Nos.

17-1717, 18-18

IN THE
Supreme Court of the United States
THE AMERICAN LEGION, ET AL.
Petitioners,
v.

AMERICAN HUMANIST ASSOCIATION, ET AL.,

Respondents.

MARYLAND-NATIONAL CAPITAL PARK AND

PLANNING COMMISSION
Petitioner,
v.

AMERICAN HUMANIST ASSOCIATION, ET AL.,

Respondents.

On Writs Of Certiorari to the

United States Court of Appeals
for the Fourth Circuit

BRIEF FOR AMICI CURIAE CITIZENS UNITED

AND CITIZENS UNITED FOUNDATION IN
SUPPORT OF PETITIONERS

MICHAEL BOOS MATTHEW D. MCGILL

General Counsel Counsel of Record
CITIZENS UNITED ANDREW G. I. KILBERG
1006 Pennsylvania Ave., S.E. TRAVIS S. ANDREWS
Washington, D.C. 20003 GIBSON, DUNN & CRUTCHER LLP
(202) 547-5420 1050 Connecticut Ave., N.W.
Washington, D.C. 20036
(202) 955-8500
mmcgill@gibsondunn.com
Counsel for Amici Curiae
 i

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page

TABLE OF AUTHORITIES ....................................... ii

INTERESTS OF AMICI CURIAE .............................. 1
SUMMARY OF THE ARGUMENT ............................ 2
ARGUMENT ............................................................... 3
I. THE FOURTH CIRCUIT’S RULING WRONGLY
PROHIBITS GOVERNMENT ASSISTANCE FOR
PRESERVATION OF HISTORIC RELIGIOUS
SITES. ..................................................................... 3
II. THE LEMON TEST SHOULD FINALLY BE LAID
TO REST................................................................ 15
The Court Should Restore The
Original Meaning Of The
Establishment Clause. ................................. 15
Stare Decisis Is No Obstacle To Setting
Lemon Aside. ................................................ 21
III. THE ESTABLISHMENT CLAUSE DOES NOT
APPLY TO THE STATES. ........................................ 25
The Establishment Clause Should Not
Be Incorporated Because It Is A
Federalism Provision.................................... 26
Stare Decisis Should Not Prevent
Correcting The Incorporation Mistake. ....... 30
CONCLUSION .......................................................... 34
 ii

TABLE OF AUTHORITIES
Page

Cases

Agostini v. Felton,
521 U.S. 203 (1997) .............................................. 21

Bd. of Educ. of Kiryas Joel Vill. Sch.

Dist. v. Grumet,
512 U.S. 687 (1994) .............................................. 16

Bowen v. Kendrick,
487 U.S. 589 (1988) .............................................. 20

Cantwell v. Connecticut,
310 U.S. 296 (1940) .............................................. 32

Capitol Square Review & Advisory Bd.

v. Pinette,
515 U.S. 753 (1995) .............................................. 19

Church of Lukumi Babalu Aye, Inc. v.

Hialeah,
508 U.S. 520 (1993) ........................................ 17, 32

Comm. for Pub. Educ. & Religious

Liberty v. Regan,
444 U.S. 646 (1980) .............................................. 22

Cty. of Allegheny v. ACLU Greater

Pittsburgh Chapter,
592 U.S. 573 (1989) .................................. 18, 21, 22

Cutter v. Wilkinson,
544 U.S. 709 (2005) .................................. 18, 24, 33
 iii

Edwards v. Aguillard,
482 U.S. 578 (1987) .................................. 17, 18, 22

Elk Grove Unified Sch. Dist. v. Newdow,

542 U.S. 1 (2004) .......................................... passim

Emp’t Div., Dep’t of Human Res. of Ore.

v. Smith,
494 U.S. 872 (1990) .............................................. 33

Everson v. Bd. of Educ. of Ewing,

330 U.S. 1 (1947) .............................................. 2, 31

Gideon v. Wainright,
372 U.S. 335 (1963) .............................................. 22

Good News Club v. Milford Cent. Sch.,

533 U.S. 98 (2001) .................................................. 4

Herring v. United States,

555 U.S. 135 (2009) .............................................. 26

Janus v. Am. Fed’n of State, Cty., &

Mun. Emps., Council 31,
138 S. Ct. 2448 (2018) ........................ 21, 22, 24, 31

Lamb’s Chapel v. Ctr. Moriches Union

Free Sch. Dist.,
508 U.S. 384 (1993) .................................. 23, 24, 25

Lee v. Weisman,
505 U.S. 577 (1992) .............................................. 16

Lemon v. Kurtzman,
403 U.S. 602 (1971) ...................................... passim
 iv

Lynch v. Donnelly,
465 U.S. 668 (1984) .............................................. 25

Malloy v. Hogan,
378 U.S. 1 (1964) .................................................. 26

Masterpiece Cakeshop, Ltd. v. Colo.

Civil Rights Comm’n,
138 S. Ct. 1719 (2018) .......................................... 32

McCreary Cty., Ky. v. ACLU of Ky.,

545 U.S. 844 (2005) ...................................... passim

McDonald v. City of Chicago, Ill.,

561 U.S. 742 (2010) ........................................ 26, 31

Mellen v. Bunting,
327 F.3d 355 (4th Cir. 2003) .................................. 4

Rosenberger v. Rector & Visitors of

Univ. of Va.,
515 U.S. 819 (1995) .................................. 18, 20, 21

Santa Fe. Indep. Sch. Dist. v. Doe,

530 U.S. 290 (2000) .............................................. 25

Sch. Dist. of Abingdon Twp. v.

Schempp,
374 U.S. 203 (1963) ........................................ 27, 31

South Dakota v. Wayfair, Inc.,

138 S. Ct. 2080 (2018) .................................... 23, 24

Texas Monthly, Inc. v. Bullock,

489 U.S. 1 (1989) .................................................. 18
 v

Town of Greece, N.Y. v. Galloway,

572 U.S. 565 (2014) ...................................... passim

United States v. Lopez,

514 U.S. 549 (1995) .............................................. 29

Van Orden v. Perry,

545 U.S. 677 (2005) ............................ 19, 24, 25, 33

W. Va. State Bd. of Educ. v. Barnette,

319 U.S. 624 (1943) ........................................ 32, 33

Zelman v. Simmons-Harris,
536 U.S. 639 (2002) ........................................ 20, 32

Constitutional Provisions and Statutes

54 U.S.C. § 308902 ...................................................... 7

54 U.S.C. § 308903 ...................................................... 7

U.S. Const., amend. I ........................................ passim

U.S. Const., amend. IV .............................................. 26

U.S. Const., amend. X ......................................... 27, 29

U.S. Const., amend. XIV ............................... 26, 32, 33

U.S. Const., art. IV, § 3, cl. 1 .................................... 28

Va. Code § 1-510 ........................................................ 33

 vi

Other Authorities

16th Street Baptist Church, Where

Jesus Christ Is the Main Attraction!,
https://tinyurl.com/y7xtcocd/. .............................. 13

About the Friends & the Friendship

Fund, Friends of the Old Ship
Meeting House, 2011,
https://tinyurl.com/ydyxfuez .................................. 9

About Old North, The Old North

Church & Historic Site,
https://tinyurl.com/y9dxbemm ............................... 8

Akhil Reed Amar, The Bill of Rights

(1998) ........................................................ 27, 30, 33

Phil Anderson, North Topeka Church

Receives $231,000 Grant from
National Park Service, Topeka Cap.-
J. (Feb. 19, 2017),
https://tinyurl.com/y9gup5mg ............................. 14

Channing History, Channing Mem’l

Church, 2017,
https://tinyurl.com/yd99v6pu .............................. 11

Jesse H. Choper, The Religion Clauses

of the First Amendment: Reconciling
the Conflict, 41 U. Pitt. L. Rev. 673
(1980) .................................................................... 22
 vii

Civil Rights Grant Program: African

American Civil Rights Grants, Nat’l
Park Serv.,
https://tinyurl.com/ycagavjp .......................... 13, 14

Civil Rights Grant Program:

Application Information, Nat’l Park
Serv., https://tinyurl.com/y6urhh3v .................... 12

Daniel O. Conkle, Toward a General

Theory of the Establishment Clause,
82 Nw. Univ. L. Rev. 1113 (1988) ........................ 27

Donald L. Drakeman, Church, State,

and Original Intent (2010)............................. 15, 28

Hasan Dudar, Trumps Take Heat for

Not Reciting Apostles’ Creed at
George H.W. Bush Funeral, USA
Today (Dec. 6, 2018) ............................................. 19

First Parish, Hingham – Old Ship

Church – Unitarian Universalist,
https://tinyurl.com/yaj2pbtr ................................. 10

Bryan A. Garner et al., The Law of

Judicial Precedent (2016) .................................... 21

Frederick Mark Gedicks, Incorporation

of the Establishment Clause Against
the States: A Logical, Textual, and
Historical Account, 88 Ind. L.J. 669
(2013) .............................................................. 28, 29
 viii

George Washington and His Letter to the

Jews of Newport, Touro Synagogue,
https://tinyurl.com/jr76hep .................................. 12

The History and People of Christ

Church, Christ Church,
https://tinyurl.com/ybg479pj .................................. 9

History & Visitor Program, United First

Parish Church (Unitarian),
https://tinyurl.com/y75upr5o ................................. 9

La Purisma-Socorro Mission, Catholic

Diocese of El Paso,
https://tinyurl.com/ybbxfnm9 .............................. 11

Kurt T. Lash, The Second Adoption of

the Establishment Clause: The Rise
of the Non-Establishment Principle,
27 Ariz. St. L. J. 1085 (1995) ............................... 30

Leonard W. Levy, The Establishment

Clause: Religion & the First
Amendment (1986) ............................................... 16

Lawrence Lindner, Classic New

England: Five for the Road, Wash.
Post (Apr. 22, 2007)................................................ 9

Longfellow’s Poem, “Paul Revere’s Ride,”

The Old North Church & Historic
Site, https://tinyurl.com/y7z5t4j9 .......................... 8

Lower East Side Jewish History,

Museum at Eldridge Street,
https://tinyurl.com/y7xvr35z................................ 12
 ix

Michael W. McConnell, The Origins and

Historical Understanding of Free
Exercise of Religion, 103 Harv. L.
Rev. 1409 (1990) ................................................... 32

Mother Bethel African Methodist

Episcopal (AME) Church, Visit
Phila., https://tinyurl.com/y7u6lcql ..................... 13

The Museum at Eldridge Street,

Museum at Eldridge Street,
https://tinyurl.com/yaxqjcdb ................................ 12

Our History, Historic St. Luke’s Church,

https://tinyurl.com/y8bh33hx .............................. 10

Prayer Services, Touro Synagogue, 2018,

https://tinyurl.com/y86ahkp5 .............................. 12

Proclaiming Peace, Wash. Nat’l

Cathedral, Mar. 23, 2016,
https://tinyurl.com/yc2ufdh2 ............................... 10

Jessica Ravitz, Siblings of the Bombing:

Remembering Birmingham Church
Blast 50 Years On, CNN (Sept. 17,
2013), https://tinyurl.com/oylam55 ..................... 13

Julie Rose, St. Mary in the Mountains

Catholic Church, Online Nev.
Encyclopedia, Mar. 20, 2009,
https://tinyurl.com/ycbfz4he ................................ 11

Saint Paul’s Church: History & Culture,

Nat’l Park Serv., Feb. 26, 2015,
https://tinyurl.com/ya6kqwys; ............................... 6
 x

San Antonio Missions, Nat’l Park Serv.,

Nov. 13, 2018,
https://tinyurl.com/my3pnlg .................................. 7

San Antonio Missions: Church

Information, Nat’l Park Serv., Oct.
24, 2018,
https://tinyurl.com/y93bkgdj.................................. 7

San Antonio Missions: Mission San

José, Nat’l Park Serv., June 18,
2018, https://tinyurl.com/ybbv7tld ........................ 7

San Antonio Missions: Park Statistics,

Nat’l Park Serv., Feb. 24, 2015,
https://tinyurl.com/ycgcx757 .................................. 7

Save America’s Treasures, Am.

Architectural Found.,
https://tinyurl.com/ya64dusw ................................ 8

Save America’s Treasures Grants, Nat’l

Park Serv.,
https://tinyurl.com/ycya8jnz .............................. 7, 8

Save America’s Treasures –

Preservation, Grants.gov, Oct. 15,
2018, https://tinyurl.com/ybgosh56 ....................... 8

Richard Simon, Proposed Aid for

Washington National Cathedral
Draws Criticism, L.A. Times, (Oct.
25, 2011),
https://tinyurl.com/ybtavuko ............................... 10
 xi

Steven D. Smith, Foreordained Failure

(1995) .................................................................... 29

Spanish Missions: Socorro Mission,

Nat’l Park Serv., Apr. 15, 2016,
https://tinyurl.com/ybkcv2zt ................................ 11

John H. Sprinkle, Jr., Crafting

Preservation Criteria: The National
Register of Historic Places and
American Historic Preservation
(2014) ...................................................................... 6

Timeline, Wash. Nat’l Cathedral,

https://tinyurl.com/lxwo8l5 .................................. 10

Tumacácori: La Fiesta de Tumacácori,

Nat’l Park Serv., Nov. 5, 2018,
https://tinyurl.com/y7xqycdw ................................ 6

Tumacácori: Missions, Nat’l Park Serv.,

Feb. 24, 2015,
https://tinyurl.com/y7opfjyx ................................... 6

Tumacácori: Preservation, Nat’l Park

Serv., Mar. 16, 2018,
https://tinyurl.com/ybvz8fua .................................. 7

Tumacácori: San José de Tumacácori,

Nat’l Park Serv., June 20, 2015,
https://tinyurl.com/yc84yldw ................................. 6

Worship / Bible Study, Mother Bethel

African Methodist Episcopal Church,
https://tinyurl.com/y7atjyur................................. 13
 1

INTERESTS OF AMICI CURIAE*

Citizens United and Citizens United Foundation
are dedicated to restoring government to the people
through a commitment to limited government, feder-
alism, and free enterprise. Amici firmly believe that
religious liberty and recognition of God and the values
that lie at the heart of Judeo-Christian tradition are
critical attributes of our constitutional structure and
our continued national health. Amici regularly par-
ticipate as litigants and amici in important cases in
which these fundamental principles are at stake.
Citizens United is a nonprofit social welfare or-
ganization, exempt from federal income tax under In-
ternal Revenue Code section 501(c)(4). Citizens
United Foundation is a nonprofit, educational, legal,
and religious organization, exempt from federal in-
come tax under Internal Revenue Code section
501(c)(3).

* Pursuant to Supreme Court Rule 37.6, counsel for amici cu-

riae states that no counsel for a party authored this brief in whole
or in part, and no person or entity other than amici curiae, their
members, or their counsel made a monetary contribution in-
tended to fund this brief’s preparation or submission. The par-
ties have filed blanket consents to the filing of this brief and their
letters of consent are on file with the Clerk.
 2

SUMMARY OF THE ARGUMENT

There they go again. No matter how many Jus-
tices make it plain in separate opinions that Lemon v.
Kurtzman, 403 U.S. 602 (1971), does not provide a his-
torically correct or even useful standard for adjudicat-
ing Establishment Clause claims, the lower courts
keep applying it. The decision of the Fourth Circuit
panel below, in particular, spells disaster not just for
war memorials and other traditional, patently inof-
fensive uses of the Latin cross all across this country,
but also (as described herein) for government mainte-
nance of and financial support for the preservation of
historically important religious sites. Decisions like
the opinion below are possible, in part, because this
Court’s Establishment Clause jurisprudence is inscru-
table, with each new case seemingly bringing forth a
new and ever-more nuanced view as to what consti-
tutes an impermissible establishment of religion.
Enough is enough. The Court should end the un-
certainty and unpredictability that plagues Establish-
ment Clause jurisprudence. Specifically, the Court
should end the cycle of diminishment and subsequent
revitalization of the Lemon test and restore the origi-
nal meaning of the Establishment Clause, which pro-
hibited actual coercion of religious practice, belief, or
support—and nothing else. Doing so would bring
some measure of clarity to an area of law that has long
been in need of clear and firm reorientation. The
Court could further decrease the frequency of lower
court misapplication of the Establishment Clause by
overruling Everson v. Board of Education of Ewing,
330 U.S. 1 (1947), and holding that the Clause is not
incorporated against the States.
 3

ARGUMENT
I. THE FOURTH CIRCUIT’S RULING WRONGLY
PROHIBITS GOVERNMENT ASSISTANCE FOR
PRESERVATION OF HISTORIC RELIGIOUS SITES.
The Fourth Circuit’s application of Lemon effec-
tively dictates the removal, destruction, or deface-
ment of any prominent religious symbol or structure
that receives more than de minimis government fi-
nancial support, thereby endangering efforts to pre-
serve historic religious sites throughout the country.
Under Lemon, (1) the government’s “purpose”
must be “secular”; (2) the government action’s “princi-
pal or primary effect must be one that neither ad-
vances nor inhibits religion”; and (3) the government
action “must not foster an excessive government en-
tanglement with religion.” 403 U.S. at 612–13 (quo-
tation marks omitted). The panel majority below em-
phasized that “a violation of even one prong of Lemon
results in a violation of the Establishment Clause.”
Pet. App. 15a–16a; see also Pet. App. 28a (each viola-
tion of a Lemon prong “provides an alternative indica-
tor of the Cross’s unconstitutionality”). But see
McCreary Cty., Ky. v. Am. Civil Liberties Union of Ky.,
545 U.S. 844, 859 n.10 (2005) (stating “that Establish-
ment Clause doctrine lacks the comfort of categorical
absolutes” and allowing that a “governmental action
[may be] legitimate even where its manifest purpose
was presumably religious”).1
The panel majority acknowledged the Commis-
sion’s secular purpose in maintaining the Peace Cross.

1 Every citation of the petition appendix refers to the appendix

of American Legion Petitioners.
 4

Pet. App. 16a. But even a purpose that is appropriate

(from the Fourth Circuit’s perspective) would not save
a public display of a religious symbol or structure: “‘ir-
respective of government’s actual purpose,’” the dis-
play is unconstitutional under the effect prong if it “‘in
fact conveys a message of endorsement or disapproval
of religion.’” Pet. App. 17a (quoting Mellen v. Bunting,
327 F.3d 355, 374 (4th Cir. 2003)). That test, the
panel explained, must be applied from the perspective
of a “‘reasonable observer,’” who is “‘aware of the his-
tory and context of the community and forum in which
the religious speech takes place.’” Pet. App. 16a–17a
(quoting Good News Club v. Milford Cent. Sch., 533
U.S. 98, 119 (2001)).
Such a reasonable observer, the panel majority
determined, would believe that the government was
endorsing Christianity. The cross is a Christian sym-
bol, a fact not altered by the cross’s use in generic war
memorials. Pet. App. 17a–20a. And its large “size and
prominence” “overwhelm” the plaque that lists the lo-
cal soldiers who died in World War I and the other
“secular [elements],” such as the inscription of the
words “valor,” “endurance,” “courage,” and “devotion”
on the base of the Cross. Pet. App. 21a–22a. The
plaque is too weathered and pedestrian access to the
Cross is too difficult for these elements to neutralize
the Cross’s Christian symbolism, the panel majority
reasoned. Pet. App. 22a–24a. They found that the
American Legion’s symbol, which is imprinted at the
center of the Cross, does not help defray the Cross’s
religiosity because the symbol also is “badly weath-
ered” and, besides, the American Legion is “affiliat[ed]
with Christianity.” Pet. App. 23a. That the Cross had
only “a scattered history of religious use” (in reality,
 5

three Sunday services in a single month in 1931), “has

primarily hosted veteran-focused ceremonies,” and
was not built using government funds did little for the
panel majority, because “the initial donors to the me-
morial fund signed a pledge professing a belief in God,
and the Cross has been the scene of Christian activi-
ties.” Pet. App. 20a.
According to the panel majority, display of the
Cross is also unconstitutional because “there is exces-
sive religious entanglement . . . for two reasons.” Pet.
App. 27a. Simply “displaying the Cross” such that a
“reasonable observer” would believe the Commission
endorses Christianity entangles government with re-
ligion. Pet. App. 28a. (That is, a violation of the sec-
ond Lemon prong is per se a violation of the third
prong, too.) Separately, even “de minimis government
spending” to support the Cross is an unconstitutional
entanglement. Id.
As explained by petitioners and other amici in the
briefs in this case, war memorials in Arlington Na-
tional Cemetery and across the country would be un-
constitutional under the Fourth Circuit’s reasoning.
See, e.g., Br. of Amici Curiae State of W. Va., 27 Other
States, and Governor of Kentucky in Support of Peti-
tioners 12–27 (July 27, 2018). As Judge Niemeyer
foresaw in his dissent from the denial of rehearing en
banc, the panel decision “puts at risk hundreds of
monuments with similar symbols standing on public
grounds across the country, such as those in nearby
Arlington National Cemetery.” Pet. App. 97a.
In fact, the reasoning of the decision below sweeps
far more than war memorials into Lemon’s trash bin.
The federal government’s National Park Service
 6

(“NPS”), in particular, has supported numerous his-

toric religious sites across the country and even itself
owns and/or operates several buildings of religious
significance. These sites would almost certainly fail
the Fourth Circuit’s reasonable observer standard be-
cause they are identifiably religious, and the govern-
ment’s assistance to preserve even private displays
would very likely qualify as an unconstitutional en-
tanglement.
Examples are everywhere. To begin, the NPS
owns and operates St. Paul’s Church National
Historic Site in Mount Vernon, New York. One of the
oldest Episcopal parishes in New York, the church
was used for regular worship services until the late
1970s, after which it was transferred to the NPS,
which now runs it as a park. See Saint Paul’s Church:
History & Culture, NPS, Feb. 26, 2015,
https://tinyurl.com/ya6kqwys; John H. Sprinkle, Jr.,
Crafting Preservation Criteria: The National Register
of Historic Places and American Historic Preservation
138 (2014).
The NPS also owns and operates Tumacácori, a
National Historic Park in Arizona, which includes
three separate Spanish mission sites. Tumacácori:
Missions, NPS, Feb. 24, 2015, https://ti-
nyurl.com/y7opfjyx. One, San José de Tumacácori
(the park’s namesake), is immediately identifiable as
a religious building, complete with a cross atop the
front façade. Tumacácori: San José de Tumacácori,
NPS, June 20, 2015, https://tinyurl.com/yc84yldw.
Each year on the first Sunday in December, a Mass is
performed in front of the church as part of a fiesta cel-
ebrating the cultures associated with the local area.
Tumacácori: La Fiesta de Tumacácori, NPS, Nov. 5,
 7

2018, https://tinyurl.com/y7xqycdw. An estimated

$20 million has been spent on preserving the missions
since 1917. Tumacácori: Preservation, NPS, Mar. 16,
2018, https://tinyurl.com/ybvz8fua.
Similarly, the NPS manages a historical park con-
sisting of Spanish missions in San Antonio. San An-
tonio Missions, NPS, Nov. 13, 2018, https://ti-
nyurl.com/my3pnlg. Four missions in the park have
regular church services. See San Antonio Missions:
Church Information, NPS, Oct. 24, 2018, https://ti-
nyurl.com/y93bkgdj. Although the NPS is not cur-
rently responsible for the preservation of the mission
buildings, it was the Works Progress Administration
that “reconstructed” the Mission San José in the
1930s. San Antonio Missions: Mission San José,
NPS, June 18, 2018, https://tinyurl.com/ybbv7tld.
The NPS reports that $3.2 million in federal funds are
appropriated for the park’s operating budget. San An-
tonio Missions: Park Statistics, NPS, Feb. 24, 2015,
https://tinyurl.com/ycgcx757.
Separate from the park system itself is the Save
America’s Treasures grant program, under which the
NPS, along with other agencies such as the National
Endowment for the Arts, provides funds “for projects
to preserve nationally significant collections and his-
toric property.” 54 U.S.C. § 308902. A property is el-
igible for a grant if is “listed on the national Register
of Historic Places at the national level of significance”
or is “designated as a National Historic Landmark.”
Id. § 308903(c)(3). The NPS encourages “[h]istoric
properties and collections associated with active reli-
gious organizations” to apply for grants. Save Amer-
ica’s Treasures Grants, NPS, https://ti-
nyurl.com/ycya8jnz.
 8

Through this program, the NPS has given millions

of dollars for projects at religious sites across the
country, many of which are still used today for regular
religious services.2 The grants have supported
projects at a number of historic churches from the
colonial period. For example:
 The Old North Foundation received
$317,000 for the Old North Church in Bos-
ton, Massachusetts. This historic Episcopal
church is where, at the order of Paul Revere,
lanterns were lit to signal the British army’s
movement during the nascent days of the
Revolutionary War. See About Old North,
The Old North Church & Historic Site,
https://tinyurl.com/y9dxbemm. The church
is immortalized in Henry Wadsworth Long-
fellow’s poem, Paul Revere’s Ride: “He said
to his friend, ‘If the British march / By land
or sea from the town to-night, / Hang a lan-
tern aloft in the belfry-arch / Of the North-
Church-tower, as a signal-light, – / One if by
land, and two if by sea; / And I on the oppo-
site shore will be.’” Longfellow’s Poem, “Paul

2 Save America’s Treasures grants awarded between 1999 and

2010 are catalogued in an interactive online map compiled by the
American Architectural Foundation, and all amounts and receiv-
ing entities of Save America’s Treasures grants herein are taken
from this map. See Treasure Map: Mapping the Impact of Save
America’s Treasures, Am. Architectural Found., https://ti-
nyurl.com/ya64dusw. The program has recently been revital-
ized. See, e.g., Save America’s Treasures – Preservation,
Grants.gov, Oct. 15, 2018, https://tinyurl.com/ybgosh56; Save
America’s Treasures Grants, NPS, https://tinyurl.com/ycya8jnz.
 9

Revere’s Ride,” The Old North Church & His-

toric Site, https://tinyurl.com/y7z5t4j9.

 Christ Church in Philadelphia, Pennsylva-

nia, which was founded in 1695, received
$350,000. The building dates to 1744 and
hosts regular Episcopal services. The His-
tory and People of Christ Church, Christ
Church, https://tinyurl.com/ybg479pj.

 The United First Parish Church in Quincy,

Massachusetts, which is home to an active
Unitarian Universalist congregation, re-
ceived $100,000. The church is known as
the “Church of the Presidents” because it is
the burial place of Presidents John Adams
and John Quincy Adams and their wives,
First Ladies Abigail Adams and Louisa
Catherine Adams. The congregation dates
back to 1636, and the current building was
completed in 1828. History & Visitor Pro-
gram, United First Parish Church (Unitar-
ian), https://tinyurl.com/y75upr5o.

 The First Parish in Hingham received

$300,000 for the Old Ship Meeting House in
Hingham, Massachusetts, which dates back
to 1681 and “is the oldest church in continu-
ous use as a house of worship in North Amer-
ica.” Lawrence Lindner, Classic New Eng-
land: Five for the Road, Wash. Post, (Apr. 22,
2007), https://tinyurl.com/y75j4fho; see also
About the Friends & the Friendship Fund,
Friends of the Old Ship Meeting House, 2011,
 10

https://tinyurl.com/ydyxfuez. The congrega-

tion is Unitarian Universalist. First Parish,
Hingham – Old Ship Church – Unitarian
Universalist, https://tinyurl.com/yaj2pbtr.

 Historic St. Luke’s Church Restoration Inc.

received $250,000 for St. Luke’s Church in
Smithfield, Virginia, which was completed
in the 1680s and is the oldest church build-
ing in Virginia. Our History, Historic St.
Luke’s Church, https://tinyurl.com/y8bh33hx.

Other churches unassociated with colonial

English history have received large grants from the
Save America’s Treasures program. For example:

 The Washington National Cathedral re-

ceived $700,000, which it planned to put to-
ward costs associated with repairing the
damage from the earthquake that rattled
D.C. in the summer of 2011. See Richard Si-
mon, Proposed Aid for Washington National
Cathedral Draws Criticism, L.A. Times,
(Oct. 25, 2011), https://tinyurl.com/ybtavuko.
Construction on the Cathedral began in
1907 and was completed in 1990. Timeline,
Wash. Nat’l Cathedral, https://ti-
nyurl.com/lxwo8l5. Even before construc-
tion on the Cathedral began, President Wil-
liam McKinley attended the dedication of a
large Peace Cross on the Cathedral grounds.
See Proclaiming Peace, Wash. Nat’l Cathe-
dral, Mar. 23, 2016, https://ti-
nyurl.com/yc2ufdh2. In addition to holding
 11

regular Episcopal services, the Cathedral of-

ten hosts services related to political events
or the deaths of important political figures.
Just this year, funeral services for President
George H. W. Bush and Senator John S.
McCain III were held at the Cathedral.

 The Roman Catholic Diocese of Reno re-

ceived $500,000 for St. Mary’s in the Moun-
tains Catholic Church in Virginia City, Ne-
vada, which was built in 1877. Julie Rose,
St. Mary in the Mountains Catholic Church,
Online Nev. Encyclopedia, Mar. 20, 2009,
https://tinyurl.com/ycbfz4he.

 The Channing Memorial Church in New-

port, Rhode Island, which is home to a Uni-
tarian Universalist congregation, received
$440,000. The congregation dates back to
the mid-1830s. See Channing History,
Channing Mem’l Church, 2017, https://ti-
nyurl.com/yd99v6pu.

 Historic Missions Restoration, Inc. received

$197,221 for the Socorro Mission in Socorro,
Texas, a Franciscan church which was built
in the mid-nineteenth century and contin-
ues to host regular Catholic services. See
Spanish Missions: Socorro Mission, NPS,
Apr. 15, 2016, https://tinyurl.com/ybkcv2zt;
La Purisma-Socorro Mission, Catholic Dio-
cese of El Paso, https://tinyurl.com/ybbxfnm9.

Multiple Jewish synagogues have received

grants, as well. For example:
 12

 The Touro Synagogue Foundation, which

preserves the oldest synagogue in the
United States, received $375,000. The “He-
brew Congregation” in Newport, Rhode Is-
land, that was the recipient of President
Washington’s 1790 letter on religious toler-
ation called the Touro Synagogue home. See
George Washington and His Letter to the
Jews of Newport, Touro Synagogue,
https://tinyurl.com/jr76hep. A congregation
still worships at the synagogue. See Prayer
Services, Touro Synagogue, 2018, https://ti-
nyurl.com/y86ahkp5.

 The Eldridge Street Project received

$300,000. The Project restored the Eldridge
Street Synagogue, “the first great house of
worship built in America by Jewish immi-
grants from Eastern Europe.” The Museum
at Eldridge Street, Museum at Eldridge
Street, https://tinyurl.com/yaxqjcdb. The
synagogue is now a museum, but it also con-
tinues to host Shabbat and holiday services.
Lower East Side Jewish History, Museum at
Eldridge Street, https://tinyurl.com/y7xvr35z.

Important churches in African American his-

tory have received grants from both the Save Amer-
ica’s Treasures program and the separate African
American Civil Rights grants program. See Civil
Rights Grant Program: Application Information,
NPS, https://tinyurl.com/y6urhh3v. For example:

 The Sixteenth Street Baptist Church in Bir-

mingham, Alabama, which was built in 1911,
 13

has received both Save America’s Treasures

and African American Civil Rights grants. It
was under the front steps of this church that
the Ku Klux Klan detonated a bomb on the
morning of September 15, 1963, killing four
young girls. The event “was a pivotal moment
that helped prod the passage of the Civil Rights
Act of 1964 and the Voting Rights Act of 1965.”
Jessica Ravitz, Siblings of the Bombing: Re-
membering Birmingham Church Blast 50 Years
On, CNN (Sept. 17, 2013), https://ti-
nyurl.com/oylam55. The congregation is still
active today. See 16th Street Baptist Church,
Where Jesus Christ Is the Main Attraction!,
https://tinyurl.com/y7xtcocd/. The Church re-
ceived $400,000 from the Save America’s Treas-
ures program and $500,000 from the African
American Civil Rights program. See Civil
Rights Grant Program: African American Civil
Rights Grants, NPS, https://tinyurl.com/ycaga-
vjp.

 The Mother Bethel Foundation received a

$450,000 Save America’s Treasures grant
for the Mother Bethel A.M.E. Church in
Philadelphia, which is situated on the oldest
piece of property continuously owned by Af-
rican Americans. See Mother Bethel African
Methodist Episcopal (AME) Church, Visit
Phila., https://tinyurl.com/y7u6lcql. The
church holds regular worship services. Wor-
ship / Bible Study, Mother Bethel African
Methodist Episcopal Church, https://ti-
nyurl.com/y7atjyur.
 14

 St. Mark’s A.M.E. Church of Topeka, Kan-

sas Inc. received $231,804 from the African
American Civil Rights program. Civil
Rights Grant Program: African American
Civil Rights Grants, NPS, https://ti-
nyurl.com/ycagavjp. The church building is
more than 100 years old and hosts regular
services. Phil Anderson, North Topeka
Church Receives $231,000 Grant from Na-
tional Park Service, Topeka Cap.-J. (Feb. 19,
2017), https://tinyurl.com/y9gup5mg; St.
Mark’s AME Church, https://ti-
nyurl.com/ydz4d2x9.

NPS maintenance of and grants to assist the

preservation of historic religious sites are very likely
unconstitutional under the Lemon test as it was
understood and deployed by the Fourth Circuit panel
majority. It is essentially irrelevant that the NPS has
a purpose other than promoting religion (the
preservation of important historic sites). The Fourth
Circuit recognized that there was a secular purpose
underlying the government’s maintenance of the
Peace Cross. See Pet. App. 16a (“The Commission
obtained the Cross for a secular reason—maintenance
of safety near a busy highway intersection. The
Commission also preserves the memorial to honor
World War I soldiers. Government preservation of a
significant war memorial is a legitimate secular
purpose.”). But the panel majority held display of the
Cross was unconstitutional anyway, because even “de
minimis government spending” to maintain it violates
the Constitution. Pet. App. 28a. Under the panel
majority’s reasoning, government assistance in the
preservation of historic religious sites, regardless of
 15

denomination or beliefs—from the Tumacácori

mission in Arizona to the Touro Synagogue in
Newport, Rhode Island, and the Old North Church in
Boston to the Sixteenth Street Baptist Church in
Birmingham, Alabama—is unconstitutional. That
result is absurd, and should not be accepted.
II. THE LEMON TEST SHOULD FINALLY BE LAID TO
REST.
The Court should take this opportunity to once
and for all disavow the Lemon test.
The Court Should Restore The
Original Meaning Of The
Establishment Clause.
Lemon’s three-part test is untethered to the Es-
tablishment Clause’s original meaning, which forbade
Congress from establishing a national religion or in-
terfering with state or local establishments of religion.
Town of Greece, N.Y. v. Galloway, 572 U.S. 565, 604–
05 (2014) (Thomas, J., concurring in part and concur-
ring in the judgment) (summarizing historical evi-
dence); Elk Grove Unified Sch. Dist. v. Newdow, 542
U.S. 1, 50 (2004) (Thomas, J., concurring in the judg-
ment) (same); see also Donald L. Drakeman, Church,
State, and Original Intent 260 (2010) (concluding that
the Establishment Clause prohibits Congress “from
establishing a ‘national religion’”). Such establish-
ments “necessarily involve actual legal coercion.”
Newdow, 542 U.S. at 52 (Thomas, J., concurring in the
judgment); see also Br. for Am. Legion Petr’s 25–40.3

3 A government also might establish “a religion by imbuing it

with governmental authority or by ‘delegat[ing]its civic authority
to a group chosen according to a religious criterion.’” Newdow,
 16

Mere “[o]ffense, however, does not equate to coercion.”

Town of Greece, 572 U.S. at 589. Rather, “[t]he coer-
cion that was a hallmark of historical establishments
of religion was coercion of religious orthodoxy and of
financial support by force of law and threat of penalty.”
Lee v. Weisman, 505 U.S. 577, 640 (1992) (Scalia, J.,
dissenting); see Leonard W. Levy, The Establishment
Clause: Religion & the First Amendment 4–5 (1986)
(summarizing historical facets of establishments of re-
ligion). That is, governments used their “power in or-
der to exact financial support of the church, compel
religious observance, or control religious doctrine.”
Town of Greece, 572 U.S. at 608 (Thomas, J., concur-
ring in part and concurring in the judgment).
The Lemon test sweeps much more broadly. Un-
der Lemon, (1) the government’s “purpose” must be
“secular”; (2) the government action’s “principal or
primary effect must be one that neither advances nor
inhibits religion”; and (3) the government action
“must not foster an excessive entanglement with reli-
gion.” 403 U.S. at 612–13 (quotation marks omitted).
None of these prongs bears any relation to the Estab-
lishment Clause, as properly understood.
The purpose prong, which invalidates government
actions taken with the “predominant purpose of ad-
vancing religion,” McCreary, 545 U.S. at 860, 863, fal-
ters on at least two grounds. First, it is a “questiona-

542 U.S. at 52 (Thomas, J., concurring in the judgment) (quoting

Bd. of Educ. of Kiryas Joel Vill. Sch. Dist. v. Grumet, 512 U.S.
687, 698 (1994)). Public displays of religious symbols and gov-
ernment support for such displays do not implicate those other
potential routes to an Establishment Clause violation.
 17

ble premise that [government action] can be invali-

dated under the Establishment Clause on the basis of
its motivation alone, without regard to its effects.”
Edwards v. Aguillard, 482 U.S. 578, 610 (1987)
(Scalia, J., dissenting). Purpose might be relevant to
showing coercion—and undoubtedly it is relevant to
certain free exercise claims. See, e.g., Church of
Lukumi Babalu Aye, Inc. v. Hialeah, 508 U.S. 520,
545–46 (1993); Town of Greece, 572 U.S. at 597 (Alito,
J., concurring) (explaining that “intentional” decision
not to invite representatives of minority religions to
give legislative invocation would be “very differ-
ent[ ]”). But purpose cannot itself be the test for an
Establishment Clause violation. A governmental ac-
tion may be intended to advance religion, but that has
no bearing on whether it in fact coerces support for
religion. Is a food bank for the homeless unconstitu-
tional if the government official who authorized it an-
nounced that he favored spending public funds on that
project on account of his religious belief in the im-
portance of feeding the hungry?4
Second, Lemon’s demand that government not
seek to “advance religion” is incompatible with histor-
ical and current practice. If Lemon’s “advancement”
prong were applied in a principled manner, govern-
ments would be forbidden from providing exemptions
from generally applicable laws and regulations. Yet,
not only are accommodations “permissible” and “de-
sirable,” in some circumstances they may be “required

4 Even worse, this Court has previously suggested that courts

can infer a predominant religious purpose by asking how an “ob-
jective observer” would view the “text, legislative history, and
implementation of the statute, or comparable official act.”
McCreary, 545 U.S. at 862–63 (quotation marks omitted).
 18

by the Free Exercise Clause.” Aguillard, 482 U.S. at

617–18 (Scalia, J., dissenting); see also Cutter v. Wil-
kinson, 544 U.S. 709, 726 n.1 (2005) (Thomas, J., con-
curring); Texas Monthly, Inc. v. Bullock, 489 U.S. 1,
38–39 (1989) (Scalia, J., dissenting). Government
seeks to advance religion in innumerable other ways,
from exempting religious institutions “from the obli-
gation to pay property taxes” to “allow[ing] students
to absent themselves from public school to take reli-
gious classes.” McCreary, 545 U.S. at 891 (Scalia, J.,
dissenting). And this Court has twice “approved (post-
Lemon) government-led prayer to God.” Id. at 892; see
Town of Greece, 572 U.S. at 591–92. It does not offend
the Establishment Clause to prefer “religion over irre-
ligion.” Rosenberger v. Rector & Visitors of Univ. of
Va., 515 U.S. 819, 855–56 (1995) (Thomas, J., concur-
ring). But forbidding government actions that have
the effect of advancing religion would result in the
prohibition of even non-coercive “religion-neutral” pol-
icies that are required to avoid violating other consti-
tutional rights. Id. at 842–43.
There also are severe practical problems in iden-
tifying whether a government action in fact advances
religion. It is exceedingly difficult to determine if gov-
ernment action “endorses or disapproves of religion”
by “send[ing] a message to nonadherents that they are
outsiders, not full members of the political commu-
nity” or “the opposite message.” Cty. of Allegheny v.
ACLU Greater Pittsburgh Chapter, 592 U.S. 573, 625
(1989) (O’Connor, J., concurring) (quotation marks
omitted). This standard is generally applied, as the
Fourth Circuit panel did below, from the viewpoint of
a so-called reasonable observer. But even proponents
of Lemon disagree about what the reasonable observer
 19

standard-within-a-standard entails. Justice O’Con-

nor argued that “proper application of the endorse-
ment test requires that the reasonable observer be
deemed more informed than the casual passerby.”
Capitol Square Review & Advisory Bd. v. Pinette, 515
U.S. 753, 779 (1995) (O’Connor, J., concurring in part
and concurring in the judgment). Her reasonable ob-
server is “a personification of a community ideal of
reasonable behavior,” who is “aware of the history and
context of the community and forum in which the re-
ligious display appears.” Id. at 780 (quotation marks
omitted). Justice Stevens, on the other hand, disa-
greed with this “well-schooled jurist” standard, prefer-
ring “the universe of reasonable persons,” i.e.
“whether some viewers of the religious display would
be likely to perceive a government endorsement.” Id.
at 800 n.5 (Stevens, J., dissenting).
Neither version of the “reasonable observer,” how-
ever, yields a “principled way to choose between” one
person’s “honest and deeply felt offense” at seeing a
religious symbol and another person’s similar feeling
upon the “removal of the sign or display.” Van Orden
v. Perry, 545 U.S. 677, 696–97 (2005) (Thomas, J., con-
curring).
Consider a recently reported incident: President
Trump’s lack of participation in the group reading of
the Apostles’ Creed during President George H. W.
Bush’s funeral at the Washington National Cathedral.
See Hasan Dudar, Trumps Take Heat for Not Reciting
Apostles’ Creed at George H.W. Bush Funeral, USA
Today (Dec. 6, 2018), https://tinyurl.com/ybjlxuy9. If
the President had spoken the Creed while live on na-
tional television, would a reasonable observer have
believed that he sent a message to “nonadherents that
 20

they are outsiders”? Did the President’s failure to join

the four living former Presidents in the reading signal
“the opposite message”? Restoring the original mean-
ing of the Establishment Clause—a prohibition of ac-
tual coercion—eliminates the need to attempt the im-
possible task of divining the “effect” of a government
action on the community as a whole. See also Br. for
Am. Legion Pet’rs 47–51.
Finally, to the extent entanglement presents a
separate consideration than the purpose or effect
prongs, it too extends farther than the original mean-
ing of the Establishment Clause. It may be that pro-
vision of “exclusive or disproportionate funding to per-
vasively sectarian institutions” violates the Constitu-
tion, Bowen v. Kendrick, 487 U.S. 589, 624 (1988)
(Kennedy, J., concurring), because appropriating tax
dollars in that manner would in effect “exact financial
support of the church,” Town of Greece, 572 U.S. at
608 (Thomas, J., concurring in part and concurring in
the judgment).5 But the Lemon test has been applied
to prohibit “any use of public funds,” Bowen, 487 U.S.
at 623 (O’Connor, J., concurring), where (for example)
the money may be spent on “religious educational
functions,” Lemon, 403 U.S. at 613, or to maintain a

5 The Court has implied that this principle might apply where
allocation of funds would disproportionately flow to religious in-
stitutions over non-religious institutions. See Zelman v. Sim-
mons-Harris, 536 U.S. 639, 653 (2002) (finding that school choice
program created “no financial incentives that skew the program
toward religious schools” (quotation marks and alterations omit-
ted)). But see Rosenberger, 515 U.S. at 855–56 (Thomas, J., con-
curring) (explaining “that Madison saw the principle of nones-
tablishment as barring governmental preferences for particular
religious faiths,” not religion generally).
 21

religious display, Pet. App. at 28a (even “de minimis

government spending” or mere ownership of the reli-
gious display creates an unconstitutional entangle-
ment). Since “government usually acts by spending
money,” this doctrine faithfully applied would dictate
the result that nearly every government action that
benefits religion is an impermissible entanglement.
Rosenberger, 515 U.S. at 843. That cannot be the law.
In summary, “[i]t is difficult to see how govern-
ment practices that have nothing to do with creating
or maintaining the sort of coercive state establish-
ment described above implicate the possible liberty in-
terest of being free from coercive state establish-
ments.” Newdow, 542 U.S. at 53 (Thomas, J., concur-
ring in the judgment). The Lemon test sweeps far be-
yond such coercive practices and ultimately “requires
this Court to act as a censor, issuing national decrees
as to what is orthodox and what is not.” Cty. of Alle-
gheny, 492 U.S. at 677–78 (Kennedy, J., concurring in
the judgment in part and dissenting in part).
Stare Decisis Is No Obstacle To
Setting Lemon Aside.
Although “[s]tare decisis is the preferred course,”
it “is not an inexorable command.” Janus v. Am. Fed’n
of State, Cty., & Mun. Emps., Council 31, 138 S. Ct.
2448, 2478 (2018) (quotation marks omitted). Indeed,
the “doctrine ‘is at its weakest when [the Court] inter-
pret[s] the Constitution because [the Court’s] inter-
pretation can be altered only by constitutional amend-
ment or by overruling [the Court’s] prior decisions.’”
Id. (quoting Agostini v. Felton, 521 U.S. 203, 235
(1997)); see also Bryan A. Garner et al., The Law of
Judicial Precedent § 40, at 352 (2016).
 22

“An important factor in determining whether a

precedent should be overruled is the quality of its rea-
soning.” Janus, 138 S. Ct. at 2479. The Lemon test
was “poorly reasoned,” as demonstrated above. Id.
Each of the three prongs is far removed from the orig-
inal meaning of the Establishment Clause, as is the
test as a whole. It has resulted in many unfortunate
decisions, of which the Fourth Circuit’s opinion below
is just one. And it will put many more publicly sup-
ported religious displays in jeopardy, including gov-
ernment aid to efforts to preserve historic religious
sites. See supra Part I. Setting aside Lemon will “but
restore constitutional principles.” Gideon v. Wain-
right, 372 U.S. 335, 344 (1963).
The Lemon test, moreover, has proven wholly un-
workable. Cf. Janus, 138 S. Ct. at 2481 (explaining
that “[a]nother relevant consideration in the stare de-
cisis calculus is the workability of the precedent in
question”). Its failure in this regard has been repeat-
edly noted over the course of decades. Lemon “is
flawed in its fundamentals and unworkable in prac-
tice.” Cty. of Allegheny, 492 U.S. at 669 (Kennedy, J.,
concurring in the judgment in part and dissenting in
part). “As bad as the Lemon test is, it is worse for the
fact that, since its inception, its seemingly simple
mandates have been manipulated to fit whatever re-
sult the Court aimed to achieve.” McCreary, 545 U.S.
at 900 (Scalia, J., dissenting). The Court has at times
has suggested that Lemon “sacrifices clarity and pre-
dictability for flexibility.” Comm. for Pub. Educ. & Re-
ligious Liberty v. Regan, 444 U.S. 646, 662 (1980). But
in truth, “flexibility” is “‘a euphemism . . . for . . . the
absence of any principled rationale.’” Aguillard, 482
U.S. at 640 (Scalia, J., dissenting) (quoting Jesse H.
 23

Choper, The Religion Clauses of the First Amendment:

Reconciling the Conflict, 41 U. Pitt. L. Rev. 673, 681
(1980)).
The lack of a principled rationale is most evident
in cases, like this one, involving a display of a religious
symbol. For example, the “reasonable observer”
standard is difficult, if not impossible, to apply con-
sistently. “Would the majority’s version of a reasona-
ble observer be satisfied and better equipped to eval-
uate the Memorial’s history and context if the cross
were smaller? Perhaps if it were the same size as the
other monuments in the park?” asked Chief Judge
Gregory in his dissent below. “Though Establishment
Clause cases require a fact-intensive analysis, we
must bear in mind our responsibility to provide the
government and public with notice of actions that vi-
olate the Constitution.” Pet. App. 43a; see also Br. for
Am. Legion Pet’rs 47–51. Lemon is plainly not “clear
and easy to apply.” South Dakota v. Wayfair, Inc., 138
S. Ct. 2080, 2097 (2018).
The intermittent and inconsistent invocation of
Lemon only accentuate these problems. In Lamb’s
Chapel v. Center Moriches Union Free School District,
Justice Scalia “bemoaned the strange Establishment
Clause geometry of crooked lines and wavering shapes
[Lemon’s] intermittent use has produced.” 508 U.S.
384, 399 (1993) (Scalia, J., concurring in the judg-
ment) (citing scholarly criticism). Yet twenty-five
years later it still is entirely unclear in what situa-
tions Lemon should apply. That is especially true
(again) in cases concerning displays of religious sym-
bols. Take, for example, Van Orden and McCreary,
the companion Ten Commandments cases. In Van Or-
den, the plurality held that Lemon was inappropriate
 24

for passive displays, 545 U.S. at 686, and Justice

Breyer in his concurrence declined to apply Lemon or,
indeed, “any particular test,” id. at 703–04. On the
very same day, Justice Souter’s majority opinion in
McCreary reaffirmed Lemon’s “three familiar consid-
erations,” particularly the secular purpose prong. 545
U.S. at 859. Majority opinions of this Court some-
times sidestep Lemon or omit a citation of it entirely.
See, e.g., Cutter, 544 U.S. at 717 n.6 (citing Lemon, but
tersely stating that “[w]e resolve this case on other
grounds”); Town of Greece, 572 U.S. 565 (not citing
Lemon at all).
Although “[i]n some cases, reliance provides a
strong reason for adhering to established law,” here it
does not. Janus, 138 S. Ct. at 2484. The lack of a
“clear or easily applicable standard” means any at-
tempted invocation of reliance interests is, at the very
least, “misplaced.” Wayfair, 138 S. Ct. at 2098; see
also Janus, 138 S. Ct. at 2484. Lemon’s decades of life
have not made it any more palatable. That is partic-
ularly true here, where “our history and tradition
have shown that [the practice in question] could coex-
ist with the principles of disestablishment and reli-
gious freedom.” Town of Greece, 572 U.S. at 578 (quo-
tation marks omitted).
Reliance is lacking, moreover, because Lemon’s
status has been “uncertain” almost since the day it
was written. Janus, 138 S. Ct. at 2485. As Justice
Scalia famously wrote twenty-five years ago, the
Lemon test is “[l]ike some ghoul in a late-night horror
movie that repeatedly sits up in its grave and shuffles
abroad, after being repeatedly killed and buried.”
Lamb’s Chapel, 508 U.S. at 398. Individual “Justices
have, in their own opinions, personally driven pencils
 25

through the creature’s heart.” Id. Indeed, the Court

has “gone so far as to say that [Lemon] has never been
binding.” Santa Fe. Indep. Sch. Dist. v. Doe, 530 U.S.
290, 319 (2000) (Rehnquist, C.J., dissenting) (citing
Lynch v. Donnelly, 465 U.S. 668, 679 (1984)) (empha-
sis added). Yet still it lives, for now.
* * *
“A certain momentum develops in constitutional
theory,” Chief Justice Burger observed in Lemon, “and
it can be a ‘downhill thrust’ easily set in motion but
difficult to retard or stop.” 403 U.S. at 624. Time and
again, Lemon has been pushed back up the hill, only
for gravity to pull it into the U.S. Reports yet again.
It is past time—finally—for the Court to end this Sis-
yphean drama and bury Lemon for good.
III. THE ESTABLISHMENT CLAUSE DOES NOT APPLY
TO THE STATES.
The Court could further prevent lower courts from
causing mischief in future cases involving state and
local governments by correcting an underlying mis-
take: incorporation of the Establishment Clause
against the States. “If the Establishment Clause is
not incorporated, then it has no application here,
where only [state] action is at issue.” Town of Greece,
572 U.S. at 604 (Thomas, J., concurring in part and
concurring in the judgment); Van Orden, 545 U.S. at
693 (Thomas, J., concurring).
 26

The Establishment Clause Should

Not Be Incorporated Because It Is A
Federalism Provision.
Only those provisions of the Bill of Rights that
protect individuals (as distinct from States) from fed-
eral overreach may properly be incorporated against
the States. That is true regardless of whether incor-
poration is accomplished through the Fourteenth
Amendment’s Due Process Clause or Privileges or Im-
munities Clause. The Due Process Clause requires
the States to abide by “‘the same standards that pro-
tect those personal rights against federal encroach-
ment.’” McDonald v. City of Chicago, Ill., 561 U.S.
742, 765 (2010) (quoting Malloy v. Hogan, 378 U.S. 1,
10 (1964)) (emphasis added). And if the Court were to
revisit the Privileges or Immunities Clause notwith-
standing the Slaughterhouse Cases, it would find that
“the privileges and immunities of [United States] citi-
zens included individual rights enumerated in the
Constitution”. Id. at 823 (Thomas, J., concurring in
part and concurring in the judgment) (emphasis
added).6

6 Incorporation of the exclusionary rule, which itself “is not an

individual right,” Herring v. United States, 555 U.S. 135, 141
(2009), does not undermine the principle that only protections of
individuals, not States, are incorporated. The exclusionary rule
is a “judicially created” prophylactic meant to deter violations of
Fourth Amendment rights. Id. at 139–44. As such, it is a doc-
trine that, so long as it is valid, necessarily accompanies incorpo-
ration of the Fourth Amendment because there is no justification
for applying “only a watered-down, subjective version of the in-
dividual guarantees of the Bill of Rights” to the States. McDon-
ald, 561 U.S. at 786 (quoting Malloy, 378 U.S. at 10–11).
 27

“The Establishment Clause does not purport to

protect individual rights.” Newdow, 542 U.S. at 50
(Thomas, J., concurring in the judgment). Rather, the
Clause prevents the establishment of a national reli-
gion and interference with state or local establish-
ments of religion. See supra Part II.A. It is best un-
derstood, therefore, as a “federalism provision.” Town
of Greece, 572 U.S. at 605 (2014) (Thomas, J., concur-
ring in part and concurring in the judgment).
It makes no sense to incorporate a federalism pro-
vision because incorporation would have a “paradoxi-
cal effect[:] to apply the clause against a state govern-
ment is precisely to eliminate its right to choose
whether to establish a religion—a right clearly con-
firmed by the establishment clause itself.” Akhil Reed
Amar, The Bill of Rights 33–34 (1998); see also Town
of Greece, 572 U.S. at 606–07 (Thomas, J., concurring
in part and concurring in the judgment); Sch. Dist. of
Abingdon Twp. v. Schempp, 374 U.S. 203, 310 (1963)
(Stewart, J., dissenting) (“it is not without irony that
a constitutional provision evidently designed to leave
the States free to go their own way should now have
become a restriction upon their autonomy”). The Es-
tablishment Clause cannot be incorporated any more
than the Tenth Amendment can be incorporated. In-
corporation in either case would “invert[ ] the original
import of the Amendment.” Town of Greece, 572 U.S.
at 606 (Thomas, J., concurring in part and concurring
in the judgment); see also, e.g., Daniel O. Conkle, To-
ward a General Theory of the Establishment Clause,
82 Nw. Univ. L. Rev. 1113, 1141 (1988) (“To ‘incorpo-
rate’ this policy of states’ rights for application against
the states would be utter nonsense, for there would be
no norms to incorporate. It would be the incorporation
 28

of an empty set of values, akin to an incorporation of

the tenth amendment for application against the
states.”).
At least one scholar has argued that the Estab-
lishment Clause was not just a federalism provision,
but “also affirmatively immunized the people from the
effects of any federal establishment of religion,”
thereby providing a “substantive personal liberty sus-
ceptible of incorporation against the states.” Freder-
ick Mark Gedicks, Incorporation of the Establishment
Clause Against the States: A Logical, Textual, and
Historical Account, 88 Ind. L.J. 669, 677 (2013). But
see Drakeman, supra, at 261 (disputing that the Es-
tablishment Clause reflects any “shared values” re-
flective of individual rights). According to Professor
Gedicks, the “disability” imposed by the Constitution
on the federal government created twin substantive
rights—a “state immunity” and a “personal immun-
ity”—the latter of which was incorporated to the det-
riment of the former. Gedicks, supra, at 692–709.
But Professor Gedicks’s argument proves too
much. A constitutional prohibition on federal action
does not in and of itself create a personal, as con-
trasted with a state, right. For example, Article IV,
Section 3 prohibits the creation of new States from a
portion (or all) of an existing State “without the Con-
sent of the Legislatures of the States concerned.” That
federal disability obviously is paired with a state im-
munity, but there is no piggybacking personal right.
So, too, with the Establishment Clause. The prohibi-
tion on establishment of a national religion does not
signify a personal right to be free from a national es-
tablishment; rather, “the States are the particular
beneficiaries of the Clause.” Town of Greece, 572 U.S.
 29

at 606 (Thomas, J., concurring in part and concurring

in the judgment). Otherwise, every federalism provi-
sion—including the basic limits on the powers of the
federal government—would necessarily pair with a
corresponding individual right that would be incorpo-
rated against the States through the Fourteenth
Amendment. See Gedicks, 88 Ind. L.J. at 695–96 (be-
cause “federalism protects personal liberty,” “the dis-
abilities that federalism imposes on federal action im-
munize individuals as well as the states”); cf. United
States v. Lopez, 514 U.S. 549, 552 (1995) (the Consti-
tution’s “mandated division of authority was adopted
by the Framers to ensure protection of our fundamen-
tal liberties” (quotation marks omitted)).
There would be no basis to exempt the Tenth
Amendment from incorporation, for it follows the
same template. Indeed, the Tenth Amendment theo-
retically could be read to provide the same kind of
twin immunities that Professor Gedicks has discov-
ered in the Establishment Clause: the federal govern-
ment is prohibited from exercising powers not dele-
gated to it, and the right to be free from any such ex-
ercise is held by “the States respectively” and “the peo-
ple.” But it would be absurd to incorporate the Tenth
Amendment, and it is similarly illogical to incorporate
the Establishment Clause. See Steven D. Smith, Fore-
ordained Failure 24 (1995) (“it seems nonsensical or
incoherent to suggest that a provision representing
‘essential federalism’ has substantive meaning inde-
pendent of its federalism or that the provision has
substantive content that can be ‘extended’ to the
states”).
Nor is there conclusive historical evidence that
the framers of the Fourteenth Amendment believed
 30

the Establishment Clause protected an individual

right and incorporated it on that basis. See generally
Kurt T. Lash, The Second Adoption of the Establish-
ment Clause: The Rise of the Non-Establishment Prin-
ciple, 27 Ariz. St. L. J. 1085 (1995) (arguing that the
Establishment Clause was transformed into a per-
sonal liberty that could be incorporated). The evi-
dence supporting that hypothesis is mixed, at best.
See Town of Greece, 572 U.S. at 607 (Thomas, J., con-
curring in part and concurring in the judgment);
Amar, supra, at 252–53 (questioning whether, “even
if by 1866 the establishment clause was no longer a
state right, pure and simple, [we can] really say that
it was a private right of individuals, as opposed to a
right of the public at large”). In the context of “the
textual and logical difficulties posed by incorporation”
of the Clause, “the burden of persuasion . . . rests with
those who claim that the Clause assumed a different
meaning upon adoption of the Fourteenth Amend-
ment.” Town of Greece, 572 U.S. at 607 (Thomas, J.,
concurring in part and concurring in the judgment);
see also Newdow, 542 U.S. at 51 (Thomas, J., concur-
ring in the judgment). That burden cannot be carried.
Stare Decisis Should Not Prevent
Correcting The Incorporation
Mistake.
The Court should not apply stare decisis to retain
incorporation of the Establishment Clause. The doc-
trine of stare decisis has the least force where consti-
tutional decisions are under reconsideration. See su-
pra Part II.B. The case that announced the incorpo-
ration of the Establishment Clause, Everson, did so
obliquely and with minimal reasoning. The opinion
 31

noted that the Free Exercise Clause had been incorpo-

rated and then asserted that “[t]here is every reason
to give the same application . . . to the ‘establishment
of religion’ clause,” noting that the two clauses are
“complementary.” 330 U.S. at 15. That fleeting, con-
clusory analysis is owed no deference. See Janus, 138
S. Ct. at 2479 (stating that “quality of reasoning” is
“[a]n important factor in determining whether a prec-
edent should be overruled”). Everson “failed to appre-
ciate that a very different” issue is presented when in-
corporation of the Establishment Clause is concerned.
Janus, 138 S. Ct. at 2479. More than that, Everson
failed to independently assess whether the Establish-
ment Clause should be incorporated. See McDonald,
561 U.S. at 763–65 (explaining that despite
“shed[ding] any reluctance to” incorporate the individ-
ual protections of the Bill of Rights, the Court has en-
gaged in a careful “process of ‘selective incorpora-
tion’”). The opinion thus “glibly effected a sea change
in constitutional law.” Town of Greece, 572 U.S. at 607
n.1 (Thomas, J., concurring in part and concurring in
the judgment). It was not enough to uncritically rely
on the prior incorporation of the Free Exercise Clause.
See Janus, 138 S. Ct. at 2480 (overruling case in part
because it was “not well reasoned”).
Reliance interests cannot save incorporation of
the Establishment Clause. The Free Exercise Clause
has been properly incorporated against the States by
the Fourteenth Amendment. See Schempp, 536 U.S.
at 311 (Stewart, J., dissenting) (“That the central
value embodied in the First Amendment—and, more
particularly, in the guarantee of ‘liberty’ contained in
the Fourteenth—is the safeguarding of an individual’s
 32

right to free exercise of his religion has been consist-

ently recognized.”). Even most antagonists of Estab-
lishment Clause incorporation accept that assess-
ment. See, e.g., Zelman, 536 U.S. at 679 & n.4
(Thomas, J., concurring). The Free Exercise Clause,
therefore, joins with other protections of individual
rights as a bulwark against state encroachment on
matters of religious observance and religious con-
science. Indeed, “[t]he Free Exercise Clause bars even
‘subtle departures from neutrality’ on matters of reli-
gion.” Masterpiece Cakeshop, Ltd. v. Colo. Civil
Rights Comm’n, 138 S. Ct. 1719, 1731 (2018) (quoting
Church of Lukumi, 508 U.S. at 534).
The Constitution thus prevents States both from
targeting particular religions for disfavored treatment
and from meaningfully advantaging one denomina-
tion such that adherents’ ability to practice other reli-
gions is diminished. A State very likely could not “de-
cree[ ] that individuals profess a state creed or attend
a state service or pay money directly to a state church”
without violating the Free Exercise Clause and, per-
haps, other individual guarantees, such as the Equal
Protection Clause. Amar, supra, at 252; see also Cant-
well v. Connecticut, 310 U.S. 296, 303 (1940) (“Thus
the [First] Amendment embraces two concepts—the
freedom to believe and freedom to act.”); Michael W.
McConnell, The Origins and Historical Understand-
ing of Free Exercise of Religion, 103 Harv. L. Rev.
1409, 1512 (1990) (concluding that granting “free ex-
ercise exemptions is more consistent with the original
understanding than is a position that leads only to the
facial neutrality of legislation”). As Justice Jackson
wrote for the Court in West Virginia State Board of
Education v. Barnette, 319 U.S. 624, 642 (1943), “[i]f
 33

there is any fixed star in our constitutional constella-

tion, it is that no official, high or petty, can prescribe
what shall be orthodox in politics, nationalism, reli-
gion, or other matters of opinion or force citizens to
confess by word or act their faith therein.” The per-
sonal right to worship as one sees fit “is susceptible of
restriction only to prevent grave and immediate dan-
ger to interests which the state may lawfully protect.”
Id. at 639. But see Emp’t Div., Dep’t of Human Res. of
Ore. v. Smith, 494 U.S. 872 (1990) (rejecting “compel-
ling interest” test where law is neutral and generally
applicable).
It is even possible that the individual guarantees
of the Free Exercise Clause and the Equal Protection
Clause might prevent a State from simply proclaiming
an official religion, much as States have official state
birds, flowers, fish, and even beverages. See, e.g., Va.
Code § 1-510 (establishing, among other things, milk
as the official beverage and “George Washington’s rye
whiskey” as the official spirit of the Commonwealth of
Virginia). Such a “noncoercive establishment” might
“violate[ ] principles of religious liberty and religious
equality,” in addition to “offend[ing] basic principles
of equal citizenship and equal protection.” Amar, su-
pra, at 254. In fact, “[i]t may well be the case that
anything that would violate the incorporated Estab-
lishment Clause would actually violate the Free Exer-
cise Clause, further calling into doubt the utility of in-
corporating the Establishment Clause.” Newdow, 542
U.S. at 53 n.4 (Thomas, J., concurring in the judg-
ment); see also id. at 54 n.5; Van Orden, 545 U.S. at
693 (2005) (Thomas, J., concurring); Cutter, 544 U.S.
at 728 n.3 (Thomas, J., concurring).
 34

The Court need not and should not decide the full
breadth and depth of the Free Exercise Clause in this
case. If it is inclined to reconsider incorporation of the
Establishment Clause, it is sufficient to dispel any in-
vocation of reliance interests to support stare decisis
on the ground that an incorporated Establishment
Clause, properly understood as a prohibition of actual
coercion, does not provide much more protection than
the Free Exercise Clause. See infra Part II.A; New-
dow, 542 U.S. at 46 (Thomas, J., concurring in the
judgment) (“any sensible incorporation of the Estab-
lishment Clause, which would probably cover little
more than the Free Exercise Clause”). As such, reli-
ance on Everson is misplaced and should not prevent
this Court for holding that the Establishment Clause
is not incorporated against the States.
CONCLUSION
For the foregoing reasons, the Court should
reverse the Fourth Circuit.

Respectfully submitted,

MICHAEL BOOS MATTHEW D. MCGILL

General Counsel Counsel of Record
CITIZENS UNITED ANDREW G. I. KILBERG
1006 Pennsylvania Ave., S.E. TRAVIS S. ANDREWS
Washington, D.C. 20003 GIBSON, DUNN & CRUTCHER LLP
(202) 547-5420 1050 Connecticut Avenue, N.W.
Washington, D.C. 20036
(202) 955-8500
mmcgill@gibsondunn.com
Counsel for Amici Curiae

December 21, 2018