), and other hazardous air pollutants like PAH, benzene, and lead. Ozone is a
major factor in asthma morbidity and mortality, while nitrogen dioxide and sulfur
dioxide also can play a role in asthma, bronchial symptoms, lung inflammation and
reduced lung function. PAH and benzene are known carcinogens. High concentration
of lead besides impact on kidneys, gastrointestinal tract, the joints and reproductive
systems, and damage to nervous system, also affects intellectual development in
young children.

Health impacts have two facets, excess mortality and morbidity. The dose response
relation of excess mortality and morbidity can be calculated if the information on the
time series air quality data and corresponding demographic information, hospital records
are available for reasonable period. In order to understand the seriousness of problem of
air pollution, two figures from the book ―The Cost of Air Pollution: Strengthening the
Economic Case for Action‖ published by the World Bank Group are reproduced below.
In South Asia alone 1.79 million deaths in 2013 are from air pollution and it is 13.7% of
total deaths in the region.

In the context of Kathmandu Valley, the health burden estimates of PM10 (NHRC, 2004),
based on Ostro's method for the year 2004 estimates an excess premature mortality per
year to be around 212 at the current level of concentrations against NAAQS values. The
2005 study of MOPE/ESPS using the WHO‘s Air Quality Health Impact Assessment
Tool (AirQ 2.2.2) to estimate the health impact on PM10 in Kathmandu Valley in 2005
shows the excess mortality due to air quality situation in Kathmandu is 900 per million
populations. This study estimates 1600 avoidable deaths every year in Kathmandu
provided the PM10 level is brought down at 50 μg/m3. As the level of PM10 is similar to
2005 and even higher, and around 3.5 million people exposed to high level of pollution,
addition 3150 death can be avoided if the level of PM10 is brought to 50 μg/m3.

Global Burden of Diseases Study estimates that lower respiratory infections, diarrheal
diseases and neonatal encephalopathy remain the main causes of premature death in
Nepal, it highlights that Nepal is facing increasing burden of non-communicable diseases
(NCDs) and injuries. NCDs account for ―more than 44% of deaths, 80% of outpatient
contacts, and 39% of DALYs lost. Major NCDs in Nepal are cardiovascular diseases,
diabetes, cancer, chronic respiratory diseases, oral diseases, and mental disorders.
(NEPAL HEALTH SECTOR STRATEGY 2015 – 2020 (MOHP,2015). According to
the annual report of 2071/72 of the DoHS, upper respiratory tract infection (URTI) is the
leading one with 5.7% in the outpatient‘s consultation in the FY 2071/72 followed by
Gastritis (APD) with 5.4% and Lower Respiratory Tract Infection (LRTI) with 5%
(Figure 2.17). And air borne diseases in 2071/72 are detailed out in Figure 2.18.

20
Figure 2.16: Total and Percentage Death by Air Pollution by Region

Figure 2.17 Top ten reasons for outpatients visit in Nepal

21
Figure 2.18: Air Borne diseases among inpatients in Nepal 2071/72.
Impact of Air Pollution on Economy
Air pollution is not just a health risk but also a drag on development. By causing illness
and premature death, air pollution reduces the quality of life. By causing a loss of
productive labor, it also reduces incomes polluted countries. Air pollution can have a
lasting effect on productivity in other ways as well—for example, by stunting plant
growth and reducing the productivity of agriculture, and by making cities less attractive
to talented workers, thereby reducing cities‘ competitiveness.

As Nepal‘s economy is dependent on tourism due to its natural beauty and rich cultural
and archeological significance, the high level of particulate pollution will directly impact
our beauty and damage the physical structure, archeological and monuments. High level
of pollution in the valley where there is only one international airport, can have negative
impact about the image of the city with direct impact on tourism industry.

These days‘ citizen in Kathmandu valley have to double or triple the cost for cleaning of
houses, laundry, and additional burden of mask to family members, whose actual impacts
are not evaluated. Impact of air pollution on agriculture, forestry and biodiversity are
clearly established, however in absence of data for Kathmandu it is not possible to
estimate the damage. However, the findings of the report ―The Cost of Air Pollution:
22
Strengthening the Economic Case for Action, 2016‖ by the World Bank and Institute for
Health Metrics and Evaluation, University of Washington is compared here with our
neighboring countries (Table 2.5). It clearly shows the impact of air pollution on our
health and economy. Compared to our neighbors, Nepal is also facing similar challenges
to minimize the impacts of air pollution on human health and economy.

Table 2.5: Mean Annual PM2.5, Total Deaths from Pollution, Total Welfare Losses,
and Total Forgone Labor output, in Nepal and Its Neighbors

Mean Annual Total Death from Air Total welfare losses Total Foregone
Country Ambient PM2.5 Pollution (mill US$) (% GDP) labor output(mill
US$) (% GDP)
1990 2013 1990 2013 1990 2013 1990 2013
Nepal 29.68 46.09 16436 22038 1033 2833 195 287
(4.60) (4.68) (0.87) (0.47)
Bangladesh 29.92 48.36 92880 154898 6379 27452 1195 2579
(4.66) (6.14) (0.87) (0.58)
China 39.30 54.36 1518942 1625164 126592 1589767 12558 44567
(7.35) (9.92) (0.73) (0.28)
India 30.25 46.68 1043182 1403136 104906 505103 28742 56390
(6.80) (7.69) (1.86) (0.84)

23
 Chapter Three

Assessment of Sources of Air Pollutants in the Valley

3.1 Transport Sector
3.1.1 Growth of Vehicles and Fuel
Transport sector is one of the rapidly growing sectors not only in Kathmandu Valley but
throughout the country. The load of pollution is not only related to the vehicles but it is
directly related with the carrying capacity of roads and quality of the roads.

There has been significant rise in the vehicle numbers in Nepal as a whole and in the
Kathmandu Valley. Figure 3.1 presents the current status of registered vehicles in
Bagmati zone. It is assumed thatall vehicles are registered in Kathmandu Valley and
considering some of the vehicles registered in other zones are also coming to
Kathmandu. Total number of vehicles that used to be around 34,000 in 1990 but now
around one lakh vehicles are added every year in Kathmandu Valley.

Growth of Vehicles in Bagmati Zone

100000
90000
80000
70000
60000
50000
40000
30000
20000
10000
0
1993/94

2002/03

2011/12
1989/90
1990/91
1991/92
1992/93

9394/95
1995/96
1996/97
1997/98
1998/99
1999/00
2000/01
2001/02

2003/04
2004/05
2005/06
2006/07
2007/08
2008/09
2009/10
2010/11

2012/13
2013/14
2014/15
2015/16

Figure 3.1: Growth of Vehicles in Bagmati Zone (Source-DOTM)

Over the years there have been significant improvement in the technology of vehicles in
terms of pollution load per distance travelled and Nepal also has moved to EURO-IV
standards recently. The status of vehicles in terms of mass emission standards pre-
EURO, EURO-I and EURO II and EURO-III are presented in Figure 3.2.

24
 Vehicles in Kathmandu Valley
350000
307486
300000
250000
200000 185682

150000
100000
50000 27017 27756 25632
4691
0
Pre-EURO EURO I &II EURO III

Petrol Diesel

Figure 3.2: Vehicles with EURO standards and without EURO standard (source-DOTM)

In parallel to the growth of vehicles, the use of gasoline and diesel has also growing
significantly over the years (Figures 3.3).

25
 Consumption Details of POL Products in KL
3000000

2500000

2000000

1500000

1000000

500000

0
2005/6 2006/7 2007/8 2008/9 2009/10 2010/11 2011/12 2012/13 2013/14 2014/15

Petrol Diesel Total

Source: Economic Survey, 2015/16

Figure 3.3: Import of Vehicular Fuel (Gasoline and Diesel)

Per Day Fuel Consumption in Kathmandu Valley

600
420 382 424
400
200
19 1
0
Diesel Petrol LPG, MT Kerosene FO

KL per day

3.1.2 Road Infrastructure

The road network in Kathmandu Valley is classified into two groups depending on the
jurisdiction of administration body of DOR and local governments as shown below in
Table 3.1.
Table 3.1 Road Networks of Kathmandu Valley
Kathmandu Bhaktapur Lalitpur
Jurisdiction Total Remarks
District District District
H02, H03,
Highways 39.9 14.1 18.0 72.0
H16
Feeder road 14 feeder
Department 136.0 70.5 112.6 319.0
(Primary) roads
of Road
(DOR) Feeder Road 59 urban
45.1 27.0 0.0 72.1
Secondary roads
Strategic
59.6 4.9 27.2 91.7
Urban Road

26
 Kathmandu Bhaktapur Lalitpur
Jurisdiction Total Remarks
District District District
Total 280.5 116.5 157.8 554.8
District Road 400.4 36.0 90.6 527.0
Districts/
Urban Road 269.6 116.0 127.3 512.9
Municipalities
Total 670.0 152.0 217.9 1039.9
Total 950.5 268.5 357.7 1594.7
Source: Final Report on Data Collection Survey on Traffic Improvement in Kathmandu
Valley, DOR/MOIDT
The Kathmandu Valley is served with a ring road and radial pattern of road network and
the expansion of urban areas have proceeded along the major (or primary) feeder roads
radiating from the Ring Road. Feeder road is classified into primary (or major) and
secondary (or minor). The former generally leads from the national highway to the
district headquarters and the latter connects the primary feeder road with major towns
and villages. The road network system in Kathmandu Valley is shown in Figure 3.3
As per the statistics of DOR, all the national highways and strategic urban roads except
for some sections of the urban road in Lalitpur District are paved, however, the feeder
roads including primary and secondary are only 60% paved, and earthen road still exist
in Kathmandu and Lalitpur districts.

Figure 3.3: Road Network System in Kathmandu Valley

At present expansion and maintenance work is undergoing in the valley which is
consider the major cause of high dust in the valley particularly in the roadsides. Tribuvan
Highway (H02) (Tripureswor to Kalanki and Kalanki to Nag Dhunga) is in expansion
which is the main road for vehicles to enter in the city. This is ongoing for almost 3 years
and major concern for traffic congestion and dust pollution. Similarly,Arniko Highway
(H03) (Maitighar to Suryabinayak) is in fairly good condition but highly dusty as well.
The H16 (Ring Road) from Koteshwor to Kalankiis in expansion and some works of
expansion with dumping of soil and gravel is going in other section of ring road. These
days because of the excavation works of Melamchi Water Supply project major roads in
valley are excavated in the centre and highly dusty and reason for congestion in the
valley.

27
3.1.3 Traffic Congestion
The ―Final report on Data Collection Survey on Traffic Improvement in Kathmandu
Valley, 2011‖ has the following findings on the future traffic demand in the Kathmandu
Valley:
 Total trips in the valley was forecasted to be 5,456 thousand/day in 2022 by 1.59
times of the present (2011).
 Intra-central trips by 1.59 times, inter-trips between the central and suburbs by
1.62 times were relatively higher than intra-suburbs.
 Based on the vehicle ownership estimation, the share of both motorcycle and car
will increase continuously in the long run.
 It is fairly said that if nothing will be done for the future, ten years later every
activity will be restricted due to severe traffic congestion, particularly along the
central area inside the Ring Road.
 On the other hand, if ongoing projects like the Ring Road expansion are
completed, it is certain that the level of mobility in 2022 will sustain the same
existing level.
Based on the above future traffic demand forecast, the same study has identified
following important points about the traffic demand and road network system:
 Network system of the Kathmandu Valley may withstand the traffic demand by
improving the existing network system such as installation of flyover,
construction of inner ring road, and widening of existing road until 2022.
 After 2022, service level of road network will decline rapidly and introduction of
new transport system/land use system will be inevitable to sustain the present
mobility and urban activity.
 Therefore, ten years before 2022 is the period for the introduction of new system
including the establishment of implementation plan, implementation of pilot
projects, and reinforcement of relevant institutions.

Six years have already been passed and the condition of the roads and traffic system is
further deteriorated over the years. Emissions from tailpipe of the vehicle are dependent
on average speed of vehicles and resuspension of dust on the condition of vehicles.
Therefore, the traffic management and road network system will be a major concern for
coming years and it will continue to be a major source of air pollution in the valley.
3.2.4 Emission Load from Transport Sector
The contribution of transport sector both in terms of emission from the vehicle and
resuspension of dust particles from the roads is presented in Table 3.2.
Table 3.2: Emissions Load from Transport Sector
Type of Vehicles Emissions, PM10 (tons/year) Resuspension of Dust (tons/year)
Diesel Petrol TSP PM10
Public Transport 742 - 2192 570
Goods Transport 770 1430 372
Private
72 3 3510 944
Cars/Van/Jeep

28
Motor Cycles 116 12939 3364
Total 1584 119 20072 5250

Emission Load from Transport Sector, Tons/Year

25000

20072 20072
20000

15000

10000
6953
5250
5000
1703

0
Emission Resuspension Total

PM10 TSP

3.2 Industry Sector

3.2.1 Brick Manufacturing Sector

Brick is one of the main construction materials in Nepal and in the valley. In Kathmandu
Valley, there are 110 different types of brick kiln industries in operation currently.
Among them 15 are in Kathmandu, 32 inLalitpurand 63 in Bhaktapur district. The
industry is seasonal and operates for about 6-7 months from November to May except
for large mechanized kilns with shades for storing bricks.About 30,000 people are
employed in the sector. Brick Kiln with technology type and capacities are presented in
Table 3.3.
Table 1.3 Existing brick kiln technologies
Percentage of Brick Production Percentage of total
Kiln Type Number
Total Kilns,(%) (million bricks) production (%)
FBTK 107 97.3 612 92.7
VSBK 1 0.9 8 1.2
Hoffmann 2 1.8 40 6.1
Total 110 100 660 100
Source: FNBI

As per the above table, the total annual production capacity of all the brick kilns in the
valley is 660 million bricks. The demand of bricks in the valley is far more than this
capacity and bricks are brought from outside in the valley. The main source of energy is
coal and some kilns also use other fuel such as saw dust, lapsi seed, baggasse, rice husk
and agriculture residue. Annual consumption of coal in brick kilns is 56100 tons and
other fuel around 330 tons. As the industries in the valley can‘t meet the demands of
bricks in valley, bricks are also brought from outside valley. The EPA and EPR require
that a brick industry before its establishment needs to undergo IEE/EIA on two grounds

29
as set out in annex-1 and annex-4. That includes distance from the forest boundary and
number of bricks to be produced. The traditional Moving Bull Trench Kiln technology
has been banned in the Katmandu valley, the only alternative is to adopt the new
technologies. In addition to the IEE/EIA requirement, the brick industries have to
comply with the emission standard (Table 3.4)

Table 3.4 Emission Standards and Chimney Height for Brick Kilns in Nepal
S.N. Types of Kiln Suspended Particulate Height of Chimney
Matter (Maximum (Minimum Limit)
Limit)
Bull‘s Trench Kiln
1 600 mg/Nm3 17 meter
Forced Draft
Bull‘s Trench Kiln,
2 Natural Draught (Fixed 700 mg/Nm3 30 meter
Chimney)
3 Vertical Shaft Brick Kiln 400 mg/Nm3 15 meter
Note:
1. Value of suspended particulate matter shall be calculated considering reference
oxygen concentration as 10%
2. Chimney height shall be measured from ground level.

In addition to the standard, the brick kilns also require to fulfill the following
requirements:
Minimum Land area requirement:
 For VSBK: 100 ft. radius (Approximately 14 ropani)
 For natural draught FBTK / forced draught FBTK: 200 ft. radius (Approximately
28 ropani)

Minimum Distance from the forest:

 For VSBK: 5 km.
 For natural draught FBTK/ forced draught FBTK: 5 km.
 Minimum Distance from nearby dense population:
 For VSBK: 500 m.
 For natural draught FBTK/ forced draught FBTK: 1 km.

According to the above land requirement the VSVK requires about 14 ropani of land and
FBTK approximately 28 ropani for industry registration. In actual practice it is found
that industries are using more than 100 ropani of land in lease during the season.
Air Pollution Load of the Sector
Brick industries are heavily polluting industries and one of the main sources of air
pollution in Kathmandu Valley. Not only the emission, the resuspension of dust due to
excavation and material handling activities generate significant amount of dust in the
valley. Emission factors used for the estimation of emission load from the sector is
provided in Table 3.5. The data was derived by actual monitoring from VSVK and
FBTK, and Hofman technology used from USEPA. The average of three values for
FBTK is used to estimate the actual load. In order to estimate the resuspension dust of
excavation and material handling activities, the emission factor from USEPA other
30
construction activities is taken (TSP-3.3kg/m2-year, PM10-1 kg/m2-year). As the
industries are run only for 6 months, it is divided by 2. The total air pollution load of the
sector is presented in Table 3.6
Table 3.5 Mass emission load of the specific Kilns (kg of SPM/1000 fired bricks)

Type Mass emission load

VSBK 0.33
FBTK Forced draught, Zig Zag Stacking 0.87
FBTK Forced draught, Straight Line Stacking 1.82
FBTK Forced draught, Straight Line Stacking 2.51
Hoffman Kilns 1.63
(Source: Stack and energy monitoring of brick kilns in KathmanduValley – 2005)
(IEM Project report reference No. : [ES – 1/48/005]

Table 3.6 Emission load and resuspension of dust in different kilns

Emissions Load Resuspension of Dust
PM10
Annual Area EF
EF PM (1.0 TSP PM10
Technology Production (meter (TSP-
(kg/1000) (tons) kg/m2- (tons) (tons)
(million) square) kg/m2)
year)
VSBK 8 0.33 2.64 7084 3.3 1.0 12 3.5
FBTK 612 1.73 1060.8 1515976 3.3 1.0 2501 798
Hoffman 40 1.63 65.2 101200 3.3 1.0 177 50.6
1128.64 2680 812

In addition to the air pollution problem, brick industries require large quantity of water
which most industries get from ground water leading to depletion of aquifer and
lowering water table. They use the agriculture land leading to loss of top soil.

3.2.2 Industries with Boilers

More than 500 boilers are currently operating in Nepal (DoE, 2017). Among them, there
are all total 90 boilers in Kathmandu valley, which have average capacity of 1.2 tons per
hour. Further, the average operating days per year is 300 days. In Kathmandu valley, the
average operating hour ofboiler per day is 12 hours(Labour office, Kathmandu, 2017).
An Industry that utilizes boilers in Kathmandu Valley is wool dyeing industries, dairy,
beverage, hotelsand plywood. Most industries in Nepal predominantly use rice husk and
diesel and some use bagasse, furnace oil, kerosene, coal, wooden chips as fuel in boilers
to meet their steam and hot water requirements. In Kathmandu Valley, the boilers with
different fuel uses are presented in Figure 3.4.

31
 Boilers in Valley

90
60

25

5
Diesel Fired Husk/Wood dust Fired FO Fired Total
Figure 3.4: Different types of boilers used in Kathmandu Valley
Emission Standards and Compliance Status
Government of Nepal Ministry of Population and Environment (MoPE, 2012) has
published the "Standard on Emission for Industrial Boiler) and while monitoring the
industries it is found that industries are in compliance with the standard (Table 3.7). It is
found that diesel fired boilers are cleaner than the woodchips/dust fired or Furnace oil
boilers.
Table 3.7: Boilers Types and Compliance Status with Standard
Capacity PM Standards PM
SN Boilers
(tons/hrs) (mg/Nm3) (mg/Nm3)
1 Diesel Fired Boiler 1 Less than 2 126.3 1200
2 Diesel Fired Boiler 2 2.5 118.05 800
3 Diesel Fired Boiler 3 Less than 2 187.9 1200
4 FO Fired Boiler Less than 2 570 1200
5 Wood Chips/dust Fired Less than 2 890 1200

Emissions from Boilers

The total emissions from industrial boilers are calculated on the basis of the fuel used for
the purpose like fuelwood, furnace oil, diesel or agricultural residue.The annual
emissions for all boiler types in the year 2016 is calculated to be 56.88 tons of PM. The
boilers number with type, fuel consumption, and the emission factors are presented in the
3.8. Fuelwood/husk fired boilers are the most polluting one as compared to diesel and
furnace oil fired.

Table 3.8: Emission Load from Industrial Boilers

Annual
Average Annual Daily
Fuel EF PM
Boilers Numbers Capacity operating operating
used (kg/unit) (tons)
(tons/hr) days hours
(MT)
Diesel fired 60 1.2 300 12 6480 0.24 1.55
FO Fired 5 1.2 300 12 540 0.61 0.33
FW/husk 25 1.2 300 12 3600 15.3 55.00
fired
Total 56.88

32
3.2.3 Other industries
According to DOCSI, there are almost 15,000 cottage and small scale industries with
renewed registration inside the valley alone. Many such industries use coal, wood, rice
husk, diesel, kerosene as fuel in the process. There is no estimation of such fuel
consumed by these industries; however, they are using uncontrolled methods in the
process, and are contributing significantly to the particulate pollutants in the ambient
air.A simple assumption is done- a ton of diesel per day, 10 ton (one truck) of coal per
day, 10 ton of fuelwood per day, 1 ton of kerosene per day, and 1 ton of rice husk per
day is made to estimate the pollution load (Table 3.9).
Table 3.9 Estimating of PM load from other industries
Annual Quantity
Fuel Type EF (kg/unit) PM (tons/year)
(tons)
Diesel 365 0.24 0.09
Coal 3650 20 73.00
Kerosene 365 0.61 0.22
Fuelwood 3650 15.3 55.80
Rice husk 365 15.3 5.58
134.19

3.2.4 Industrial Pollution Load

The contribution of the industry sector to the air pollution in the valley is presented in
Table 3.10.
Table 3.10 Industrial Pollution Load
Industries SPM (tons/year) PM10 (tons/year)
Brick Kilns 2680 1940.64
Industries with boilers 56.88
Stone Crushers NA
Other industries 134.19

3.3 Waste Management

Refuse Burning
The population in Kathmandu Valley is increasing rapidly. The estimated population of
Kathmandu Valley is approximately 3.5 million for the year 2016. And the average solid
waste generation per capita per day is 0.50 kg/capita/day and as such total waste
generated every day is 1750 tons. Considering waste collection efficiency which is not
up to the international best practices, it can be assumed that 5 to 10% of waste is burned
openly. Using the emission factor used in Delhi of 8kg/ton of waste, a total of 255 tons to
510 tons of PM is emitted in the valley.Alarming aspect of this practice is that in many
places the plastics are mixed and burned which can generate dioxin and furan, the known
carcinogen.

Hospital Waste Incineration and Burning:

In Kathmandu valley there are 42 hospitals which have incineration facilities and other
hospitals and health centers do not have incinerators. It is estimated that about 28.4 tons
wastes is generated by hospitals in the valley every day and of which 59% is segregated
and send to municipality, the rest is categorized as hazardous waste. This hazardous
waste is either incinerated or burned openly illegally. In the month of May 2017, stack
monitoring of three hospitals were done and none of the incinerators are in compliance
with the prescribed standard (Figure 3.5).

33
 1000
898
900
SPM, 2013 SPM, 2017 Standard
800 750
700
600
500
400
278 257
300
200 115 115 141 115
109
100
0
Hospital 1 Hospital 2 Hospital 3
Figure 3.5 Complaisance Status of Incinerators with Standard

In many hospitals there is still lack of installation of incinerator and there are no private
or municipal facilities for treatment of hazardous hospital wastes in an environmentally
sound manner. Most of the incinerators are operated in worst condition without installing
SPM controlling devices which has increased SPM concentration. There are toxic air
pollutants like dioxin, furans, mercury and lead released by incinerator which is highly
risky to patients and staffs of hospitals and people living around the hospitals. Although
there is standard for these pollutants, there is no monitoring capacity in the country. Few
hospitals are found well managed and using non burned technology such as autoclaving.
Most of the incinerators are operated at night time to avoid public complaints.

If 11.6 tons of toxic wastes is incinerated in an uncontrolled manner or burned opening,

this not only generates 9.73 tons of PM (EF- 2.3 kg/ton) annually, it also emits
significant quantity of carcinogens in the populated area risking the life of many from
institutions established to cure the patients.

3.4 Domestic Sources

Population of Kathmandu Valley is now reached to around 3.5 million people thus
increasing the demand for fuel for cooking purposes. According to NOC, every day
about 424 tons of LPG and 19 tons of kerosene aredistributed in Kathmandu Valley.
About 50% of kerosene is assumed to be used for cooking purposes. There is no specific
figure of fuel wood consumption in the valley. Per capita wood consumption is around
180-200 kg/year if used as domestic cooking fuel source. And assuming still 10% of
valley population use fire wood as source of energy for domestic cooking and other
purposes, the annual consumption of fire wood in valley is approximately 70,000 tons.
About 350 tons of coal is coming to valley daily, and majority of it is used in brick
industries and industries with furnaces. Assuming only 10 tons is used for commercial
cooking purposes in the valley; it is used 3650 tons annually. The emission factors used
for domestic purposes for both kerosene and LPG and fuel wood is taken from Delhi.

Table 3.12 : Contribution of Particulate Pollutants from Domestic Cooking

Domestic Annual Consumption EF (kg/Ton) PM10 (tons/year)
CookingFuel (tons)
Kerosene 3467 0.61 2.11
LPG 154760 0.514 79.5
Fuel Wood 70000 15.3 1071
34
Coal (commercial
3650 20 73
cooking)
Total 1225.61

3.5 Agriculture Sector

The total area of three districts of KathmanduValley is 899 square kilometers (222148
acres). It is estimated that around 40 % of the total area still the agriculture land, then
using emission factor used by US EPA, AP 42 (emission factor in 4 pounds per acre)
(0.001818 tons/acre/year), the fugitive emission from agricultural activities for PM10 is
161 tons per year.

3.6 Construction Activities

Kathmandu is also in the process of reconstruction after the earthquake and as the mega
city, there are construction activities going on for residential houses, apartments,
commercial and institutional buildings, and road constructions. These activities are
sources of dust pollution as well as smaller particles with use of equipments. The
estimation of pollution load for these activities is provided in Table 3.13

Table 3.13 Emission Load from Construction Activities in Valley

Area TSP PM10
Description TSP PM10 (tons
(Square (kg/m2- (kg/m2-
of Activities (tons/year) /year)
Meter) year) year)
Residential
13,875,000 0.29 0.086 4,023 1193
buildings
Apartments 90,000 1.0 0.3 900 270
Other than
residential
170,000 3.3 1 561 170
and
apartments
Road
45,60,000 7.7 2.3 35,112 10,488
construction
Total 14,405,000 40,596 12,121

3.7 Power Generation (Diesel Generators)

About 8000 DG sets are in use in Kathmandu Valley (Table 3.14) which was estimated
to supply about 375 MW out of 1095 MW demand in 2013-14. If average running hours
per day is 12 then 1607 KL of diesel is consumed during the peak load shedding time.
These days it is assumed DG sets run one hour in average thus the daily diesel
consumption reduced to 134KL. These will generate about 12 tons of PM annually (EF-
0.24 kg/KL).

Table 3.14 Distribution of DG sets in Valley

S.N. Distribution of DG/Sector Coverage % No. of DG
1 Commercial Sector 77 6160
2 Hospital sector 6 480
3 Government Offices, NGO‘s &
6 480
INGOs
4 Manufacturing Industries 10 800
5 Others 1 80
35
 Total 100 8000
Source: On July 28, 2015 Himalayan Times

3.7 Total Emission Load From Different Sources

With the above detailed analysis of different sources of particulate pollutants in

Kathmandu Valley, the contributions of different sectors are summed up in Table 3.15.

Table 3.15 Total Emission from Different Sources in Tones per year
Emission Resuspension Total PM10, TSP,
PM10 TSP PM10 PM10 % %
Transport Sector 1703 20,072 5,250 6,953 30 32
Brick 1129 2680 812 1941 9 4
Other Industries 134 134 0.6
Refuse Burning 255 255 1.1
Incinerator 9.7 9.7 0.004
Domestic Cooking 1226 1226 5.4
Agriculture 161 161 0.7
Construction 0 40,596 12,121 12121 53.1 64
DG 12 12 0.096
Total 4629.7 63,348 18,183 22,812.7 100. 100

E M ISSIONS FROM D IFFE RE NT SOU RC ES IN

TONS/ YEA R
TSP
63348
40,596
20,072

2680

TRANSPORT BRICK CONSTRUCTION TOTAL

36
 DG PM10
0%

Transport
30%
Construction
53%

Brick oth
9% Industries
1%
Refuse Burning
Domestic 1% Incinerator
Agriculture Cooking 0%
1% 5%

Contribution in TSP
0% Transpor
t
32%
Construc
tion
64% Brick
4%

Total Emissions in Kathmandu valley tones/year

70000 63348 63348
60000
50000
40000
30000 22812.7
18183
20000
10000 4629.7
0
0
PM10 TSP

Emission Resuspension Total

37
 Sources of PM10
Emission
20%

Resuspensio
n
80%

38
 Chapter Four

Review of Relevant National Policies/Strategies/Legislations

and Administrative Recommendations:
4.1 Environmental Policy and Legislative Framework
Environmental Act 1996 and Regulation 1997
Environment Act 1996 and the Regulation 1997 are the umbrella law on the environment
in the country. Main provisions that relate to prevent and control air pollution include:
 Major projects need to go through the process of environmental assessment and
comply with the environmental management plan and mandate to MOPE to
monitoring during the implementation
 Creating pollution is the punishable act
 Provides authority to MOPE to promulgate standards and ensure their compliance
 Provision of Environmental Protection Fund for utilization in pollution
prevention and control activities
 Use of economic incentives and disincentives to prevent and control pollution
 Polluters to have pollution control certificate (concerned authorities to issue
within 6 months of this acts in place, and hence not in use yet)

As environmental legislations are being reviewed and modified regularly in many

countries, there is the need to review and make them more clear and easy to implement.

National Climate Change Policy 2011

Government of Nepal on January 22, 2011 introduced the National Climate Change
Policy which envisions a country spared from the adverse impacts of climate change, by
considering climate justice, through the pursuit of environmental conservation, human
development, and sustainable development--all contributing toward a prosperous society.

This policy has set the target to have the National Low Carbon Development Strategy by
2014 and also a national strategy on carbon trade to benefit from CDM by 2012.
Establishment of climate change center, climate resilient infrastructures, and focus on
public awareness are other areas of priority. This policy has set seven different objectives
focusing on institutional strengthening, climate change mitigation and adaption,
promotion of use of clean energy, strengthening the capacities of local communities,
follow the low carbon development path, institutional capacity on impact assessment,
maximizing the benefits from climate finance. In order to achieve the objectives,
policies for each objective are defined and altogether 61 different policies are there.This
policy proposes establishing a separate ―Climate Change Fund‖ for implementing
programmes.

National Low Carbon Economic Development Strategy (Draft)

As per the commitment made in the National Climate Change Policy, this strategy
should have been finalized by 2014 but it is still in the draft stage. This is developed to
guide the country to follow the low carbon development path with following goals:
 To decrease the dependence on fossil fuels by the optimal development of
hydropower and other renewable energies, and build energy capacity.

39
  To develop climate change resilient infrastructure through the development, use
and promotion of the technologies that emit low carbon.
 To reduce poverty through the growth of national production and income by
attracting fund for rapid low carbon economic development.
As this strategy is to promote the low carbon development, the implementation of this
will directly help to reduce the use of fossil fuel in the valley. The key strategies that will
help to reduce air pollutants are:
 Hydropower and renewable energy development (4000 MW by 2020 and 12000
MW by 2030) and 2100 MW of solar energy by 2030
 Maximum focus on demand side management (energy efficiency, energy code,
energy performance standards, use of economic instruments)
 Moving towards environmentally sustainable transport system
 Utilizing waste as resource
 Urban plantation

National Pollution Control Strategy and Action Plan (Draft)

This NPCSAP has set the vision of pollution free clean and healthy environment and in
order to move towards this vision has considered two strategic pillars- pollution
prevention and pollution control.

The pollution prevention strategy focuses on:

 Strengthening the institutional mechanism
 Mainstreaming pollution prevention measures into all development efforts
 Minimization/Reduction at the source
 Raising public awareness
And the pollution control strategy focuses on:
 Ensuring compliance to legal provisions
 Comprehensive waste (pollutants) management
 Enhancing accountability (through legal measures)
 Making polluters pay
 Addressing trans-boundary pollution issues
 Enhancing government‘s preparedness to respond environmental accidents

As this the strategy with action plan, the action plan proposed with respect to air
pollution prevention and control are summed up here:
 Redefine emission standards for vehicle and industries based on baseline
assessment of monitoring parameters
 Update motor vehicle inspection and emission testing system (MVIETS)
 Activate and operationalise VFTQC
 Strengthen vehicle emission enforcement capabilities with gradual improvement
in implementation of MVIETS for all vehicles
 Strengthen traffic control office and traffic engineering capabilities to reduce
traffic congestion (including the road discipline programs)
 Promote mass public transport and put restriction on entry of non-destined
commercial vehicles inside core urban areas
 Establish the accredited organization/institution for the inspection of the vehicle
exhaust emissions and implement strictly the green sticker provisions

40
  Monitor gasoline sale to ensure that it is not adultered; and has low emissions of
benzene
 Develop and implement a policy to discourage to ply the EURO1, EURO 2
vehicles and encourage importing only the EURO 3 and 4 standard vehicles.
 Provide the emission test equipment to private motor workshops to ensure that
the vehicle that goes under the maintenance have thoroughly done maintenance
and have passed the emission test.
 Introduce metro, trolley buses and low emission vehicles
 Conduct regular clean-up activity of the road and roadside areas and prohibit
littering habit of people
 Capacitate the private sector technical human resources in emission testing
 Introduce age limit regulations based on emission testing results and comply with
regulations
 Designate appropriate zone (Land zoning) for placement of the industries and
extraction of resources for the industries (for example excavation of soil resource
for brick industries)
 Prepare the Air pollution Monitoring guidelines
 Monitor to ensure that industries have installed pollution control, smoke and dust
control and/or gas control devices
 Initiate and ―Pilot Green Industrial Fund‖ to promote innovative green industrial
technologies that can out-perform conventional methods (emission reduction
devices, fuel saving devices and conversions from conventional to alternative
fueled machines)
 Conduct studies on health impact of air pollution in urban areas by providing
research grants
 Make clear legislative provision to close and/or relocate heavily polluting
industries (based on emission monitoring results) from settlement areas or
protected and environmentally sensitive areas, implement it and comply with it
 Strictly enforce ―polluters pay principle‖ and fines for violations and clarify
obligations to submit emission monitoring reports

4.2 Transport Sector Policies and Legislations

National Transport Policy 2001:
 Aims to make the transport sector environment friendly.
 Construction, improvement and management of the means of transport in compliance
with the requirement of traffic and environmental safety.
 Expansion of the solar power and electricity driven transport means throughout the
country.
 Special attention to be provided in improving 'the comfort, reliability, safety,
frequency, availability and affordability of public transport‖ to reduce the harmful
emissions from mobile sources.
 Provisions of the economic instruments in the form of custom and tax incentives to
promote private sector involvement in the construction maintenance and
rehabilitation of transport infrastructure and to encourage nonpolluting vehicles.
Transport Management Act 2049 and Vehicles and Transport Management Rules
2054

41
 Categorizes the vehicles (big, medium, small, public, tourism, private, government,
corporation, diplomatic) and use is mandated to be as per the registration
 Mandatory requirement for registration with proof of fitness to run
 Authority to prescribe standards for vehicles worthiness and right to reject in
noncompliance
 Restriction on change of vehicles even fuel switch without prior permission
 Route permission for public transport with requirement of fitness certificate
 No overload beyond the registered capacity of the public transport
 Restriction on vehicle speed and also on load of the vehicle as per the road status

National Sustainable Transport Strategy (NSTS) (2015-2040) (Draft):

This draft NSTS has the vision of ―developing a transport system that is efficient,
accessible, people-centric, affordable, reliable, safe, inclusive, environmental friendly,
and climate and disaster resilient‖. This vision is based on the principles of efficient,
accessible, people-centric, affordable, reliable, safe, inclusive, environment-friendly and
climate and disaster resilient. It has set a total of 19 objectives into economic,
environmental and social dimensions with indicative targets for each objectives (Table
4.1). Once approved by the government it will be the latest strategy of the government
in transport sector, the recommended strategic actions under 9 different strategies are
summed up in Table 4.2.

Table 4.1: Objectives and Targets of National Sustainable Transport Strategy (2015-
2040):
Economic Dimensions Environmental Dimensions Social Dimensions
1. Efficiency in investment and 8. Ensuring sustainability in the 15. Improve transport
service operation use of natural resources and safety and security
 Reasonable IRR and nature conservation  Reduced traffic
profitability  Minimize use of arable accidents (fatalities
 Operating cost per land for infrastructure per vehicle,
vehicle km  Minimize impacts on fatalities per
 Energy consumption per ecological resources vehicle-km)
pass-km (ICT, RT)  Reduced incidence
of travel related
2. Efficient and timely 9. Maintain the standard of
crimes
maintenance of infrastructure vehicle or engine condition
and facilities  Limit on vehicle age 16. Ensure inclusiveness
 Pothole free roads (years); Average age of of transport system
 Acceptable International vehicle  % of public
Roughness Index (IRI)  Emission compliance rate transport coverage;
% of barrier-free
3. Improved accessibility  10. Minimize local pollution and
vehicles
 Minimize time to road noise effects (UT)
head (ICT, RT);  Minimize car/motor cycle 17. Ensure gender equity
 % Coverage of public ownership (#/population) in transport services
transport (with 15 minute  Mode share of public  % of all-women
walk) (UT) transport (> 60 %) public transport
vehicles; % seats
4. Secure higher mobility 11. Promote electric vehicles
for women
 Average travel speed in  Percentage of electric
city area (30 km/hr) (UT) 18. Minimize social
42
Economic Dimensions Environmental Dimensions Social Dimensions
 Average travel speed for vehicles in total fleet impacts of transport
ICT (general highway 50 development
12. Minimize CO2 emissions  Minimize degree of
km/hr; Exp ways 80
from transport community
km/hr; railway 160
 Per capita CO2 from
km/hr) separation due to
transport sector
transport routes
5. Ensuring affordable transport  Average CO2 emission
services per pass-km (g CO2) 19. Integrate transport and
 ICT/RT- fare per Km as public health
13. Increase climate and disaster  Minimize local
% of per capita income
resiliency of transport
 UT- daily commuting pollution
infrastructure
cost as % of per capita  Share of NMT
 Revising design standards
income modes in total trips
and codes
6. Provision of reliable transport  Reduced incidence of
services infrastructure damage by
 Provision of climate related disasters
schedule services
14. Greening the freight
(% of delay)
transport
7. Leveraging transport for  Develop database on
poverty reduction freight transport
 Degree of labor intensive  Higher standard of truck
technology engines (Euro IV)
 % of investment in  Efficient operation (fuel
backward areas economy)
 Modal shift to rail/water

Table 4.2: Strategic Actions of National Sustainable Transport Strategy (2015-2040)

Investment for essential, people friendly and sustainable transport infrastructure
 Expand road network in Kathmandu Valley and other major cities
 Introduce advance and innovative construction/maintenance methods for urban roads
 Acquire adequate right-of-way (RoW) for strategic urban roads in secondary and tertiary
cities
 Designate the road hierarchy and complete missing links in Kathmandu
 Improvement of major intersection in Kathmandu valley and other major cities
(including provision of flyovers)
 Improvement of traffic management system in Kathmandu valley and other major cities
 Provisions of pedestrian facilities, such as overhead bridges
 Planning and implementation of outer ring-road and other suburban arterial roads in
Kathmandu valley
 Prepare a Master Plan for mass transit in Kathmandu (high capacity bus, BRT, LRT,
MRT)
 Improve the condition of road-based public transport with viable options, such as
introduction of high-capacity buses, provision of bus lane or Bus Rapid Transit (BRT)
system.
 Make use of value-capture mechanism to fund urban transport infrastructure investment
and integrate transport and land development.
 Invest for pedestrian and Non Motorized Transport (NMT) infrastructure in Kathmandu
and other cities
43
  Make provisions for bus terminals, bus stops, taxi stands and bicycle stands and transfer
facilities
 Make provision of parking facilities in Kathmandu and other major cities
 Undertake road network planning in secondary/tertiary cities

Planning and development of integrated transport system

 Coordinated planning of transport network with other sectoral plans, such as industrial
zones, hydropower development, eco-tourism, agro-industries and so on.
 Achieve integration between national transport network and regional development plan
 Match transport hierarchy with city hierarchy
 Coordinate railway development with regional development and local town development
plans Physical integration with good connectivity of highways, railways and airports
with the provisions of intermodal (transfer) facilities
 Coordinate the development of road-side service station with the function of market for
local agricultural and other productions
 Balancing social cost and benefits of different intercity modes through subsidies and
taxes Coordinate land-use and transport development
 Promote transit oriented development (TOD) in big and small cities
 Promote high-density and compact city development (minimize travel)
 Plan for future Mass Rapid Transit (MRT) routes and locate the high-density housing
(such as apartments) along the MRT routes
 Make adequate provision of transfer facilities (connecting different modes)
 Make provision of parking for introducing park-and-ride system
 Enforce integrated fare system (eg distance-based) for public transport
 Seek balance between the cost of private mode and public transport fare
 Recognize walk and NMT modes as the means of improving public health

Introduction of technology for efficiency and sustainability

 Improved standard for vehicle energy efficiency
 Upgraded emission standards
 Use of alternative and low-emission fuels
 Electrification of transport vehicles
 Introduction of electric rickshaw in small/medium cities
 Exploring possible use of Intelligent Transport System (ITS) for enhancing road safety
and transport service improvement, and designing new infrastructure considering
possible use of ITS in future.
 Consideration for possible use of high-speed rail (HSR) in future for the proposed East-
West railways routes (civil structure to be designed for HSR)
 Introduction of trolley buses or electric buses in Kathmandu
 Introduction of bus lane or BRT routes where the existing road width permits.
 Provision of high-quality buses (with bus info system, WiFi)
 Barrier free public transport vehicles (eg., low floor buses)
 Use of green road technology and bio-engineering to minimize ecological impacts and
landslide hazards due to construction of rural roads

Priority for improving public transport and non-motorized transport

 Taxing private modes (vehicle tax and fuel tax) and provide subsidy to public transport
from the collected revenue
 Improve service level of public transport (speed, vehicles standard, reliability, safety)

44
  Planning for bus lane in newly constructed intercity expressway routes
 Pedestrian way and dedicated bicycle lanes along national highway sections passing
through the settlement areas.
 Make provision of bus lane during peak hour
 Setting standards for pedestrian way and NMT lanes in urban areas
 Study for possible restriction of motorcycles and cars (during peak hour) on the busiest
routes in Kathmandu valley
 Provision of public transport (electric vehicles) and NMT facilities in cities/towns that
are popular tourist destination

Travel demand management (TDM)

 Plan for regional economic zones and transport connectivity to minimize intercity travel and
for better economic integration among the regions.
 Planned city development along national transport corridors giving priority for making use of
public transport (intercity) more efficient and convenient (such as with provisions of bus
terminal, access/egress modes).
 Reduce travel demand by
 Land-use and transport coordination
 Pricing transport to reflect real social cost
 Arrange staggered working/school hours
 Promote tele-commuting
 Promote modal shift (from private to public)
 Raising public awareness on the benefits of public transport
 Imposing higher cost on private modes (‗push‘ factor)
 Making public transport attractive (‗pull‘ factor)
 Plan and implement urban development schemes under Transit Oriented Development
(TOD) in Kathmandu valley and other sub-metropolitan cities.
 Early planning intervention to ensure land-use and transport coordination in newly
(recently) declared municipalities or newly extended areas of existing municipalities or
metro (and sub-metro) cities.

Environmental and social safeguards

 Reviewing guidelines for environmental and social assessment
 Provision of considering positive environmental benefits of railways in EIA guidelines
 Strengthening vehicle testing and green sticker system.
 Monitoring of vehicle/engine condition for compliance
 Regulation on aging vehicles
 Implement the policy decision of phasing out 20 years old vehicles
 Prepare guidelines for limiting vehicles ages by the kind of vehicles (such as
private, taxis, buses, minibuses, freight vehicles, vehicles for urban, intercity and
rural; vehicles for terai and hill areas)
 Provision of safety audit for infrastructure and vehicles
 Checking drivers‘ health and other condition
 Stringent conditions for issuing driving licenses for public transport vehicles
 Provision of service lanes on national highways
 Provision of over/under pass on national highway and railways
 Up scaling vehicle emissions standards in Kathmandu valley
 Strict monitoring of compliance of vehicle emission standard
 Upgrading engineering and environmental standards of rural roads

45
Adopt the concept of green freight
 Coordinate production and consumption places (minimalize transport distance)
 Minimize empty-running of trucks
 Improve engine efficiency (fuel economy)
 Improve operational efficiency of truck transport
 Modal shift to railway/water transport
 Provision of container port (dry port)
 Urban freight transport
 Provision of appropriately located freight station
 Design of efficient distribution logistics
 Clean vehicles

Building climate and disaster resilient transport system

 Awareness raising among key stakeholders
 Developing and mainstreaming project screening guidelines
 Adopt design standards to adapt climate change and other hazards
 Provision of network redundancy in transport planning
 Classification of road system based on the degree of vulnerability
 Adopting hierarchical design standards based on the strategic importance of a particular
route of link
 Adopt higher design standard for strategic roads (eg access to hospital etc)

Enhance institutional capacity and undertake reform

 Building capacity of government institutions (central and local level governments)
 Upgrade technical capacity of private firms involved in infrastructure design and
construction (consultants and contractors)
 Start courses on railway planning, engineering, and management in public engineering
campus
 Establish railway training institute
 Building capacity for transport policy research
 Establish in-house think-tank within government agencies
 Establish long-run collaboration for transport policy research with some
research center of public university
 Maintain data-base of basic transport data
 Restructure transport regulatory institutions and reform regulatory provisions for
transport services.
 Establish linkage/partnership/collaboration with concern agencies
/institutions/stakeholders national and international levels.
 Improve/enforce regulation for axle loads of heavy vehicles plying on the national
highways
 Regulate use of motorcycle on some busiest routes (as a pilot project)
 Conduct periodic personal trip survey for Kathmandu valley
 Design public transport routes and franchising policy based on scientific analysis

4.3 Industry Sector Policies and Legislations

Industrial Policy 2011

46
 This policy identifies insufficient energy availability, weak industrial infrastructures,
low productivity, and absence of technology acquire capacity as some of the barriers
for industrial growth
 Vision of enhanced productivity and sustainability to achieve the goal of sustainable
industrial development
 Aims to create a conducive environment for private, public and collaborative sector
to participate and contribute in the national goal of poverty reduction
 Aims to establish the industry sector as one of the most reliable and dependable
sector by promoting the use of modern technology and environment friendly
production processes
 Provide financial and technical support to proactive industries on adopting
environment friendly and energy saving technologies
 Initiate special programs to establish green industries and make the existing
industries pollution free and zero carbon.
 The policy also has made the provision of special facilities like no royalty for energy
produced by industry for its own use and also provision to sell through national grid
at market price
Foreign Direct Investment Policy 2015
 In the context of promoting private sector investment in the cleaner technologies and
cleaner industries through the market mechanism like Clean Development
Mechanism or Sustainable Development Mechanism (Paris Agreement), this policy
is important.
 Private investment and also the technology transfer require permission from the
government as per this policy.
 Long-term goal of this policy is to attract the foreign investment on nationally
prioritized sector.
 The objectives include not only to attract the foreign money but also equally
prioritizes the investment on modern technology, management skill, and high
technical skills to ensure the productive and competitive industrial growth.
Industrial Enterprises Act 2073:

 Provides responsibility to owners to ensure that the industry takes full care to
control the adverse impact on environment
 Provision of license for industries that require to go through EIA and IEE
procedures
 Industrial Promotion Board has the authority to restrict registration of industries
in urban areas including Kathmandu Valley
 IPB had made the following decisions regarding the industries in the valley:

4.4 Energy Sector Policies and Legislations

Hydropower Development Policy 2001
 Quite old comparatively and do not even mention the word climate change
 On hydropower development, a clean source of energy, encompasses the objectives
of the climate change
 Aims to develop hydropower as an exportable commodity

47
 Pursue investment friendly, clear, simple and transparent procedures so as to promote
private sector participation in the development of hydropower, also taking into
account internal consumption and export possibility of hydropower‖. Favors public
private partnership in the development of hydropower sector in the country
 Promotes river basin approaches for watershed management
Rural Energy Policy 2006:
 In this policy rural energy is known as renewable energy
 Overall goal of this policy is to contribute to rural poverty reduction and
environmental conservation by ensuring access to clean, reliable and appropriate
energy in the rural areas.
 Sets sector specific working policies on -micro and small hydro power; biogas; fuel-
wood, charcoal, briquette, biomass energy, and biomass gasification; solar energy
technology; wind energy technology; improved cook stove technology; improved
water mill technology; and rural electrification
 Specific strategy on subsidy for renewable energy promotion
Renewable Energy Subsidy Policy 2016:
Introduced for the implementation of REP 2006:
 Provides the subsidies for different renewable energy technologies and defines the
procedures for distribution of subsidies to the recipients.
 Involves the qualified private sector institutions in the distribution of subsidies also.

 A latest policy of the GON to promote renewable technologies with the use of
economic instruments.

4.5 Summary of Recommendations of Various Committees

The challenge of dealing with increasing air pollution in the Kathmandu Valley has been
recognized by the Ministry of Population and Environment in mid-nineties and over the
years many committees it different levels has been constituted to recommend the actions
in dealing the air pollution problem.
 Task Force on Air Pollution Control in Kathmandu Valley, 2073
 High Level Committee on Probing and Solving the Issues on 20 year Old
Vehicles (MOPE), 2058
 Committee on Implementation of the Order of Supreme Court on Phase Out of 20
Year Old Vehicles (MOLTM) 2058/59
 Committee on Review of Vehicle Emission Standard and Monitoring Mechanism
(MOPE)2060
 Technical Committee on the Relocation of Brick Industries from Kathmandu
Valley (MOICS) 2060

4.5.1 Task Force on Air Pollution Control in Kathmandu Valley, 2073

This Task Force was constituted under the chairmanship of the Director General of
Department of Environment with members from concerned ministries/departments and
experts in the field. This TF was formed to recommend the immediate and short-term
actions to deal with the alarming air pollution observed in the valley. The
recommendations made by this TF are presented in Table 4.3

Table 4.3: Recommendations of Task Force on Air Pollution Control in Kathmandu

Valley
48
Ban on Refuse Burning
Activities Roles and Time Frame
Responsibilities
Make waste collection system effective and Municipalities Immediate
restrict dumping of wastes at public places
Strict ban on open burning of the wastes Municipalities Immediate
Proper management of health based wastes DOH, health Immediate
institutions, hospitals
Expand electric cremation facilities at Pashupati Pashupati Area Next Fiscal Year
and Teku Development Fund, and
KMC
Control of Resuspension of Dusts from Roads in Valley
Fix time table for refilling the excavated roads DOR and Muncipalities Immediate
and blacktopping of roads
Arrangement of water spraying in the excavated DOR and Contractors Immediate
roads
Monitoring to ensure the compliance of above DOE Immediate
recommendations
Use alternative route in the excavated roads to the Traffic Police Immediate
possible extent
Ensure quality of blacktopped roads and drainages DOR and municipalities Immediate
Control of vehicular exhaust emission
Make the green sticker system effective DOTM, DOE, and Immediate and
throughout the Kathmandu Valley for all types of Traffic Police next fiscal year
vehicles. Involve capable private sector workshop
in the testing and DOTM in monitoring
Introduce the on-road monitoring of vehicles and Traffic Police Immediate, and
restrict the movement of non-comply ones. new equipments
next FY
Reward citizens complaining the polluting DOTM and Traffic Immediate
vehicles and make use of mobile apps for this. Police
Increase tax on private diesel vehicles, MOF and DOTM Next FY
Introduce EURO IV mass emission standard and MOPE, DOTM, NOC Next FY
fuel standard; and fix timetable for updating of the
standards
Monitor the load of the vehicles and take actions Traffic Police Immediate
for those overloaded goods vehicles
Promotion of electric and hybrid vehicles
Zero custom to electric vehicles, spare parts, and MOF Next FY
equipments. Economic incentives to hybrid
vehicles
Politician and high ranking government officials MOF Next FY
to use electric cars to create awareness
Establish charging networks at highways to MOF, NEA and Private Next FY
facilitate the movement of electric cars Sector
Legal arrangement to convert diesel and petrol DOTM Immediate
vehicles into electric vehicles
Effective traffic management
enforcement of traffic rules for easy movement of Traffic Police Immediate
vehicles
Fix the public bus stops and enforce strictly Traffic Police Immediate
Make effective parking system and increase fees Municipalities Immediate
significantly
Implement the fix time table for office/school Traffic Police Immediate
49
vehicles
Install more traffic lights and repair the non- DOR, Municipalities, Immediate
function traffic lights Traffic Police
Fix time table for goods vehicle to enter city areas Traffic Police Immediate
Make bus and truck terminal at appropriate places DOTM and Next FY
municipalities
Improve public transport system
Implement route reorientation plan developed by DOTM Immediate
the Kathmandu Sustainable Urban Transport
Project
Conduct the detailed feasibility study of pollution KSUTP Immediate
free mass transit system and establish bus rapid
transit and bus lanes
Develop integrated bus transport system with DOTM and Public bus Next FY
routes, bus stops, transit points, ticket counters owners
and monthly ticket passes
Incentives to pollution free public transport MOF Next FY
Promote walking and cycling
Make walking safe and comfortable DOR Immediate
Make separate cycle lane in possible roads DOR, Municipalities Immediate
Make master plan for walking and cycling routes KVDA Immediate
in whole valley
Make inner city of valley and other appropriate Municipalities and Immediate
areas only cycling and walking areas Traffic Policy
Develop and implement guidelines and standards KVDA, DOR, Immediate
for design of urban roads Municipalities
Minimize Emissions/Dusts from Brick-Kilns and Other Industries in Valley
Use of Zig-zag firing technology or technology MOI, FBIN Next FY
more efficient than this.
Review and upgrade the emission standard for MOPE Immediate
Brik Kilns
Regular monitoring of emissions from brick kilns DOE Next FY
and boilers
Encourage roofs to run industries in rainy season MOI Immediate
Restrict the running of Brick Kilns during January MOI Next FY
and February
Promote alternatives to bricks and use them in MOI Immediate
government buildings
Trainings to industries on cleaner production MOI and Private Sector Immediate
Promote Greenery in the Urban Areas
Measure Green area in valley and prepare action Kathmandu Valley Immediate
plan for expansion and conservation Development Authority,
Municipalities
Plantation at roadside with proper care DOR and Municipalities Immediate
Develop and run public parks inside the city Municipalities Immediate
Convert into public parts the areas occupied by MOD, MOH, KVDA Immediate
security agencies
Promote in-house greenery by promoting growing Municipalities, MOAD Immediate
vegetables and gardens
Air Quality Monitoring and R&D
Expand the network of AQM and dissipate the DOE Immediate
results to general public
Impact assessment on human health in DOE and NHRC Immediate
cooperation with hospitals
50
Analysis of government policies and its impact on MOPE and MOH Immediate
the quality of air, human health and economy
Effective Coordination or Good Governance for Air Quality Management
Reactivate Environment Protection Council MOPE Immediate
Develop guideline and proposal for utilization of MOPE Current FY
pollution fee
Develop detailed action plan on improvement of DOE Immediate
air quality management of Kathmandu Valley
Institutional strengthening of the DOE with clear MOPE Immediate
legal mandate and financial and human resources
Institutional strengthening of the DOTM with MOIDT Immediate
clear legal mandate and financial and human
resources
Institutional strengthening of the Traffic Police MOH Immediate
with clear legal mandate and financial and human
resources
Nepal to become member of CCAC to benefit MOPE Immediate
from its knowledge networks
Establish the Kathmandu Valley Transport MOIDT Next FY
Management Authority
Public Awareness
Develop action plans for public awareness MOPE, MOH Immediate
Publication and distribution of awareness DOE, DOH, Immediate
materials including public notices; Municipality,
Information Centre
Training to health professionals on air pollution MOH Immediate
and its impact on human health;
Training to teachers and students on air pollution MOE Immediate
and its impacts;
Mobilize mass communication media on public MOIC Immediate
awareness

4.5.2 High Level Committee on Probing and Solving the Issues on 20-year-Old
Vehicles (MOPE), 2058

Aneight-member high level committee formed under the chairmanship of member of

National Planning Commission with secretaries from six ministries as member and joint
secretary of MOPE as member secretary specifically to deal with the strong opposition of
transport entrepreneurs on the decision ofbanning 1980s model either diesel or petrol-
operated vehicles from plying on the streets of Kathmandu valley, a ban on the operation
of the two-stroke-engine either petrol or gas operated three-wheeled vehicles effective
from 2058-8-1.

Vehicle Retirement
Two stroke engine vehicles are responsible for particulate pollutants because of the
mixing of lubricant in the engine and looking into the carrying capacity of the roads of
Kathmandu Valley, following alternative measures are recommended:
 Government to scrape such vehicles (two stroke three wheelers) and compensate
the vehicle owner (70 million rupees required for this based on 12 times of price
of Rs 8/kg of scrape value)
51
  Tax rebate of 15% if two stroke three wheelers are replaced with EURO-I or
EURO-II four stroke three wheelers by similar numbers (vehicle owners to get
benefit of Rs 80 million in tax rebate)
 Facility to import individually or jointly of EURO-I or EURO-II standard
microbus with seating capacity of 10-14 seats with 20% tax rebate against four
such vehicles to be phased out (vehicle owner to get benefit of Rs 120 million in
tax rebate)

Vehicle retirement program to be based upon the compliance of the vehicle with in-use
emission standard and not on the age of the vehicle, and for this the following
recommendations are made:
 Emission checking programs to the affected vehicles other than two stroke three
wheelers to be established within 15 days and 15 days time to be given for repair
and maintenance of vehicles not within the standard. Further 35 days time to
repair and maintenance to bring within standard and if could not come, then
phase out such vehicles.
 2056-7-25 notification to be amended with provision of replacing the 20 years
old vehicles not complying with standard only by EURO-I or EURO-II standard
within certain time period.

Pollution Control Devices

 MOPE to investigate the feasibility of introducing pollution control devices like
Catalytic Converter, Exhaust Gas Recirculation, Fuel Ingestion System into old
vehicles to reduce pollution level.

Clean Fuel and Clean Vehicles

 Arrangement to be made to import fuel quality demanded by EURO-I or EURO-
II standard vehicles for their optimum benefit in environmental ground and
monitoring of fuel quality to be initiated by the designated authority NBSM.

 Explore of possibility of donor support in the strengthening of vehicle monitoring

system, establishment of battery recycling plant, and expansion of trolley and
tram as mass transport system.

 Promote clean electric vehicles through providing preferences in routes,

developing infrastructure for battery recycling, promoting clean mass transport
system in the valley and expand it in other cities

 Enforcement of load capacity standard on vehicles to prevent emission due to

overload and also enforce the standard strictly on appearance, security, passenger
facilities to avoid traffic congestion and reduce pollution. And also restriction on
running of vehicles in other cities in the valley and vehicles permitted in long
routes.

Traffic Management
 Preference for big vehicles in main roads and other small vehicles and three
wheelers in link roads

52
  Alternate day permission for running of private vehicles as per odd and even
number of vehicles in the first phase
 Compulsory arrangement for running in the left side of road for slow moving
vehicles
 Expansion of road width, proper sewage management and improvement in
quality of such facilities
 Arrangement for alternate passage like sky-over, sub-way, etc
 Smokeless vehicles only provision in tourist and cultural sensitive places
 Proper facilities and effective management of public transport stop over at
roadside
 Complete ban on running small shops at footpath and piling of construction
materials
 Repair and maintenance of water supply, telephone, sewage, electricity on roads
to be done only in night time
 Municipalities to allocate space for establishment of standard workshop and
discourage the workshops established at roadsides inside the city

Other Sources of Pollution

Particulate pollution is of serious concern and for the prevention and control effective
programs are required focusing on major sources, particularly in the following sector:
 Vehicles
 Industries (traditional brick kilns and cement industries)
 Road quality improvement
 Solid waste management
 Fuel quality

Policy Shift
 ―Polluters Pay‖ principle should be the long-term strategy of Environmental
Policies and for this MOPE should take initiative.
 Private auto workshops to be accredited and entrusted with vehicle emission
testing roles and responsibilities and government authorities to monitor such
workshops

4.5.3 Committee on Implementation of the Order of Supreme Court on Phase Out of

20-Year-Old Vehicles (MOLTM) 2058/59
A writ was filed in the Supreme Court against the government‘s asking to enforce the
decision of 2057-7-25 on phasing out of the 20 year old vehicles. Supreme Court
directed government to implement the decision made with the objective of reducing the
pollution level in the valley and Ministry of Labor and Transport Management formed a
high level committee under the chairmanship of secretary of Ministry of Labor and
Transport Management with following members:
 Director general of Department of Transport Management,
 Joint secretary of Ministry of Environment, Science and Technology,
 Joint secretary of Ministry of Finance,
 Chairmen of two different organizations of Transport Entrepreneurs Associations,
 Chairman of Consumer Forum,
 Director- technical, Department of Transport Management
53
  SSP from KathmanduValley Traffic Police

Recommendations of the Committee:

 Requesting Ministry of Finance for waiving off the import duty up to 50% on
the import of the vehicles replacing the older vehicles.
 The vehicles in question will be allowed to ply in the roads of Kathmandu for
another year. However they will have to go off road if these vehicles are found
not complying (can‘t come back even after repair and later complying the
standards) on any on the road monitoring or routine monitoring.
 Government should fix the lump sum compensation for scrapping these vehicles
 Another subcommittee to be constituted to make necessary arrangement for the
implementation of these decision

4.5.4 Committee on Review of Vehicle Emission Standard and Monitoring

Mechanism (MOPE) 2060

Then Ministry of Population and Environment, realizing the need to review the vehicle
emission standards in the changed context and to ensure the compliance of such
standards, had constituted a technical committee under the chairmanship of joint
secretary with representatives from Department of Transport Management, Kathmandu
Valley Traffic Police, Institute of Engineering, Nepal Automobile Dealers Association,
Transport Entrepreneurs Associations, NGO, and ESPS/MOPE. This committee had
made the following recommendation to the ministry.
1. I/M programs should be designed as 'decentralized system' in which the
inspection and maintenance activities are separated. It is advised that the
inspection part should be entrusted with the private parties and a referral agency
be established under the government umbrella which should also look after the
roadworthiness aspect. Such referral workshop should preferably under the aegis
of Department of Transport Management. Alternatively, Institute of Engineering,
Automobile Department, Thapathali can be entrusted for this activity. The
number of inspection stations should be designed after paying due consideration
to likely size of vehicle fleet for inspection, location, manpower availability,
financial requirement and so on. It is also advised that at least one station should
have facilities to carry out 'loaded test'. During the bidding process, the cost for
proposed testing, that is to be levied to the motorists should be obtained and fixed
accordingly.

In the beginning, or during transition period, private sector should share the
workload with DOTM and KVTPO. However, during this phase the fee charged
by these government agencies should be at par with private sector and which
should be based on the 'actual cost' basis.

2. The maintenance part of I/M should be left to private workshops. However, the
authorized vehicle dealers should be made accountable to ensure that the vehicles
they supply in the market meet emission standards for new as well as in-use
vehicles, so long they are repaired at their workshops. This is to suggest that they
need to have pollution monitoring devices at their disposal and their staffs are
well trained for the maintenance of pollution control devices fitted in the vehicle.
Furthermore, the authorized dealers must maintain the requisite
repair/maintenance machineries that are recommended by vehicle manufacturers.

54
 This is to suggest that there is need to regulate the vehicle importers/dealers.
Government, while approving the agency for vehicle dealership should set such
criteria and regulate this market.

3. To ensure that pollution control devices fitted in the vehicle, and conforming to
NVMES 2056, meet the set emission standard for at least 80,000 km, vehicle
importer should identify the 3% of total imported vehicles in, which are likely to
be well maintained. Subsequently, the emissions of these vehicles should be
monitored on regular basis (surprise checks as well) and the data maintained. If
the average emissions of such vehicles do not meet the set standard for 80,000
Km the dealer should recall all the vehicles of that particular model and get them
repaired under warranty cover.

4. The following enforcement mechanisms are suggested to ensure motorists'

participation in the program.

 For vehicles that intend to ply in the valley must get green stickers. Therefore,
it is essential that testing facilities should be located at least one near to
Thankot, in the west and another close to Bhaktapur in the east.

 Vehicles that fail in two tests in one calendar year should be subjected to
'loaded test' in chassis dynamometer. Initially, such provision should be
limited to heavy-duty diesel vehicles and commercial fleet such as taxis and
buses/mini buses/pick-ups plying in the urban area. Once the program runs
successfully, such tests should be extended to other categories of vehicles as
well.

 A team should be constituted to carry out roadside inspection. Preferably,

such team should have representative from MOPE, DOTM, KVTPO, and
municipality. Once the program is well developed concerned municipality
should be entrusted for regular inspection as well as roadside checking.

 The following penalty mechanism should be in place if a vehicle fails the

inspection test.

о Registration book should be confiscated once the vehicle fails the test.
It should be returned only after the vehicle passes the test after it is
subject to repair.
о Vehicles that fail the test should not be allowed to ply in the streets of
Kathmandu. However, they should be allowed to go to the workshop
for repair.
о Vehicle administration activities such as registration, renewal,
ownership transfer etc., within the valley, should be done only after
getting the green stickers.

5. If a vehicle that holds green sticker fails in roadside emissions test, they should
be subject to following additional penalties, in addition to that specified in the
preceding paragraphs:

55
  A monetary fine Rs. 500/-, if the emissions level is higher than set standard
by up to 10%.

 A monetary fine Rs. 1,000/-, if the emissions level is higher by 10.1-25% of

set standard.

 A monetary fine Rs. 2,000/-, if the emissions level is higher by more than
25.1-50% of set standard.

 If the emissions level is more than 50.1% of set in-use emission standard, the
driving license of the driver should be confiscated, vehicle should be
prohibited from plying in the road, and the vehicle should be subjected to
'loaded test, after repair.

6. The insurance premium of the vehicles should be linked to emission test result.
For a vehicle that meets emission standard should get some rebate in premium.

7. Vehicle database needs to be created to monitor the emission history of the

vehicle. Computer networking is required between the testing stations and the
concerned government agencies such as MOPE, DOTM, Municipality, and
KVTPO.

8. TV/Radio advertisement or jingles should be devised so as to create the

awareness amongst the motorists and the general public that proper maintenance
not only reduces the pollution but also improves the fuel economy and enhance
the life of the vehicles.

9. While performing the test for emissions, the test controller should fill in the
printout as well as the green sticker with license plate number, date, and put
signature on both. The motorist should show the green sticker on the front
windscreen while the printout must be together with the registration book (blue
book). This measure should held the person accountable.

10. In order to train the workshop technicians and mechanics, the activities of VAPP
should be expanded and diversified to prepare the workshops to repair Euro II
vehicles as well. Alternatively, Thapathali Engineering Campus can be used for
the purpose.

11. Agencies such as SOMEN or Thapathali Engineering Campus should be

entrusted as independent certifying agency for workshops, technicians, and spare
parts.

12. The guiding principles for certification of inspection stations, should be as

follows:

 Must have necessary equipments to carry out the 'idle' test for petrol vehicles
and 'free acceleration' testing of diesel vehicles. That is, they must have at
least one set of four-gas analyser and an opacity meter. (For testing centre
that is willing to provide 'loaded test' should have complete sets of
dynamometer testing facilities for light and heavy-duty vehicles).

56
  Must have at least two skilled motor mechanics with at least three years'
formal training in a technical college and two years practical experience in a
workshop. They must also be certified as 'Motor Vehicle Emission
Technician' by training agencies such as VAPP or any such recognised
institutions.

 Must have own land and shed. The requisite land can be determined after
analyzing the likely volume of vehicles that need to be tested at any one point
in time. It could also vary depending upon the location. However, the
minimum land requirement is estimated to be 2-3 Ropani with good access
road.

13. The recognized inspection centers should be periodically evaluated in terms of

their performance and quality service. The likely indicators could be:

 Number of vehicles inspected, pass, and fail data.

 Roadside tests data of vehicles, pass, fail
 Failure margin of roadside testing
 Time required to get the testing

Based on the performance audit, appropriate reward and mechanism should be

devised. Evaluation team should consist of representatives from government as
well as independent agencies.

4.5.5 Technical Committee on the Relocation of Brick Industries from Kathmandu

Valley (MOICS) 2060

MOICS (IPB) constituted a Technical Committee under chairmanship of the Joint

Secretary, Technical and Environment Division of MOICS on 2060/6/6 to address the
public complaints coming up from time to time regarding the air pollution due to brick
industries. The conclusion and recommendation of the committee are reproduced here as
they are relevant today also.

Conclusions

After detailed evaluation on the status of the brick industries in Kathmandu Valley on
legal ground, technical ground, demand and supply situation, environmental concern,
and socio-economic impact, the committee has reached on the following conclusion:
 The study showed that relocation of brick industries from Kathmandu Valley to
any other places would require plain land area of about 14,000 ropanis. The
neighboring sites, which could be useful for making bricks, are Dhading,
Nuwakot, Kavre and the districts in Terai.

 In Terai region, required land is available and pollution problem may not arise
because of better dispersion. The relocation of brick industries to Terai region
will increase the price of brick in KathmanduValley because of higher
transportation cost.

57
  The land required for relocation of the industries to Dhading and in Nuwakot may
not be suitable due to their topographic structure. Plain lands in those districts are
very less and they have terraced type of topography.

 In Kavre, the possible areas are Banepa, Dhulikhel, and Panauti. However, if the
brick industries are relocated in these areas only the pollution problem will be
shifted to these areas, as its topography is similar to KathmanduValley. Since
suitable area of those sites is less than KathmanduValley it is envisaged that the
problem of air pollution in those areas will be more than that in
KathmanduValley.

 In present state, the highway linking Kavre and KathmanduValley is narrow and
busy. The transportation of bricks from those areas will cause heavy traffic in the
Arniko highway and there will be added pollution on the way. Increased
transportation cost of brick from those sites to KathmanduValley will drastically
increase the cost of bricks.

 If the industries are relocated from KathmanduValley it will aggravate the

existing heavy traffic load in the highways. In average, 1500 trucks will move
everyday to and from KathmanduValley which is the biggest market of bricks in
the kingdom. The movement of trucks will cause air pollution on the roadside
and in the valley. More traffic load on highways will cause more jam, more
pollution, more accidents etc.

 However, the details studies on environmental, socio-economic aspects have to

be carried out for those sites. Due to resource and time constraint the team did not
do the detail study of those sites.

Recommendations:
o Air emission standard for the brick industries should be formulated, made
mandatory and closely monitored. The brick industries in operation must have
sampling port, platform and ladder so that the emission from the chimney can be
closely monitored.

o Traditional brick making process should be banned and new technologies such as
VSBK, which emits less air pollution, should be promoted and encouraged.

o The brick industries should be clustered in some places in the eastern/northern

part of valley considering the normal wind direction (west-east). Clusterization
will also facilitate compliance monitoring system as well as providing facilities to
the labors and the industries as well. This will also help saving prime land and
maintain landscape of the valley. Detail study for the industrial zoning is
recommended.

o Alternative option of relocation is to promote industry to be established in

consortium. This will help reduce the pollution and cost as well.

o Alternative construction materials to bricks should be identified and promoted.

o EPA and EPR should be amended to the implement level.

58
 o Most of the existing manpower has not been adequately trained to discharge
counseling services of two technologies, namely FBTK and VSBK, it is therefore
massive training should be programmed.

o Distance from the forest boundary should be relaxed from 5 Km to 1 Km and

forest boundary should be defined. A type of forest from which the distance is
measured should be clearly mentioned.

4.6 Summery of Recommendations of Stakeholders Consultation Meetings

In the process of developing this action plan, a number of consultation meetings with key
stakeholders were organized, and the summery of recommendations made are presented
in Table 4.4.
Table 4.4: Summery of Recommendations of Stakeholders Consultation Meeting
Stakeholder Recommendations
Industry Sector  Solid fired boilers should be replaced with liquid fire boilers and
(boilers) government should make a provision for custom duty free for such
boilers.
 Euro IV deiseal should be used by all boilers.
 Latest technology based Fluidized Bed 3 pass boiler with multi cyclone
should only allow to install in case of solid fired boilers.
 Department of Environment should request to the Department of
Industry for facilitation of soft loan for purchasing and installation of
pollution controlling devices and replacement of high polluting boilers
with low pollution generating boilers.
 Self-Monitoring of boilers emissions and submission of emission reports
to the Department of Environment in every 6 monthsmandatorily.
 Review the existing boiler emission standards.
 Capacity enhancement of Ministry of Population and Environment and
Department of Environment for strictly monitoring and compliance of
standards.

BOX1: Major Policy Initiatives Targeting Vehicular Emissions:

1991: Banned diesel three wheelers registration.
1994: Emission standards for in-use vehicles
1999: Banned three wheelers operated by diesel
1999: Subsidies for electric vehicles.
2000: Nepal Vehicle Mass Emission Standard EURO I.
2000: Stopped two stroke registration
2001: Announced the ban of 20 years old vehicle, but not implemented.
2001: National Transport Policy
2003: National Ambient Air Quality Standards
2004: Two stroke three wheelers banned from operation
2009: National indoor air quality standard and implementation guideline
2012: EURO III standard
2017: Phase out of 20 years old public transport and goods vehicles
2017: Import of EURO IV fuel quality
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Industry Sector  Government has banned in using rubber items and tyres as fuel in brick
(Brick Kilns) kilns however, such items are still used in brick kilns during night time.
These brick kiln where illegal use of rubber as fuel is posing threat to
environment and public health of Kathmandu Valley. Therefore,
government should make regular surveillance visit where brick kilns are
violating the ban. Furthermore, imprisonment on charges of using rubber
should be enforced by law.
 Brick Kiln industries are mostly depending on coal as fuel therefore
government should encourage adopting energy efficient and clean
alternative fuel instead of imported coal.
 Government should fix standard of coal that is imported from India.
Coal with high GCV values and less ash and sulphur contain should
be imported.
 Large scale brick producing kilns with cleaner technologies should
be introduced.
 The temperature measurement instruments such as thermocouple,
pressure meter and temperature indication should be used in brick
kiln instead of worker‘s own judgment so that coal can be added
when necessary that will ultimately reduce coal consumption.
Additionally, workers do negligence during night time so use of new
equipment is very necessary.
 All the brick kiln owner are ready to welcome new technology such
as Hybrid Huffman and Tunnel, Zig Zack if 40% fuel is consumed
as internal fuel which really reduce the fuel consumption. However,
govern has no clear policy and standard and also due to unstable
political situation in Nepal, the recommendation developed is
difficult to be implemented as said by stakeholders.
 The brick kiln industry owners are ready to adopt particular and
specific technology instead of several other technologies as
prescribed by government. Therefore, government needs to enforce
one specific technology.
 Regular training to worker should be conducted.
 Promotion should be done instead of compulsion.
 Supervision should be done by environment officer and coordination
of officer with stakeholder is must.

Health Sector  Discourage to use common type of inclinators in all hospitals and
municipalities.
 Promotion of integrated waste management system.
 Self-Monitoring of waste management practices and submit the
report to the Department of Environment in every 6 months
mandatorily.
 All pollution controlled devices applied large scale of waste to
energy based incinerator should only allow to install in Kathmandu
valley.
 All hospitals should segregate their waste. Generate the biogas from
all biodegradable waste and sold out sellable noninfectious waste.
 Infectious waste should be autoclaved and make infection free then
60
 only sold out or managed.
 After 5 years‘ operation of any kinds of incinerator should be
complete banned by law.
 Open burning of hospital waste and municipal waste should be
banned and make punishable by law.
 Refuse burning by any persons/organizations should be banned and
make punishable by law.

Civil Society  Kathmandu Valley is more vulnerable compared to other region of

and Expert Nepal due to its unique topography. Appropriate location is
necessary to be selected to establish new brick kiln industry in the
valley.
 Brick Kiln industries should be encouraged to adopt existing
economically viable technology rather than new technology.

 Regular study on air pollution impact on local area and

transboundary effect is necessary to carry out.
 Merging together around ten industries and shifting to the location
where there is less impact on environment and human health is
necessary.
 For the operation of new industry, government should make IEE and
EIA mandatory which should be approved by Department of
Environment (DoE) and there should be coordination of every
industry with DoE.
 In case of non-compliance with air pollution standards, the industry
should not get renews. The industry should be renewed upon proof
of compliance with emission.
 Despite all the pollution, almost all brick industries meet the national
standard therefore; amendment of national standards should be done.

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 Chapter Five

An Integrated Urban Air Quality Management Framework

The ―Action Plan on Air Quality Management of Kathmandu Valley‖is based on an

integrated management framework approach to achieve the objectives and targets set in
this action plan. The components of this integrated framework are presented graphically
in Figure 5.1 and each component is briefly discussed in the following headings for their
importance and need prior to presenting the strategy on each component and the action
plans.

Policy and
Legal AQM
Framewor Decision
k Support
System

An Integrated Air
Quality
Management
Institutiona Framework Communic
l Setup ation and
Awareness

Sectoral
Regional Policies
and global
AQM

Figure 5.1: An Integrated Air Quality Management Framework

62
5.1 Air Quality Management Decision Support System
In order to achieve the air quality objectives, first there should be a AQM decision
support system in place that provides information on:
 the status of air quality with concentration of pollutants of concerns in the urban
air with different averaging time in the different locality of the city
 the details on different sources (mobile, area or stationary) for different pollutants
of concern including secondary pollutants and their dispersion in the local
meteorological conditions
 the impacts of pollution on human health, local environment and economy, and
 a system on setting air quality standards for pollutants of concern for time bound
targets with different averaging time and QA/QC system

With such a system in place (presented in Figure 5.2), institutional arrangement made for
the implementation of the air quality strategy can only develop pragmatic clean air
implementation plan with priorities and regularly evaluate their effectiveness and set new
targets with added actions for continual improvement of the air quality. The importance
or the need of each of the above mentioned system is briefly discussed to support the
national strategies on AQM decision support system.

Air Quality Standard

or Goal

Source Dispersion Modeling

Health and
Apportionment Environmental
Studies Assessment

Air Quality Development and Emission Inventories

Monitoring Evaluation of Control
Options

Implementation of
Control Options

Figure 5.2: Air Quality Management Decision Support System

5.1.1 Air Quality Monitoring System

Air Quality Monitoring System is developed to regularly monitor the concentration of

different air pollutants to achieve the following objectives:
 Judge compliance with air quality objectives
63
  Determine trends in pollutant concentrations
 Identify source contributions to air pollution
 Development and evaluation of control strategies
 Development of air quality data for public information needs
 Exposure and health effects evaluation and research
 Atmospheric process characterization and verification of dispersion models

Campaign air quality monitoring in Kathmandu Valley was done in the 1990s but the
system for continuous monitoring of air quality in Kathmandu Valley was established in
2002 with DANIDA support. This system run successfully for few years even after the
project was completed in 2005.Ministry of Population and Environment has recently
established two more stations in the Valley and has plan to expand the monitoring
networks.

5.1.2 Emission Inventories

Different sources contribute different pollutants and add to the air. They can be
stationary sources (e.g. power plants, cement kilns, etc), area sources (cluster of
industries or facilities-e.g. brick kilns in certain area, waste management facilities, petrol
pumps, etc) and mobile sources (on road mobile sources like vehicles and non-road
mobile sources like aircraft). An emissions inventory is essentially a current database of
emission estimates for one or more air pollutants for a defined geographic area during a
defined period from different sources. Emissions inventories are:
• needed for dispersion modeling to understand the concentration of pollutants
away from sources in the local meteorological conditions,

• important for assessing emission trends and developing (and evaluating) control
programs

Emission Inventory (EI) development needs to be ongoing as additional sources are

identified, emission factors improved, etc. EI tell us where air pollution is emitted, how
much is emitted from each source, and what sources can be most effective for control
strategies. There has been some initiation made to estimate the pollution load in the
valley but there is the need to transform that initiation into an established Emission
Inventory development and continues updating system with changes in sources due to
the implementation of the initiated control measures.

5.1.3 Dispersion Modeling

An emissions inventory and historical meteorological data (surface and upper air) which
are recorded by the meteorological departments are required to run the dispersion
models. Technical skills are required to run the dispersion models and present them.
Ambient air quality monitoring data will validateresults obtained from the models. These
are excellent tools for assessing the potential control strategies and in assessing the trans-
boundary movement of air pollutants. It is a very useful tool in identifying monitoring
locations for monitoring secondary pollutants like ozone and pollution hotspots.
MOPE/DOE need to work in partnership with the academic institutions.

5.1.4 Source Apportionment Studies

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Source apportionment studies are generally carried out to determine the sources for
particular pollutants. These studies will add to the emission inventories and dispersion
modeling and local meteorological conditions to determine and validate the source for
the concentration of particular pollutants of concern. No such studies been done in
Kathmandu Valley so far.

5.1.5 Health, Environmental and Economic Impact Assessment

Monitoring tells us the concentration of pollutants at a particular location at a particular

time. If our program is well developed, the monitoring data will be ―representative‖ of a
larger area.However, our aim is to protect public health and the environment. Therefore,
we need to translate monitoring data into actual health and environmental impacts.

In order to generate the political will to prioritize setting policies and allocate resources
for the implementation of clean air implementation plan, the information on impact on
human health and cost associated to deal in addressing such impact is very important.
The quantification of the damage cost and loss to the national economy due to air
pollution is a very good tool to convince political leaders and generate public pressure to
address the problem. To have this system in place, there is the need:
 Co-operation with the health sector to establish a public health surveillance
system
 Exposure studies
 Health effects research
 Environmental impact assessment – vegetation, buildings (including historic and
cultural monuments, etc), visibility, and loss of other resources due to air
pollution
 Understanding of the epidemiological studies carried out in other countries and
cities and draw references

Control programs can then be evaluated based on more direct improvements in public
health and the environment rather than on reduced pollutant concentrations at monitoring
locations.A coordinated approach between air quality monitoring institutions and health
sector institutions is highly desired.

5.1.6 Developing and Reviewing Air Quality Standards

Ambient air quality standards are not just the numbers. It includes the pollutants, the
averaging time, locations, monitoring methods, frequency of monitoring, quality
assurances and control system (QA/QC), attainment calculation procedures, and the
reporting methods with the use of defined air quality indexes (AQI).

AQS provide the basis for assessing the quality of the air that we breathe and is the
foundation of the control programs. It is also used to assess the new sources of air
pollution and through the use of AQI it can be used to alert the public about the status of
air pollution.

Air quality standard is a difficult processrequiring input from technical experts and
stakeholders as well as political support. WHO with detailed exposure assessment and
impact on the human health recommends guideline values for countries to adopt

65
standards which becomes legally binding. It should be based on the current air quality,
available skills, and the cost of monitoring. There should be a system of reviewing AQS
on regular basis. Ministry of Population and Environment in 2003 has brought the
national ambient air quality standard for Nepal.

5.1.7 Development and Evaluation of Control Options

All the systems briefly described above of AQM support system are the basis for the
development of control options. Further, the above system also helps to evaluate the
implementation of the control options and also their effectiveness. Development of the
control options should identify the target pollutants and target sources, develop possible
control options and evaluate cost benefit analysis of each option. The next step is to rank
options in terms of cost effectiveness, compatibility with other sector objectives, ease of
enforceability, and political feasibility. And then only the action programs are developed
and approved by the highest authority to have ease of implementation.

5.1.8 Implementation of Control Options

Implementation of the control options requires compliance to the prescribed standards

both for emissions and technologies, guidelines for pollution prevention and control to
manufacturing and service sector facilities, and allocation of sufficient financial
resources and development of capable human resources. Without compliance there is no
control and therefore it will be better to have strong compliance with weak standards
than weak compliance with tough standards. Challenge is to improve the technical
capacity to effectively enforce control plans. Monitoring and evaluation should include
air quality improvements as well as economic and social impacts and it should be
reviewed on a regular basis.

5.2 Policies and Legal Framework

Air quality management stakeholders include government, industry groups, research
institutes, NGOs, judiciary, health and community groups, and international
organizations. A very strong national environmental policy supported by all of the
government and developed in consultation with all stakeholders is very essential. An
effective AQM system which demands participation of all the stakeholders, it is always
desirable to move away from the ―DAD‖ approach (Decide, Announce, and Defend)
towards a participatory approach to policy development.

In order to implement the policies, the legal system (acts and regulations) need to be
clear and unambiguous- with enforcement actions defendable in courts, avenues for
public appeal, and mandatory reporting on Air Quality issues.

Nepal has the environmental policy and action plan, and recently Nepal has brought
National Climate Change Policy and drafted the National Pollution Control Strategy and
Action Plan. National Low Carbon Development Strategy is also in the draft stage.
However, there is the lack of clean air regulation to deal with the challenge of air
pollution.

5.3 Sectoral Policies

Integrating AQ objectives with sectoral policies can achieve multiple objectives in a
more cost effective and easily enforceable way. Sectoral policies on land use, transport,
energy, waste management, urban development, industrial development, commerce and
trade, information and communication, all need to integrate the air quality objectives
66
rather the AQM regulations making to deal with them. Towards making sectoral policies
to integrate the AQ objectives, the key challenges in Nepal (common in many
developing countries) are lack of communication and co-ordination between ministries,
unclear or duplicated responsibilities, focus on end of pipe regulation, and minimal use
of economic instruments.

5.4 Regional and Global AQM

Climate change and air pollution share common sources. Electricity generation and road
transport are two of the most significant sources of both air quality and climate
pollutants. It will be important to develop strong linkages between air pollution control
and climate change mitigation to deliver the air quality management goals in a most cost
effective way. Nepal is party to UNFCCC and Kyoto Protocol and as a developing
country there is ample opportunities available to benefit from the financial mechanism
and technology transfer mechanism. Therefore, the development, evaluation and
implementation of air quality control plans should favor options with co-benefits for
local, regional and global air quality. This will help to place even greater priority on
demand management and efficiency improvements in our sectoral objectives as well.As
trans-boundary movement of air pollutants is one of the sources for the increased
concentration of air pollutants, the integration of regional action plan on environment
and climate change into national action plan can deliver regional and global benefits with
added resources to implement the action programs.

5.5 Communication and Public Awareness

Delivery of air quality goals requires public engagement to encourage more sustainable
behaviors in relation to, for example, transport choices, selection of household
equipments, energy conservation, and how people value to local environment.
Communication and awareness programs designed to educate stakeholders and the
public need to focus to influence the behavioral change and also to ensure that
stakeholders‘ views are considered in policy development to promote the acceptance of
control measures. The challenges in Nepalare to have a more effective communication
and information sharing system between stakeholders, development of targeted public
awareness plans, improvement in institutional capacity for public relation management,
and a system for the evaluation of public perception through regular surveys.

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 Chapter Six

Strategies and Action Plan on Air Quality Management of Kathmandu

Valley
The management of ambient air quality, especially in large cities in developed and
developing countries, has created a rich portfolio of experiences for implementing and
executing successful programs while avoiding many of the recognized pitfalls. In order
to make the action plan based on the long term strategic approach, first the strategies on
the components of the integrated air quality management framework discussed in the
previous chapter are derived from the national and sectoral policies/strategies and
international and regional experiences and then only action plans are proposed based on
that strategic approach and strategies, recommendations made by different committees
formed to address the air pollution of the Kathmandu Valley, sectoral strategic actions,
regional and global commitment of Nepal, and the recommendations of the stakeholders‘
consultation workshops.

6.1 Strategies on Ambient Urban Air Quality Management

This strategy is derived from the widely adopted integrated framework on urban air
quality management with the vision that all the citizen living or visiting in urban cities of
Nepal breath with clean air. The strategic components are:
 Establishment and Strengthening of Air Quality Management Decision Support
System
 Strengthening the Policy and Legal Framework on Air Quality Management
 Strengthening the Policy and Legal Framework on Air Quality Management
 Establishing Linkages in Air Pollution Control and Climate Change Mitigation
 Establishing Linkages in Air Pollution Control and Climate Change Mitigation
 Integrating Regional and Global AQM into CAIP
 An Effective Communication and Information System to promote Sustainable
Behaviors
 Institutional Framework for Better Coordination and Cooperation with
Stakeholders
 Financing the CAIP and National Capacity Building for Implementation

The strategies on each strategic component are presented in Table 6.1.

6.2 Action Program on Ambient Air Quality Management of Kathmandu Valley

This action program on the ambient air quality management of Kathmandu Valley will
aim to bring the level of air pollution in the valley to the target set in the National
Ambient Air Quality Standard of Nepal within next 5 years. The detailed clean air action
plans are listed in Table 6.2 to Table 6.9.

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 Table 6.1 A Strategic Framework for Air Quality Management in Kathmandu Valley

Strategic Strategies on Strategic Components

Components
Establishment Strategy on Air Quality Monitoring
and • Particulate Matter with special focus on PM10 and PM2.5 is the main pollutant to be monitored in KV
Strengthening of continuously covering heavy traffic, residential, industrial and background stations.
Air Quality
Management • Other criteria pollutants NOx, SO2, O3 and CO will also be monitored in two of the monitoring stations
Decision derived through dispersion modeling
Support System
• Monitoring of toxic pollutants will be carried out by analysis of the filters of PM10/PM2.5 and the use of
passive samplers in laboratories (accredited)
• QA/QC system will be further strengthened in DOE, AQI will be defined and daily dissemination of AQI
through mass media within a year and continued thereafter
Strategy on Dispersion Modeling
• National capacity development for use of emission inventories and meteorological information in running
dispersion models and demarcate areas in terms of level of pollution for different pollutants (in
partnership with academic institutions)
• Department of Meteorology to initiate recording the meteorological parameters in different heights from
ground level
• GIS section at DOE will be establishedandstrengthened for regularly updating the sources of air pollution,
use of emission inventory software to update the inventory, and carry out dispersion modeling and
disseminate the results

Strategy on Development of Inventories

• Kathmandu Valley will be divided into grid of 2 km by 2km and all the sources of air pollutants will be

69
 documented with system of regular updating.
• Use of emission factors as per the status of technology will be used to estimate the emissions of various
pollutants with particular focus on PM from domestic and industrial sources
• A study on traffic congestion on vehicle speed and average distance travel, status on road conditions, and
categorization of vehicles (type and age, with or without pollution control devices) to choose the emission
factors and estimate the vehicular emissions load including re-suspension of dusts from roads
• National professional including staffs of MOPE/DOE, line agencies, and academicians will be trained in
inventory development integrating with Green House Gases inventory for National Communications
Strategy on AQS Development and Review System
• MOPE and NBSM will coordinate to review the AQS and develop emission and technology standards for
different sources
• The prevailing Ambient Air Quality Standard of Nepal will be reviewed by the end of 2018 to include
some hazardous toxic pollutants and thereafter in every five years
• The impact of air pollution on the human health, environment and economy will be the basis for review
of AQS
• WHO guideline values including Interim Targets and the standards in the region will be considered while
reviewing the standards and setting new targets

Strategy on Assessment of Impact of Air Pollution on Environment, Health and Economy

• Ministry of Health will provide special attention in establishing the public health surveillance system to
determine the burden of diseases due to increased air pollution in Kathmandu Valley
• Information generated from air monitoring system, and dispersion models and information on population
exposure to different levels of pollution will be used to estimate the impact on health, environment and
economy using models developed from studies in other similar countries

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 • A national system on valuation of the damage will be developed and the results will be disseminated for
creating public awareness to participate in preventive and control measures
• Such studies will be regularly updated to evaluate the effectiveness of control options.
• Epidemiological studies will be carried out with support from WHO and other international health
research institutions to validate the results obtained from developed models
Strategy on Development and Evaluation of Clean Air Action Plan (CAAP)
• A High Level Committee on Air Pollution (HLCAP) under the chairmanship of the Minister of MOPE
and secretaries of key ministries, mayors of local bodies will be established for the development and
implementation of CAAP.
• MOPE/DOE in coordination with line ministries, local bodies and other stakeholders will develop Clean
Air Action Plan (CLAP) for Kathmandu Valley with particular focus on TSP, PM10 and PM2.5 and
minimization of the concentration of hazardous air pollutants.
• HLCAP will review the CAAP to ensure that sectoral priorities are part of the CAAP and recommend for
approval by the council of ministers.
• CAAP will be evaluated in every six months comparing the trend of pollution by Air Quality Monitoring
System by HLCAP
• CAAP will also be evaluated in every two years with the assessment of impact on the human health,
environment and economy and will set additional time bound targets with actions plans to achieve the
long-term targets.
• CAAP will be based on the principles that ―without compliance there is no control!‖ and ―it will be better
to have strong compliance with weak standards than weak compliance with tough standards‖
• CAAP will also focus on strengthening the technical capacity of institutions to effectively enforce
control plans, and also for monitoring and evaluation of air quality improvements as well as economic

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 and social impacts

Strengthening  MOPE with participation of all the government ministries, NGOs, business communities, international
the Policy and partners, judiciary, and academic and research institutes will develop a National Environmental Policy to
Legal have an integrated approach to deal with the environmental challenges that promotes overall
Framework on improvement into environmental quality rather than transferring pollution from one medium to another
Air Quality one.
Management  A separate regulation will be brought to introduce the mandatory provisions to have Strategic
Environmental Assessment of Policies, Plans and Programs (PPPs) to promote the integration of
environmental and air quality objectives into sectoral PPPs through detailed cost benefit analysis of
different alternatives for achieving the sectoral objectives.
 MOPE in consultation with stakeholders with carry out the review of the prevailing Environmental
Act/Regulations and will recommend if needed, a separate Clean Air Regulation to deal with the
challenge of air pollution.
 MOPE in consultation with stakeholders and technical support from international organization will
develop a list of financial incentives (taxes, subsides) and minimal technology standards/requirements for
fuel and equipments/machineries with potential for high energy efficiency will present to High Level
Committee on Air Pollution for its approval and recommendation to make it part of fiscal regulations.
 Regulations will be reviewed regularly in order to promote the implementation of control options
introduced through evaluation of CAIP with introduction of new emission standards as part of regulation,
new economic instruments, and promotion of cleaner technologies.
 MOPE in consultation with stakeholders will develop a regulation for creation and implementation of
environmental protection fund to finance the CAIP.
 Legal framework that will promote foreign direct investment and private sector investment in the
development of physical infrastructures helping to achieve the AQ objectives

Integrating Air Moving towards Environmentally Sustainable Transport System by adopting:

Quality  Strategies to avoid unnecessary travel and reduce trip distances (change in vehicle km travels per person
Objectives into over time in metropolitan cities and national level)
Sectoral Policies  Strategies to shift towards more sustainable transport mode (e.g. Non-Motorized Transport (NMT)
component in transport plan; Public Transport System; Transportation Demand Management (TDM);

72
 Intercity Goods and Passengers Transport; etc)
 Strategies to Improve transport practices and technologies (e.g. diversify towards electricity, hybrid and
natural gases; progressive and affordable standards for fuel quality, vehicle emissions (new and in-use);
I/M system; Intelligent Transport System (electronic fare system and road user charging system; transport
information centers; transport control centers))
 Cross-cutting strategies (e.g. safety; health impacts; compliance to air quality and noise standards;
climate mitigation and energy security; social equity; innovative financing mechanisms; public
information and awareness; etc)
Moving with Low Carbon Energy Path:
 It shall be the long term strategy of Government of Nepal to move towards the renewable sources of
energy including the hydropower generation to meet the national demand of electricity.
 It shall be the strategy of government to procure clean energy from neighboring countries and supply to
cities to immediately replace the use of fossil fuel in small generators and residential and commercial
heating purposes.
 Energy policy will fully recognize that the increasing energy efficiency is the quickest and least costly
way of addressing energy security, environmental and economic challenges and will adopt strategies to
achieve continuous improvement in energy efficiency in transport, buildings, industry, equipments and
appliances, energy utilities, and lighting.
 Ministry of Energy will review the legal system to make them conducive for competitive energy markets
to ensure that retail energy prices reflect the full cost of energy supply and delivery including the
environmental costs, and promote private investment in energy efficiency.
 Ministry of Urban Development in coordination with all the stakeholders will develop building energy
codes and minimum energy performance standards for buildings and make them mandatory for
commercial buildings immediately and in residential buildings gradually.
 It shall be the strategy of government to introduce minimum energy performance standards for
equipments and appliances to be imported in Nepal and also to be produced in the country.
 MoE will develop the phase out program of the inefficient lighting products and systems to promote the
energy efficient lighting system through the use of economic instruments.
 Government of Nepal will introduce subsidies to households in cities to install renewable sources of

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 energy for heating purposes to reduce the demand of fossil fuel used in traditional heating system
particularly in the winter times.
 MOPE will coordinate with Ministry of Commerce and Industry to develop projects to demonstrate the
energy efficiency in industries and promote transfer of energy efficient technologies in industries
particularly in SMEs.
 MOPE will support the line ministries and departments and private sector in designing projects in the
above mentioned areas so that they attract investment through CDM.

Utilizing Waste as Resources:

 MOPE in consultation with municipalities shall introduce the regulations on waste management including
the hazardous and hospital wastes management
 Wastes are segregated at sources (households, industries, health institutions, commercial institutions,
schools and colleges) and used as resources by reusing, recycling and composting and thus minimizing
the transport and also avoiding the possibilities of incinerating.
 Demonstration programs shall be launched to promote household level composting.
 It will be mandatory for municipalities to design landfill sites with facilities with methane gas trapping
and use it for power generation.
 Private sector will be encouraged to invest in waste management and get benefits from provision of
CDM.
Land Use Plan and Urban Planning
 Land use plan and urban development plan of new municipalities will go through the Strategic
Environmental Assessment Procedures to integrate the objectives of air quality management as well as
other sectoral strategies that promotes the objectives of air quality management.

Establishing  MOPE shall coordinate with all the line ministries and private sector to make them aware of the
Linkages in Air provisions of financial mechanisms under the UNFCCC, Kyoto Protocol and other MEAs and facilitate in
Pollution the development of projects that can benefits from Climate Change mitigation funds, particularly Green
Control and Climate Fund and attract investments in physical infrastructures development, use of renewable energy
Climate Change and energy efficiency improvement and generate carbon credits to benefit from the clean development
Mitigation

74
 mechanism (CDM)/Sustainable Development Mechanism (SDM).

 CAAP will also include control options that promotes energy efficiency and renewable energy to get
financial resources from GEF and the Green Climate Fund

 CAAP will be designed and prioritized with targets of generating emission reductions to get benefit from
carbon market.
 It will be the strategy of Government to at least register two projects each in a year in transport sector,
energy efficiency improvement in industries and commercial sectors, use of renewable energy, and use of
methane from land fill sites for the carbon trading mechanism of UNFCCC.

Integrating • As a member to SAARC and commitment for the implementation of Regional Action Plan on
Regional and Environmental and Climate Change, MOPE will make ensure that actions plans that help to address the
Global AQM trans-boundary movement of air pollutants are part of CAIP and implemented with partnership with
into CAIP member states.
• CAAP shall put greater emphasis on control options that promote climate change mitigation to attract
investment in infrastructure development and technology transfer in the region.

An Effective • Status on the ambient air quality will be disseminated through mass media and public hoarding boards to
Communication make public aware and also to generate public pressure to take actions to reduce air pollutants.
and Information
System to • Communication and public awareness programs will be designed and launch to educate stakeholders and
promote public to influence the behavioral change of general public and their acceptance of control options
Sustainable
• Information system will be developed to have more effective communication and information sharing
Behaviors between stakeholders and also to promote the voluntary participation of NGOs, mass media, and
members of civil society.
• Awareness programs will be evaluated regularly through public perception surveys
• MOPE as a focal point to many MEAs will coordinate with all the stakeholders to make them participate

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 and get support from the MEAs to design and launch education and awareness programs.

Institutional • High Level Committee on Air Pollution will be responsible for policy guidance, approval and evaluation
Framework for of Clean Air Action Plan
Better
Coordination • A Technical Committee in the Department of Environment will be established with representative from
and Cooperation key implementing departments of line ministries, local bodies and private sector to recommend the CAAP
withStakeholders for the consideration of High Level Committee.
• MOPE will coordinate with each local bodies and provide technical support to build the capacity of local
bodies to ensure public participation in the implementation of the action plans.

Financing the • It shall be the responsibility of sectoral ministries to propose and get financial resources from the
CAAP and Ministry of Finance to implement the actions under the CAAP with sectoral responsibilities.
National
Capacity • Ministry of Finance shall coordinate with line ministries and potential donor communities to seek
Building for financial and technical support from external sources.
Implementation • MOPE with recommendation from HLCAP will propose to Ministry of Finance to introduce the
following taxes and create mechanism to deposit money in the fund which will be used to fund certain
activities of CAAP:
• Road maintenance tax (annual tax for each vehicle differentiated with size and type of vehicle)
• Pollution tax on import of fuel
• Taxes on brick kilns and other polluting industries
• Penalties on non-compliances
• Annual Contribution from Government budget in the environment fund
• Contribution from donors
• Small percentage of fund from the trade of carbon credits
• Projects to be designed to get financial support from GEF and Green Climate Fund
MOPE will develop project proposals to get financial and technical support to develop the capacity development

76
action plan and implement them.

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 Table 6.2: Clean Air Action Plan for Kathmandu Valley- AQM Decision Support System
Issue Actions Time Institutional Remarks
Frame Responsibility
• Expand the existing network of two air quality monitoring system By 2020 DOE
to represent the air quality in the valley
Strengthening of Air • Introduce gaseous pollutants (Nox and CO at Ratnapark) and By 2020 DOE
Quality Monitoring ozone little outside the city center (Bhaktapur)
System in • Ensure that the monitoring system are calibrated and properly Regularly DOE
Kathmandu Valley maintained as per the manufacturer‘s instruction
• Provide training to DOE staffs for quality control and data By 2017 and DOE
assessment regularly
• Conduct campaign monitoring in pollution hot spots like near By 2017 and DOE
industries and construction sites regularly
• Use passive samplers to determine toxic pollutants like benzene, By 2017 DOE and
PAH by using local capacity Private
laboratories
• Disseminate the results using mass media and social media Immediate DOE and mass
media
• Publish the AQI in newspapers daily basis Immediate DOE and media
• Establish a Technical Committee at DOE with technical By 2017 and DOE and
representatives from key stakeholders and experts in the field continue Stakeholders
Development of
Inventory of Sources • Divide Kathmandu Valley into grid of 2 km by 2km and establish By 2018 Technical
and Pollutants the database on sources air pollutants in each grid and regularly Committee
update the database

• Identify the appropriate Emission Factors for different sources- By 2018 Technical
mobile, stationary and area sources for different type of pollutants Committee

• Keep updating the EF factors Regularly Technical

Committee
Source • Support research on source apportionment studies by students at By 2018 and DOE and

78
Apportionment and universities regularly Universities
Dispersion Modelling • Support universities to do the dispersion modelling of point By 2018 and DOE, DHM and
sources and area sources regularly Universities
Impact Assessment • Coordinate with NHRC to initiate research works in partnership By 2017 and MOPE/DOE
System on Health, with hospitals (preferably teaching hospitals) on the impact of air regularly MOH NHRC
Economy and pollution on human health
Environment • Coordinate with major hospitals to develop database on the status By 2017 and MOPE/DOE
of air borne diseases in the valley and regularly update it regularly MOH NHRC
• Establish partnership with universities (environmental By 2017 and MOE/DOE and
departments) to conduct economic impact of air pollution regularly Universities
• Monitor the archeological buildings to assess the impact of air By 2017 and DOE,
pollution regularly Archeology
Department,
Universities
System on • Establish a High Level Committee headed by the minister of By 2017 MOPE, Line Specifically
Development and MOPE with representative of secretary or joint secretary level of ministries, and on air
Evaluation of CAAP key development ministries and mayors to evaluate the effect of Municipalities pollution
Clean Air Action Plan
• Organize the Committee meetings every three months to evaluate By 2017 and MOPE
the implementation status of the CAAP regularly
• Develop annual report on air quality status and publish it Initiate this DOE
FY and
annual basis
AQS Development • Review AQS every two air to include new pollutants or change the By 2018 and MOPE
and Evaluation limit of target pollutants every two
System year
• Set new AQS goals in line with WHO interim targets and By every five MOPE
guideline values year

Table 6.3 Clean Air Action Plan for Kathmandu Valley-Environmentally Sustainable Transport System
Issue Actions Time Frame Institutional Remarks

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 Responsibility
• Highest priority for completion of the expansion of By 2017 DOR
Tribhuwan Highway (Kalanki-Nagdhunga), Ringroad
(Kalanki-Koteswor), and other portion of national
highways and ring road in the valley
• Ensure Melamchi water supply project is in full Regularly DOE, Melamchi
compliance to the approved EMP project
Road Infrastructures • Highest priority for the completion of works on Regularly DOR and
expansion of the feeder and newly initiated road Municipalities
• Improvement and construction of foot-path in all the Regularly DOR and
urban roads to reduce traffic congestion with the Municipalities
additional infrastructure to accommodate road side
vendors in major commercial junctions
• Road shoulders also to be pitched with immediate effect Regularly DOR and
Municipalities
• Incorporate in design of new roads and expansion of Regularly DOR and
existing roads the recommendations made for climate Municipalities
resilient roads (NSTS)
• Ensure that contractors are not engaged in more than Immediate and DOR and
one contract and strictly follow the timeline and penalty Regularly Municipalities
mechanism
• Highest priority on making the feeder roads, urban Immediate and DOR and
roads, district roads, highways are paved with highest Regularly Municipalities
quality and maintained on regular basis without potholes
• Make provisions that the road maintenance works is Immediate DOR and
carried out in night time Municipalities
Traffic Management • Implement route reorientation plan developed by the Immediate and DOTM
Kathmandu Sustainable Urban Transport Project Regularly
• Arrangement for alternate passage like sky-over, sub- Regularly DOR,
way, etc Municipalities
• Special lane arrangements for mass transport vehicle are By 2018 DOR, DOTM and
to be worked out and enforced. Traffic Police
• Compulsory arrangement for running in the left side of Immediate Traffic police

80
 road for slow moving vehicles
• Expansion of road width, proper sewage management Regularly DOR
and improvement in quality of such facilities Municipalities ,
Sewage
Department
• Repair and maintenance of water supply, telephone, Regularly Traffic Police,
sewage, electricity on roads to be done only in night DOR, NEA,
time KUKL, NTC
• Proper facilities and effective management of public Regularly DOR,
transport stop over at roadside Municipalities
• Complete ban on running small shops at footpath and Immediate Municipalities
piling of construction materials
• Smokeless vehicles only provision in tourist and cultural By 2018 Municipalities
sensitive places
• Allow certain time only for entry of goods heavy duty By 2017 Traffic Police and
vehicles to enter valley and also movement of goods DOTM
vehicle inside the cities
Efficient Public • Conduct the detailed feasibility study of pollution By 2018 DOTM
Transport System free mass transit system and establish bus rapid
transit and bus lanes

• Develop integrated bus transport system with By 2018 KSUTP

routes, bus stops, transit points, ticket counters and
monthly ticket passes

• High priority on detailed design of metro system in By 2019 MOIDT and

the valley DoR

Promotion of NMT • Make walking safe and comfortable Immediate DOR

system and Greenery
• Make separate cycle lane in possible roads By 2018 DOR,

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 Municipalities

• Make master plan for walking and cycling routes in By 2018 KVDA
whole valley including plan for conservation and
expansion of greenery in the valley to promote
cycling and walking

• Establish public parks in the city areas Regularly Municipalities

• Convert the public land occupied by security Immediate MOD, MOH,

agencies into public parks KVDA

• Make inner city of valley and other appropriate By 2017 Municipalities

areas only cycling and waling areas and Traffic
Police

Nepal Vehicle Mass • Enforce the EURO-IV standard immediately Immediately MOPE
Emission Standard
• Declare that EURO-V will be applicable from next Immediately MOPE
… years (in line with vehicle supply countries) Comment [u1]: Year is missing here

Effective I/M System • Review the current IN-USE Vehicle Emission Standard By 2017 MOPE
in accordance with EURO standard vehicles

• Vehicles plying inside Kathmandu Valley must have the By 2017 MOPE
valid green sticker issued by authorized agencies.

• Make the authorized dealer workshop to issue the green By 2017 MOPE
sticker (to be purchased from DOE) in the beginning
and gradually authorized other standard workshops
• Review the validity period of green sticker focusing on By 2017 MOPE

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 polluting vehicles
• Introduce on road monitoring program to catch the By 2018 DOE, DOTM and
highly visible polluting vehicles or authorize the traffic Traffic Police
police to catch such polluters and send for maintenance
• No duties on emission testing equipments Immediate MOF
• Introduce I/M system in major cities By 2017 MOPE and
DOTM
• Develop criteria for accreditation of private workshops

Promotion of Zero • Minimum possible duties on zero emission vehicles and In coming MOF
Emission and Cleaner economic incentives for hybrid vehicles budget
Vehicles • Develop bus terminals with charging system to By 2020 Municipalities
encourage zero emission public transport buses
• Develop infrastructure to promote electric buses/trams By 2020 Municipalities
Fuel Quality • An effective monitoring system to ensure that the Immediate NBSM and NOC
imported fuel is as per stated standard and not
adulterated in the route and distribution system

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Table 6.4 Clean Air Action Plan for Kathmandu Valley-Environment-Friendly Construction Activities
Time Institutional
Issue Actions Remarks
Frame Responsibility
• Declare Kathmandu Valley an environmentally sensitive area to By 2017 Cabinet
ensure that all major construction activities require develop IEE/EIA
with EMP
• Develop guidelines/manuals for environment-friendly construction Regularly MOPE and Sectoral
management in infrastructure projects Ministries
• Make mandatory provisions in the agreement with the contractor to Regularly DOR and Municipalities
Legal follow the above guidelines
Aspects • Develop guidelines for environmentally sensitive building Regularly DOR and Municipalities
construction (private houses)
• Make mandatory provision while issuing the permit for construction Regularly DOR and Municipalities
to follow the above guideline
• Highest priority on monitoring of EMP by MOPE and Sectoral Regularly MOPE
Ministries
• Introduce EURO standard for heavy duty construction equipments Immediate MOPE
and vehicles
• Make mandatory requirements for contractors in terms of human By 2018 MOPIT and sectoral
resources and machineries/ equipments (international standard) to ministries
bid for road and other projects in the valley
• Use of economic instruments (reward and penalty) to promote By 2018 Development ministries,
timely completion of assigned construction works municipalities, MOF
• Promotion of steel structures over concrete structures By 2017 MOUD, Municipalities
Better • A permanent coordinating body between different institutions Immediately DOR, NEA, NTC,
Coordination involved in construction in roads or along the roads (electricity, KUKL, Municipalities
communication, water supply, sewage,
• Plantation along the roads including in the middle of major Regularly DOR, Municipalities
highways (ring roads)
• Promote greenery in houses Regularly MOPE, MOF,
Municipalities

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Table 6.5 Clean Air Action Plan for Kathmandu Valley-Reducing Emissions of Industries in Valley
Issue Actions Time Institutional Remarks
Frame Responsibility
Ensure compliance of prescribed emission standards By 2017 DOE and DOCSI
• All industries must have sampling port, platform and ladder to
facilitate monitoring
• Make mandatory provisions of self-reporting of compliance every
month in the season
• Inspection of industries by environmental inspectors at-least once in
a month in the season
Involve private sector in stack monitoring By 2017 DOE and NBSM
 Development of accreditation criteria
 Accreditation of private capable laboratories/companies
 Determination of fees for stack monitoring
No custom and VAT on the import of stack monitoring equipment By 2017 MOF
Brick Kilns Promote the cleaner brick technologies in the existing industries MOPE, MOI,
 Provision of progressive tax on emission load above reference level MOF
of 200 mg/Nm3
 Soft loan to industries to change technology and to develop facilities
to run during rainy season
Introduce standard on coal with high calorific value, lowest feasible sulfur By 2017 MOPE, NBSM
content, and low ash content and enforced
Alternative construction materials to bricks should be identified and Continuous
promoted
No new registration of brick kiln industries inside the Kathmandu Valley Immediate IPB/MOI

Industries Review of Emission standards for industrial boilers including provision of By 2017 DOE, DOI,
with Boilers efficiency based on the regional practices and ensure compliance to the DOCSI
standards
• All industries must have sampling port, platform and ladder to
facilitate monitoring
• Make mandatory provisions of self-reporting of compliance every

85
 month in the season
• Inspection of industries by environmental inspectors at-least once in
a month in the season

Promote technologies with comparative cleaner fuels By Next FY MOI, MOPE,

 Minimum possible duties on replacement of existing boilers MOF
 Provision of soft loan

Other Maintain database of industries –industries with furnaces and other fuel By 2018 DOE, DOCSI
Industries burning
Prepare best practices for small scale furnaces and introduce to the industries By 2018 MOI
Ban use of discarded Mobil in furnaces Immediate DOE
Review the negative lists of industries not allowed in the valley with By 2017 IPB/MOI
particular focus on air polluting potentials

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Table 6.6 Clean Air Action Plan for Kathmandu Valley-Environmentally Sound Management of Wastes (dealing with toxic air
pollutants)
Issue Actions Time Frame Institutional Remarks
Responsibility
 Current practices of operation of incineration without any Immediate DOE, DOH
control system stopped immediately in hospitals
 Enforce the ban on the open burning of the hospital wastes Immediate DOE, DOH
Incineration of in the complexes
Hospital Wastes  All health institutions have waste segregation system in By 2017 DOE, DOH,
place Municipalities
 Detoxification of hospital wastes by using autoclaving in By 2017
all facilities is made mandatory
 No duties on waste autoclaving and other detoxification Immediate MOF, MOH, MOPE
technologies
 Ensure compliance to the incineration emission standards Immediate DOE
in hospitals with control system including monitoring of
toxic pollutants
 Ensure that health institutions maintain record of waste Immediate DOE, Municipalities
generation and their disposal
 Promote private sector to build hospital waste By 2018 Municipalities,
management facilities to provide service to small health MOPE, MOH
institution (Government to provide appropriate location
and legal system for collection of fees)
Refuse Burning  Make waste collection system effective and restrict By 2017 Municipalities
dumping of wastes at public places
 Promote composting at household level Continuous Municipalities
 Enforce strictly ban on open burning of the wastes Immediate Municipalities, DOE
 Educate public the health impacts of burning of wastes Continuous Municipalities,
with plastics DOE, Mass media
 Expand electric cremation facilities at Pashupati and Teku By 2019 Pashupati Area
Development Fund,
and KMC

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Table 6.7 Clean Air Action Plan for Kathmandu Valley-Promoting Cleaner Fuel and Technology to Minimize Domestic
Pollution (Indoor Air Pollution)
Issue Actions Time Frame Institutional Remarks
Responsibility
 Hydropower generation sector to be linked with the air By 2020 NPC
pollution reduction by promoting domestic, transport and
industrial preference to electric energy
Energy Switch and  Long term strategy on promoting electricity as a major By 2020 NPC, MOE,
Promotion of Cleaner mode of domestic cooking and heating MOPE, MOF
Technologies  Minimum duties on energy efficient cooking and food Coming FY
conserving appliances
 Promotion of LPG in domestic cooking particularly Continuous Municipalities
replacement of fire wood
 Promotion of efficient cooking stoves in rural areas Continuous AEPC
where fuel wood abundant
 Introduction of standards on coal and enforcement By 2017 MOPE and NBSM
 Promote exhaust in kitchens continuous DOE mass media

Table 6.8 Clean Air Action Plan for Kathmandu Valley-Public Awareness
Issue Actions Time Frame Institutional Remarks
Responsibility
Planning and Capacity  Develop action plans for public awareness By 2017 MOPE
Building  Publication and distribution of awareness materials By 2017 and MOPE Recommendation
including public notices; regular of Task Force
 Training to health professionals on air pollution and its By 2017 and MOLTM
impact on human health; regular
 Training to teachers and students on air pollution and its By 2017 and DOH
impacts; regular
 Mobilize mass communication media on public awareness By 2017 MOPE
Partnership with Mass  Sign and MOU with Representative of Electronic Media, By 2017 and MOPE
Media and Use of Print Media for promoting awareness on air pollution continuous

88
Social Media prevention and dissemination of status on air quality and
awareness program as part of social responsibility
 Negotiate with social media to use free of cost By 2017 MOPE

Table 6.9 Clean Air Action Plan for Kathmandu Valley-Strengthening the Policy and Legislative Framework
Issue Actions Time Frame Institutional Remarks
Responsibility
Sectoral and  Approval of the Draft Environmentally Sustainable Immediate MOIDT and
Environmental Policies, Transport Strategy Cabinet
Strategies and Plans  Review of Transport Management Legislations as per By 2017 MOIDT
the provisions of the approved strategy including
legal provision on vehicle retirement
 Approval of the Draft National Low Carbon By 2017 MOPE and Cabinet
Development Strategy for Nepal
 Approval of National Pollution Control Strategy and By 2017 MOPE and Cabinet
Action Plan
 High priority of approval of the master plan By 2017 Concerned
developed on Kathmandu Valley, Road Network, Ministries and
Land Use and Traffic Management Cabinet
Review of Legislations  Review the Environment Regulation as per the By 2017 MOPE
NPCSAP with particular focus on use of economic
instruments based on PPP
 Review of sectoral legislations as per the provision of By 2018 Sectoral Ministries
low carbon development strategy and pollution
control strategy
Land Use Plan  Develop land use plan for Kathmandu Valley and By 2018 and Kathmandu Valley
Implement continue Development
Authority

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Table 6.10 Clean Air Action Plan for Kathmandu Valley-Institutional Arrangement for Effective Implementation
Issue Actions Time Frame Institutional Remarks
Responsibility
Coordination Establish the high level coordination body under the Immediately MOPE
Mechanism chairmanship of minister for MOPE with high level
representative from key stakeholders and elected
representative of local bodies
Institutional Capacity Institutional strengthening of the DOE with clear Regular MOPE Recommendation
Building legal mandate and financial and human resources of Task Force

Institutional strengthening of the DOTM with clear Regular MOLTM

legal mandate and financial and human resources

Institutional strengthening of the Traffic Police with Regular DOH

clear legal mandate and financial and human
resources

Nepal to become member of CCAC to benefit from By 2017 MOPE

its knowledge networks

Creation of New Establish the Kathmandu Valley Transport By 2018 MOIDT

Institution Management Authority

90
Table 6.11 Clean Air Action Plan for Kathmandu Valley-Financing the Action Plan
Issue Actions Time Frame Institutional Remarks
Responsibility
 Continue the Implementation of fuel tax Immediate and High level
provision of fiscal Act, 2053 and develop continue committee
Pollution tax and User guideline for utilization of this money for the
charge implementation of the CAAP
 A provision of levying tax on import of coal By next FY MOF
into the valley
 A provision of levying certain paisa per brick By next FY MOF
produced in Kathmandu valley.
 Progressive taxes on renewable of vehicles after By Next FY MOF
10 years
 Road maintenance tax on vehicles MOF
 Develop guideline for the use of the fund By 2017 MOPE, MOF and
generated by the above sources Municipalities
Green Climate Fund Develop project proposals with huge mitigation benefits By 2018 MOF, MOPE and
(metro system, traffic management, industrial emission Sectoral ministries
reduction, carbon sequestration, promotion of electric
vehicles, etc)
Provide soft loan to private vehicle owners and By 2018 MOF, MOPE and
industries to move to clear mode of transport and private body
modern technology utilizing the provisions of GCF
Provide technical support to Town Development Fund By 2017 MOPE and MOF
to apply for accreditation to GCF as National
Implementing Entities

91
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Annex 1: Air Quality Management Action Plan for Kathmandu Valley
in Nepali

Annex 2: Stakeholder Consultation meeting and National Workshop

93