Blandford-Znajek process in vacuo and its holographic dual

Ted Jacobson∗
Center for Fundamental Physics, University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland 20742, USA

Maria J. Rodriguez†
Max Planck for Gravitational Physics, Potsdam 14476, Germany and
Department of Physics, Utah State University, 4415 Old Main Hill Road, UT 84322, USA

Blandford and Znajek discovered a process by which a spinning black hole can transfer rotational
energy to a plasma, offering a mechanism for energy and jet emissions from quasars. Here we
describe a version of this mechanism that operates with only vacuum electromagnetic fields outside
the black hole. The setting, which is not astrophysically realistic, involves either a cylindrical black
arXiv:1709.10090v1 [hep-th] 28 Sep 2017

hole or one that lives in 2+1 spacetime dimensions, and the field is given in simple, closed form
for a wide class of metrics. For asymptotically Anti-de Sitter black holes in 2+1 dimensions the
holographic dual of this mechanism is the transfer of angular momentum and energy, via a resistive
coupling, from a rotating thermal state containing an electric field to an external charge density
rotating more slowly than the thermal state. In particular, the entropy increase of the thermal state
due to Joule heating matches the Bekenstein-Hawking entropy increase of the black hole.

Prodigious amounts of energy wind up in the rotation however, we found that there is a purely electromagnetic
of spinning black holes. Although nothing can escape version of the BZ process, in which plasma plays no role.
from inside a black hole, that energy can be extracted We begin here with the cylindrical BH examples, since
via a dynamo effect, the Blandford-Znajek (BZ) process they are easier to visualize, and the analogy with the as-
[1], when a black hole is threaded by a magnetic field and trophysical case is closer. The 2+1 version will then be
surrounded by plasma. The mechanism of the BZ effect obtained as a special case of the 3+1 cylindrical one. Of
is a type of Penrose process [2]: Near a spinning black particular interest is the spinning BTZ black hole back-
hole is an ergosphere where it is impossible to remain ground in 2+1 dimensions [10], since it is an exact so-
stationary relative to a distant observer, because the local lution of general relativity with a negative cosmological
inertial frames are dragged around faster than the speed constant, is locally maximally symmetric, and is related
of light. A system in the ergosphere can carry negative by AdS/CFT duality [11] to a thermal state of a two di-
values of the conserved global energy quantity, yet have mensional conformal field theory. Thus one can also ex-
positive ordinary energy relative to a local observer. (In amine the CFT dual of a BZ process. A similar idea was
this paper the word “energy” will refer to the globally previously pursued in Ref. [12], with force-free plasma in
conserved quantity, which agrees with “local energy” only the Kerr-AdS background, but no energy extracting so-
far from the black hole, in its rest frame.) Total energy lution was found. It was suggested there that this might
can therefore be globally conserved, while positive energy be due to the existence of a globally timelike Killing vec-
flows away and negative energy flows into the black hole. tor outside the event horizon, but this implies only that
Although the principles of the BZ process are fully un- positive values of the corresponding conserved quantity
derstood (e.g. [3, 4]), and it is well studied analytically, cannot be extracted. Indeed, the spinning BTZ black
semi-analytically, and numerically (e.g. [1, 5–9]), it re- hole also has a globally timelike Killing vector, yet we
mains difficult to develop an intuitive picture of how the find that positive energy extraction is possible.
flow of electromagnetic energy and charge current is or- In the BZ process [1] a stationary plasma, around a
ganized in space, and how and where the negative energy spinning black hole threaded by a magnetic field, radi-
originates. The difficulty is in part due to the three di- ates a Poynting flux of energy to infinity. Energy conser-
mensionality, the number of different field quantities, and vation implies that the radial component of the Poynting
the complexity of the Kerr metric which describes the vector E~ ×B ~ must fall with radius inversely as the sur-
spacetime geometry of a spinning black hole. In an effort face area grows, so that the flux of energy is the same
to boil down the process to a “toy model,” we began look- through any surface surrounding the black hole. To sim-
ing for a version in a 2+1 dimensional spacetime. We as- plify the geometry, and to eliminate the need for charge
sumed that, as in the original BZ solution, the plasma is outside the black hole, we enhance the axisymmetry to
“force-free”, i.e. that it has a (nonzero) charge 4-current cylindrical symmetry. Since the azimuthal circumference
density orthogonal to the field strength, but discovered grows as the cylindrical radius r, the radial component of
that there is no such solution. Much to our surprise, the Poynting vector must then fall as 1/r. For example,
if there is a uniform electric field parallel to the cylindri-
cal axis, then the magnetic field must have an azimuthal,
circular component that falls as 1/r. Ampère’s law then
∗ jacobson@umd.edu implies that there must be an enclosed electric current
† maria.rodriguez@usu.edumaria.rodriguez@aei.mpg.de parallel to the axis. In order for the Poynting flux to be
 2

radially outward, the flow of current must be opposite to (For example, F = E dx ∧ dt + B dx ∧ dy describes an
the external electric field. The energy required to drive electric field strength E in the x direction and magnetic
this current ends up in the outgoing Poynting flux. field strength B in the z direction, in flat spacetime with
Consider this model first in flat, empty spacetime. We Cartesian coordinates.) Maxwell’s equations are dF = 0
can imagine shrinking the current down to the axis, so (absence of magnetic monopoles and Faraday’s law) and
that the solution is vacuum everywhere except on the d ∗ F = J (Gauss and Ampère-Maxwell laws), where d is
axis where it is singular. In this limit, the energy emerges the (metric independent) exterior derivative operator, J
from the axis and propagates radially outward as Poynt- is the current 3-form, and ∗ is the Hodge dual operation
ing flux. Of course a line source of Poynting flux doesn’t that sends a p form ω to the orthogonal 4 − p form ∗ω
much resemble the BZ process, so let us introduce a cylin- with the same magnitude. We adopt the orientation of
drical black hole, and hide the line source inside the black dt ∧ dr ∧ dφ ∧ dz for defining the dual (ω ∧ ∗ω = ω 2 ǫ,
hole. A solution essentially like the one just described can where ω 2 is the squared norm of ω and ǫ is the unit 4-
be placed on this black hole spacetime but, since noth- form with the adopted orientation). Note that the metric
ing can escape from a black hole, we expect that energy (1) is a sum of squares of 1-forms, hence those 1-forms are
cannot be extracted from the source behind the horizon. orthonormal, which facilitates the computation of duals
Indeed, if we try to construct such a solution, we find and norms.
that the fields are singular on the horizon. In effect, the The first vacuum field we shall discuss is given by
horizon becomes a singular source of energy, which again  
does not resemble the BZ process. I
However, suppose that we now set the black hole spin- F = dr + ψz (dφ − Ω F dt) ∧ dz, (2)
2πrα2
ning with angular velocity ΩH . Then outgoing Poynting
flux exists with fields that are regular on the horizon, where I, ψz , and ΩF are all constant. The dual of the
provided there is a nonzero magnetic flux through the field (2) is
horizon, that is related in a particular way to the electric
field, the current, and ΩH . The electromagnetic dual of
 
I 1 r(Ω − ΩF )
this solution is also energy extracting. It has a uniform ∗F = dφ∧dt+ψz dt + (dφ − Ωdt) ∧dr,
2π r α2
magnetic field parallel to the cylindrical axis, a radial (3)
electric flux through the horizon, and an azimuthal elec- It is clear by inspection that Maxwell’s equations dF =
tric field. This reduces to a 2 + 1 dimensional solution 0 = d ∗ F are satisfied (since d2 = 0 and dr ∧ dr = 0), so
to Maxwell’s equations when the axial direction is omit- this is indeed a vacuum solution, except at the axis where
ted. We turn now to a precise demonstration of these dφ is singular. The field (2) is the wedge product of two
conclusions. 1-forms, which implies that F ∧ F = 0. Equivalently, the
We adopt cylindrical spacetime coordinates (t, r, φ, z), Lorentz-invariant scalar E~ ·B
~ vanishes, as it does for ideal
and assume the spacetime line element takes the form ~
plasmas since E vanishes in the rest frame of a perfect
ds2 = −α2 dt2 + α−2 dr2 + r2 (dφ − Ωdt)2 + dz 2 , (1) conductor. A field with this algebraic property is called
degenerate.
where the functions α and Ω depend only on r, and we The constant parameters (and their notation) are di-
use units with c = 1. The spacetime is then station- rectly analogous to functions that appear in standard
ary and cylindrically symmetric: ds2 is invariant under treatments of stationary axisymmetric plasma magneto-
translation of t, φ, and z. We refer to the t coordinate spheres (e.g. [14, 15] and references therein). The sin-
as “time”. This line element describes a wide class of gularity on the axis carries a line current I in the −z
spacetimes. If there is a radius rH where α(rH ) = 0, (1) direction, sourcing the azimuthal magnetic field, and a
describes a “black cylinder” or “black string,” i.e. a black magnetic monopole line charge density 2πψz sourcing
hole with a cylindrical horizon at the outermost root rH . the radial magnetic field. (2πψz is the z-derivative of
If ΩH := Ω(rH ) 6= 0, the black cylinder is spinning with the magnetic flux through a cylinder ending at coordi-
angular velocity ΩH , and has an ergosphere where the nate z.) The quantity ΩF is the “angular velocity of
time translation is spacelike, i.e. where α2 < r2 Ω2 . The the magnetic field lines,” in the sense that the electric
BTZ black string metric [13] is conformal to (1). Since field vanishes in the local frame that rotates that way:
Maxwell’s equations are conformally invariant, the solu- (∂t + ΩF ∂φ ) · F = 0. This is a standard concept in ideal
tions we discuss here are also solutions in the background plasma physics, where the plasma determines the pre-
of the BTZ black string. ferred frame. It is meaningful here without the plasma
To describe the electromagnetic field we employ the only because the field is degenerate. We are interested in
language of differential forms, which greatly simplifies the solution (2) on a rotating black hole background, but
computations, especially in curved spacetime. (For a it is worth noting that it could also be terminated on a
concise review of differential forms and their applica- cylindrical conductor rotating with angularR velocity ΩF .
tion to electromagnetism see Appendix A of [14].) The The Maxwell action is given by − 21 F ∧ ∗F , from
electromagnetic field strength 2-form is denoted by F , which it follows that the conserved Noether current asso-
an index-free notation for the antisymmetric tensor Fab . ciated with the t-translation symmetry of the spacetime
 3

is [14] A necessary condition for finiteness at the horizon is

As is usual, we call this conserved quantity simply “en- I = 2πrH ψz (ΩH − ΩF ). (9)
ergy”. The outgoing energy flux is given by the integral
of the 3-form JE over a surface of constant r, which
by virtue of the conservation law is the same as the This condition is also sufficient, provided the denomina-
flux across any other surface of constant r. Replacing tor α2 in (8) has nonvanishing first derivative at rH . The
∂t → −∂φ in (4), one obtains the angular momentum relation (9) is known as the Znajek condition [16].
current JL associated with the φ-translation symmetry. If the regularity condition (9) holds, then the outgoing
The energy current outward through a surface of con- energy flux (6) becomes
stant r arises from the part of JE that contains no dr
factor (so the second term on the right hand side of (4)
does not contribute), which for the field (2) is given by Er = 2π(ψz )2 rH ΩF (ΩH − ΩF ). (10)
1
JE |r = ΩF ψz I dt ∧ dφ ∧ dz. (5)
2π If the black cylinder is not rotating (ΩH = 0), then the
outward energy flux is always negative. This means that,
The outward flux of this current over a constant r cylin- as expected, while energy can be sent in, it cannot be ex-
der of length ∆z and time interval ∆t is ΩF ψz I∆t∆z, so tracted. However, if the black cylinder is rotating, and
the energy and angular momentum fluxes per unit proper if 0 < ΩF < ΩH , then positive energy can be radiated
length per unit t-coordinate time at any radius are given outward. The energy flux formula (10) is precisely anal-
by ogous to that for a force-free plasma on a Kerr black hole
Er = ΩF ψz I, Lr = ψz I. (6) spacetime [1, 14, 15].
The vacuum Maxwell equations are invariant under
The outgoing energy flux is positive if I has the same sign electric-magnetic duality, F → ∗F , as is the energy mo-
as ΩF ψz , which means that the current is opposite to the mentum tensor and Noether current (4), so the dual (3)
electric field. This corresponds to the situation described of the field (2) provides another solution that extracts
in the introduction, where the line current driven against energy from the black cylinder. The dual solution has a
the electric field produces an outgoing Poynting flux. uniform magnetic field in the z direction, and azimuthal
The line element (1) indicates that α dt and dr/α are and radial electric field components. The radial electric
unit 1-forms, so that dt and dr/α2 are both singular at field is sourced by an electric line charge, and the az-
α = 0 in a black cylinder spacetime. Therefore the I and imuthal electric field can be sourced by either a magnetic
ΩF terms in the field (2) are both singular at the horizon. monopole current or a magnetic flux line with uniformly
However, it should certainly be possible to at least have changing flux.
a regular solution with positive energy flowing inward
across the horizon, so there must be a way to remove The dual field strength (3) has no dz factor, and is
these divergences. Indeed, the forms dt and dr become invariant under z translations, so it descends to a so-
proportional on the horizon, and their divergences can lution F3 := ∗4 F in three-dimensional spacetime. The
cancel. To analyze this divergence balancing act we can three-dimensional Hodge dual ∗3 F3 is a 1-form, which is
use the three Killing vectors, ∂t , ∂φ , and ∂z , which are all just the negative of the first factor of our original solu-
tangent to the horizon. Their contractions with F are fi- tion, (2). In the remainder of this article, we shall focus
nite as long as the constants ψz and ΩF are finite. For the on this example. Maintaining the convention that the
fourth regular basis vector we use the 4-velocity k of null vector potential is an inverse length, in three spacetime
(k · k = 0), zero angular momentum (k · ∂φ = 0) and zero dimensions the Maxwell action written above should be
longitudinal momentum (k ·∂z = 0) geodesics, with affine multiplied by a constant with dimensions of length, 1/g 2 .
parameter fixed by the choice k · ∂t = −1. These condi- We adopt units here with g = 1.
tions (which are conserved along the geodesic) determine Dualizing interchanges electric and magnetic quanti-
k uniquely up to the choice of whether the geodesic is ties, so we change our notation for the parameters ac-
ingoing or outgoing. The ingoing one is cordingly: Q := −2πψz is the electric charge of the so-
lution, and Φ̇ := −I is the t derivative of the magnetic
k = α−2 (∂t + Ω∂φ ) − ∂r . (7) flux through a loop encircling the origin (or the magnetic
monopole current). The constant ΩF is now the “angular
The field (2) is regular if all the scalars formed by con-
velocity of the electric field lines”, that is, the angular ve-
tracting it with these four vectors are finite. In particu-
locity of the frame in which the magnetic field (which in
lar, finiteness of k · ∂z · F requires
2+1 dimensions is a pseudoscalar) vanishes (presuming
ψz (Ω − ΩF ) − I/2πr the vector ∂t + ΩF ∂φ is timelike, which is here the case
< ∞. (8) for large enough r). The three dimensional field and its
α2
 4

dual are given by CFT and the (unspecified) degrees of freedom carrying
the current then entails Ohmic dissipation.
Φ̇ Q The conductivity σ of the CFT is the ratio of the cur-
F3 = − dφ ∧ dt − dt ∧ dr
2π 2πr rent to the electric field, figured in the rest frame of the
Qr(Ω − ΩF ) thermal state. That is, σ = (s · j)/(u · s · f ), where
− (dφ − Ωdt) ∧ dr, (11) f = da = (Φ̇/2π)dt ∧ dφ is the boundary electromag-
2πα2
Φ̇ Q netic field strength, u = γ(∂t + ΩH ∂φ ) is the velocity 2-
∗3 F3 = 2
dr + (dφ − ΩF dt). (12) vector of this rotating frame, and s = γ(ℓΩH ∂t + ℓ−1 ∂φ )
2πα r 2π
is the orthogonal, spatial unit 2-vector (with respect
This form includes all stationary, axisymmetric vacuum to the boundary metric, ds2 = −dt2 + ℓ2 dφ2 ), with
solutions to Maxwell’s equations in 2+1 dimensions. γ = (1 − ℓ2 Ω2H )−1/2 . After using the Znajek horizon
This solution can be placed in particular on the rotat- regularity condition (9), which in the present notation is
ing BTZ black hole background [10], which is a three- Φ̇ = Qr+ (ΩH − ΩF ), the dependence on the electromag-
dimensional solution of Einstein’s equations with a nega- netic field parameters drops out, and we find
tive cosmological constant, Λ3 = −ℓ−2 . The correspond-
ing line element (in Boyer-Lindquist-like coordinates) is γℓ 1 ~
σ= = = , (17)
(1) without dz 2 , and with r+ γκℓ 2πγTH
where κ is the surface gravity of the BTZ black hole, and
(r2 − r+
2
)(r2 − r−
2
) r− r+
α2 = , Ω= (13) TH = ~κ/2π is the Hawking temperature. In the nonro-
r 2 ℓ2 r2 ℓ tating limit, σ is inversely proportional to the Hawking
where 0 < r− < r+ are the inner and outer horizon temperature, in agreement a prior result [22]. The con-
radii. On this spacetime, the invariant square of the field ductivity depends on angular momentum of the black
strength is hole only via the Lorentz boost factor γ, and γTH is the
temperature in the corotating frame of the thermal state
Q2 ℓ2 Ω2F − 1 [26], so in fact the rotating conductivity is the same as
F32 = 2 . (14) in the nonrotating case, when expressed in terms of the
4π 2 r2 − r−
corotating temperature.
In the energy extracting case (0 < ΩF < ΩH ) we have The response to weak fluxes of electromagnetic en-
ℓΩF < ℓΩH ≤ 1, so this field is electric dominated every- ergy and angular momentum can be determined using
where outside the inner horizon, and is singular at the the laws of black hole mechanics (which are derived from
inner horizon. (For the case ΩF = ΩH this singularity Einstein’s equation). The flux formula (6) shows that
has been previously noted [17].) dE = ΩF dL for the electromagnetic fluxes of energy and
We now turn to the AdS/CFT dual interpretation of angular momentum, and conservation laws imply that in-
the vacuum BZ process on the spinning BTZ black hole finitesimal changes of the black hole mass M and angular
background. A number of previous studies have em- momentum J are related in the same way, dM = ΩF dJ,
ployed this duality with Einstein-Maxwell theory in three with dJ = −dL. The First Law of black hole mechanics
spacetime dimensions (see e.g. [18–23]), sometimes with [27], gives dM − ΩH dJ = (κ/8πG)dA, where κ and A are
other fields included, to study conductivity properties of the surface gravity and area of the horizon, respectively,
the dual 1+1 dimensional system. The black hole is dual hence we have (ΩF − ΩH )dJ = (κ/8πG)dA. The Sec-
to a thermal state of a CFT at the Hawking temperature, ond Law of black hole mechanics [28] states that dA ≥ 0,
rotating with angular velocity ΩH [24]. To extract rota- in processes with matter satisfying the null positive en-
tional energy from this thermal state, it must be coupled ergy condition (such as electromagnetic fields). Thus, if
to another system, and that coupling is described by the ΩF < ΩH , the black hole spins down, and loses or gains
boundary conditions on the electromagnetic field. In the mass according as ΩF is positive or negative. If instead
limit of large radius r, the field F3 can be derived (as ΩF > ΩH , the black hole spins up and gains mass. If the
F3 = dA3 ) from the potential asymptotic electric and magnetic fields are held fixed,
then ΩF is fixed, and ΩH evolves until it exponentially
r→∞ Φ̇ Q approaches the condition ΩH = ΩF , for which the fluxes
A3 −−−→ t dφ − ln r (dt − ℓ2 ΩF dφ), (15)
2π 2π vanish.
The black hole entropy SBH = A/4~G evolves as
which corresponds, via the AdS/CFT dictionary [19, 25],
to a boundary CFT current j and gauge field a, Ṁ − ΩH J˙ (ΩF − ΩH )J˙ Φ̇Q(ΩH − ΩF )
ṠBH = = = ,
Q Φ̇ TH TH 2πTH
j= (∂t + ΩF ∂φ ), a= t dφ. (16) (18)
2πℓ 2π where the overdot signifies derivative with respect to the
One dynamically consistent boundary condition fixes j Killing time t, and TH = ~κ/2π is the Hawking tempera-
[25], which fixes the black hole charge and the asymp- ture. [The first equality invokes the first law of black hole
totic magnetic field. The transfer of energy between the mechanics, while the second and third make use of (6)
 5

with the notational change indicated in the paragraph the black hole would relax, and the azimuthal electric
containing (11).] The rate of entropy generation due to field alone could be treated as a test field. The next step
Ohmic dissipation in the holographic dual field theory would be to attempt to find an Einstein-Maxwell solu-
process is given by u · j · F/γTH per unit spacetime vol- tion including the azimuthal electric field, which could
ume, hence describe nonlinear effects in the conductivity. Another
avenue to investigate would be alternate boundary condi-
(u · j · F )2πℓ tions at infinity, which can modify the nature of the dual
ṠFT = , (19)
γTH field theory degrees of freedom and the external source
that couples to them [19, 21, 25].
which agrees with (18) when the previously given expres-
sions for u, j and F are inserted. It is amusing to note
that this dual description is a perfect electrical analogy
for the mechanical analogy originally described by Bland- ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
ford and Znajek [1]. That analogy involved a thermally
conducting disk spinning with angular velocity ΩH , cou- The authors would like to thank G. Horowitz, S. Hart-
pled by friction to a concentric, thermally insulating ring noll, K. Jensen, D. Marolf, A. Speranza and S. Theisen
spinning with a smaller angular velocity. for helpful discussions and correspondence. This research
We have thus far treated the electromagnetic field as was initiated at the Peyresq Physics 21 meeting, and par-
a test field on the background of a spinning BTZ black tially supported there by OLAM. TJ was also supported
hole background, and inferred adiabatic evolution from in part by NSF grants PHY-1407744 and PHY-1708139
the conservation laws. To more fully probe the duality at the University of Maryland, and by Perimeter Institute
one should solve the coupled Einstein-Maxwell equations. for Theoretical Physics. Research at Perimeter Institute
A similar study was carried out in [22] for the case of of is supported by the Government of Canada through In-
electromagnetic energy flowing into a nonrotating black dustry Canada and by the Province of Ontario through
hole, allowing the nonlinear conductivity of the dual field the Ministry of Research and Innovation. The work
theory to be found. In our case, a first step would be to of MJR was supported by the Max Planck Gesellschaft
use for the background the charged, spinning black hole through the Gravitation and Black Hole Theory Indepen-
solution [17, 29], which also has a magnetic field with dent Research Group and by NSF grant PHY-1707571 at
ΩF = ΩH in our notation. This is the solution to which Utah State University.

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