HINDU LAW

Who is Hindu -

Surajmani Stella Kujur v. Durga Charan Hansdah

Section 2 of the Act specifies the persons to whom the Act is applicable. Clauses (a), (b) and (c) of
sub-section (1) of Section 2 make the Act applicable to a person who is a Hindu by religion in any
of its forms or developments including a Virashaiva, a Lingayat or a follower of the Brahmo,
Prarthana or Arya Samaj and to a person who is a Buddhist, Jain or Sikh by religion.
It is also applicable to any other person domiciled in the territories of India who is not a Muslim,
Christian, Parsi or Jew by religion. The applicability of the Act is, therefore, comprehensive and
applicable to all persons domiciled in the territory of India who are not Muslims, Christians, Parsis
or Jews by religion. The term “Hindu” has not been defined either under the Act or the Indian
Succession Act or any other enactment of the legislature. As far back as in 1903 the Privy Council
in Bhagwan Koer v. J.C. Bose
The Act, is, therefore, applicable to: (1) All Hindus including a Virashaiva, a Lingayat,
a Brahmo, Prarthana Samajist and an Arya Samajist, (2) Buddhists; (3) Jains; (4) Sikhs.

Hindu Law

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Q- Who is Hindu and to whom Hindu Law applies? Also state to whom it does not apply?
How far it is true to say, “a Hindu is born not made”?

It is true to say, “Hindu law is not Lex Loci but a law of status.

After reading an interesting Judgment of kerala High Court in Mohandas Vs. Dewaswom
Board, the ratio is Who is Hindu? Declaration by a non Hindu is sufficient to be treated as a
Hindu. Many questions sparked in my mind,

Are the sufficient criteria for becoming a Hindu?

What is the provision of declaring a person as Hindu under Modern Hindu Law?

How and when Hinduism establish.

Hinduism in our vedic test.

The simple definition is Hinduism is a conglomeration of religious, philosophical, and

cultural ideas and practices that originated in India, characterized by the belief in
reincarnation, one absolute being of multiple manifestations, the law of cause and effect,
following the path of righteousness, and the desire for liberation from the cycle of births
and deaths. O r in other simple words a religion and then whoever is born in that
religion would be considered a Hindu, i.e. a Hindu by birth or a Janma Hindu.

However, I really do not want to have a narrow approach towards it, so I went to a deep
study of Vedic text and law and judgments’ of many courts.

Hinduism has its origins in such remote past that it cannot be traced to any one individual.
Some scholars believe that Hinduism must have existed even in circa 10000 B.C. and that
the earliest of the Hindu scriptures – The Rig Veda – was composed well before 6500 B.C.
The word "Hinduism" is not to be found anywhere in the scriptures, and the term "Hindu"
was introduced by foreigners who referred to people living across the River Indus or
Sindhu, in the north of India, around which the Vedic religion is believed to have originated.

History says the origin of Hinduism dates back to 5,000 or more years. The term Hindu
come into existence when Greek who called the inhabitant of the Indus valley as indo.

According to scholars, the evolution of Hinduism divided into three periods: the ancient
(6500 BCE-1000 AD), the medieval (1000-1800 AD), and the modern (1800 AD to present).
Hinduism is commonly thought to be the oldest religion in the history of human civilization.

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Before the advent of Muslim in India, the term Hindu had no creedal connotation. It had only the
territorial significance; probably it also denote the nationality. The term Hindu come into existence
when Greek who called the inhabitant of the Indus valley as indo.

it is also significant that before the codification of some branches of Hindu Law in 1955-66, it had
not strictly define as a term of religion. Before 1955 a person who was Hindu by religion by
certainly a Hindu, but the converse was not true. There was a person who could hardly be called
Hindus by religion , yet Hindu law applies to them, since Hindu law applies to them they were
called Hindus.

After the codification of Hindu law, it gives the negative definition means:

A person who was not a Muslim, Christian, Parsi or Jew was a Hindu.

Who is Hindu?

Hindu is a general term, it denotes all those person who Profess Hindu religion either by birth or
by conversion to Hindu faith.

Yagna Purusdasji v/s Muldas- SC held

Acceptance of Vedas with reverence, recognition of the fact that the means or ways of salvation are
diverse and realization of the truth that the number of gods to be worshipped is large, that indeed is
the distinguishing feature of Hindu religio.

Hindu is born not made

A/c to Hindu theory Hindu is born not made, but this statement is not fully correct. Under old
Hindu law no one could be Hindu by conversion. The status of a parent he is a Hindu unless he
changes his existing status by becoming a member of such a religion as would destroy his status as
Hindu, and give him a new one. A Hindu on his conversion to any other religion ceases to be
governed by Hindu law.

A/c to Privy Council

Those born as Hindus and also those who become converts to Hinduism.

Application of Hindu Law

1. Hindu By Religion- Any person who is a Hindu, Jain, Sikh or Buddhist by religion, i.e.
Hindu by religion.
Under this category two types of person falls:
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 I. Those who are originally Hindus, Jain, Sikhs or Buddhist by religion.
II. Those who are converts or re converts to Hindu, Jain, Sikhs or Buddhist
religion.
2. Hindu By Birth- Any person who is born of Hindu parents ( viz. when both the parent or
one of the parents is a Hindu, Jain, Sikh, or Buddhist.
3. Any person who is not a Muslim, Christian, Parsi or Jew, and who is not governed by any
other law.

Hindu law not applies

Scheduled Tribes- the codify Hindu law lays down that its provisions do not apply to the
member of the Scheduled tribes coming within the meaning of clauses (25) of Article 366 of
the Constitution of India unless the Center Government notification in the official Gazette
directs that any of the enactments shall apply to them also.

It does not mean that any Scheduled tribes which were governed by Hindu Law before the
Codification of Hindu Law, not being governed by Hindu Law, they will continue to be under the
periphery of it.

Important Topics-

1. Concetp of Hindu Marrige.

2. Theroy of divorce.
3. Ground of Maintenance.
4. Hindu Succession Act.

MARRIGE IS A SACRAMENT OR A CONTRACT.

Q- Hindu marriage is a sacrament not a contract explain with the essential conditions for a
valid Hindu Marriage.- (2009).

Q- HM a sacrament or only a civil contract, with the help of case law. (2007).

Q- Is HM a sacrament or a contract would it be useful contract keeping infact the sacrament

ritual- discuss in the light of old and modern HL.- (2007).

Q-How for the HM Act 1955 has undermined the sacrament character of HM.

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Q-Nature of HM.

HON'BLE JUDGES: ARIJIT PASAYAT AND DALVEER BHANDARI, JJ IN APPELLANTS: SMT. MAYADEVI VS.
RESPONDENT: JAGDISH PRASAD

THE FOUNDATION OF A SOUND MARRIAGE IS TOLERANCE, ADJUSTMENT AND RESPECTING ONE ANOTHER.
TOLERANCE TO EACH OTHER'S FAULT TO A CERTAIN BEARABLE EXTENT HAS TO BE INHERENT IN EVERY MARRIAGE.
PETTY QUIBBLES, TRIFLING DIFFERENCES SHOULD NOT BE EXAGGERATED AND MAGNIFIED TO DESTROY WHAT IS
SAID TO HAVE BEEN MADE IN HEAVEN. ALL QUARRELS MUST BE WEIGHED FROM THAT POINT OF VIEW IN
DETERMINING WHAT CONSTITUTES CRUELTY IN EACH PARTICULAR CASE AND AS NOTED ABOVE, ALWAYS KEEPING
IN VIEW THE PHYSICAL AND MENTAL CONDITIONS OF THE PARTIES, THEIR CHARACTER AND SOCIAL STATUS. A TOO
TECHNICAL AND HYPER-SENSITIVE APPROACH WOULD BE COUNTERPRODUCTIVE TO THE INSTITUTION OF
MARRIAGE. THE COURTS DO NOT HAVE TO DEAL WITH IDEAL HUSBANDS AND IDEAL WIVES. IT HAS TO DEAL WITH
PARTICULAR MAN AND WOMAN BEFORE IT

EVOLUTION OF THE INSTITUTE OF MARRIAGE.

When the institution of Marriage was not established, well the man was not more than an animal.
The discovery of twin was meant for fulfillment of physical needs. Civilization drawn on man with
the acquisition of knowledge of family relationship some sort of sex regulation come to be
established probably it began with group of marriage and later on couple marriage.

CONCEPT OF MARRIAGE

In Hindu’s religion system marriage treated as a holly bond or union between the two soul. It is not
the union for the life but the coming life as well. Marriage treated as a essential Sanskaras and
every Hindu must marry.

According to Satpatha Brahman- Wife is considered as ardhangani. In addition, no religion duty

can be fulfilled without wife or marriage. It has been treated that marriage is the tie, which cannot
be untied.

Manu says- Husband and wife are united to each other not merely is this life but even after death.
In the other world its implications has been that WIDOW REMARRIAGE HAS NOT BEEN
RECOGNISED IN HINDU LAW.

Apasthamba says – marriage was meant for doing good deeds for attainment of Moksha.
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Thus HM is one of the oldest and essential institution of Hindu’s. it occupies a very important role
in their social life. It is regarded as one of the most important Sanskara out of Ten Sanskara, which
can not be abolished or prohibited, any one irrespective of cast and sex it is compulsory for all
Hindu’s.

NATURE OF HINDU MARRIAGE

HINDU MARRIAGE IS A SACRAMENT AND NOT A CONTRACT.

GOPAL KISHAN V/S MITHILESH KUMARI- ALLAHABAD HC OBSERVED

The institution of matrimony under the HL is a sacrament and not a mere socio legal contract, it is
not performed for mere emotional gratification in its context it is religious a husband and wife
become one. The bride on the Seventh Step of the Saptapadi losses her orrigional gothra and
acruire the gotra of the bridegroom.

SHIVANANDY V/S BHAGAWANTHYAMMA

Marriage is binding for life because the marriage tie completed by Saptapadi and once it tie it
cannot be untied. It is not a mere contract in which a consenting mind is indispensable.

HINDU MARRIAGE A CONTRACT ALSO

The modern concept of marriage is as a contract it is an outcome of industrialization which based

on the principle that –all human and social relationship must be based on the free volition of
individual.

BHAGWATI SARAN SINGH V/S PARMESHVARI MANOHAR SINGH

Marriage is not only a sacrament but also a contract.

MUTHUSAMI V/S MAHALAXMI

Marriage whatever else it is i.e. a sacrament or an institution, is undoubtedly a contract enters into
for consideration with correlative rights.

ANJANA DEVI V/S GHOSE

Suits relating to marriage deal with that which in the eye of law must be treated as a civil contract
and important civil right arise out of that contract.

HINDU MARRIAGE ACT 1955

This Act has introduced some far reaching consequences which have undermined the sacramental
character of marriage and rendered it contractual in nature to a great extant.

Section 5, 11 and 12 of this Act are the pertaining provisions which deals whether marriage is a
contract or sacrament.
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Section 5 of HM Act 1955- deals with the condition of Marriage.

Clause (ii) of Section 5 deals with the MENTAL CAPACITY.

Clause (iii) of Section 5 deals with the AGE OF THE PARTIES.

This means Age and Soundness of mind is the essential conditions of a valid marriage.

If we compare it with the SECTION 11 OF INDIAN CONTRACT ACT- it says-

The consent of minor or a person of unsound mind is void.

But the fact of the matter is that-

Marriage of a person who is of unsound mind is a valid marriage under this act, not merely
the violation of the requirements of clause (ii) & (iii) of Section 5 not render the marriage
void.

THUS THE SECTION 11 OF IC Act IS NOT APPLICABLE TO MARRIAGE IF MARRIAGE

REGARDED AS A CONTRACT.

U/S 12 OF HM Act 1955- violation of Section 5 render the marriage merely voidable while U/
Law of Contract for want of capacity is totally vide. Thus HM Act does not consider the question of
consent of much importance.

But the only concern is the consent is obtain by forced or fraud the marriage is voidable
which follow the same line of IC Act 1872.

Conclusion
It has been seen that the sacramental marriage among Hindu’s has three charater-

1. Permanent and indissoluble union.

2. Eternal union
3. Holy union.

The first element has been destroyed by the Act, Divorce is recognized.

The second element destroyed in 1856 when the widow remarriage was given statutory
recognition.

And the third element is still restrained.

Thus the Hindu marriage has not remained a sacramental marriage and has not become a contract
through it has semblance of both.

HM Act-1955- under mind the sacrament and contract character.

Section 5 – Mental capacity

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S.11- Age of Marriage

If we compare it with IC Act – S11- contract with minor or a person of unsound mind is void.

Violation of S.5 (ii) & (iii) not render the marriage void. If we regarded marriage as contract then
s.11 of IC Act not applicable on it.

U/s 11 of HM Act – S. 5 of HM Act render the marriage merely voidable while u/Law of Contract
for want of capacity is totally void. And also the consent is also not importance. But concern
consent shd not be obtained by fraud or forced.

Concluson- Sacrament lies on 3 principles- Permanent, eternal union, holy union.

First destroyed by this act recognition of divorced, second destroyed by widow remarriage, third
is still there.

________________________________________________________________________________

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Essentials of a valid marriage according to
HMA 1955.
Endogamy= forbidden a men to marry a women who is not his kindred.

Exogamy= rule requiring one can only marry outside his own tribe.

Q-Essentials.

What is void and voidable marriage? Explain the distinction between two.

What according to Manu, were the eight form of marriage u/old Hindu law.

What are the important change brought about by the HMA, 1955 and subsequent
Amendment Act 1976?

Marriage confers a status of Husband and Wife on parties to the marriage, and a status of
Legitimacy on the children of marriage.

For a valid marriage in most system, there are two common conditions-

1. Parties must have capacity to marriage

2. They must undergo necessary ceremony and rituals of the marriage

In some ancient community these were the nominal requirements, and provided that any two
people, a man and woman could live together if they intended to do so

Conditions for Hindu Marriage S5

Section 5 provide a negative definition of a valid marriage

Section say a marriage can be solemnized between any two Hindus, if the following conditions are
fulfilled, namely,-

I. Neither party has spouse living at the time of marriage

II. At the time of the marriage, neither party,-
a) Is incapable of giving a valid consent to it in consequence of
unsoundness of mind; or

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 b) Though capable of giving valid consent, has been suffering from mental
disorder of such a kind or to such an extent as to be unfit for
marriage and the procreation of children’; or
c) Has been subject to recurring attacks of insanity
III. The bridegroom has completed the age of (21 years)and the bride (18 years)
at the time of marriage
IV. The parties are not within the degrees of prohibited relationship , unless the
custom or usage governing each of them permits of a marriage between the two
V. The parties are not sapindas of each other , unless the custom or usage governing
each of them permits of a marriage between the two

Necessary Ceremonies for a Hindu Marriage

Neither Party has spouse living at the date of marriage- this is condition precedent for every
Hindu Marriage, and it allow only monogamy, means only one husband or one wife at a time of
marriage.

HMA not only makes bigamous and polyandry marriage void but also punishable u/s 17 of HMA
r/w 494 and 495 of IPC

In Gopal Lal v/s State of Maharashtra SC Held – what is to be establish is that the second
marriage is valid but for this provision and the spouse to the first marriage is the legally wedded
spouse and that marriage is having its existence on the date the second marriage is solemnized.

Unsound Mind or Suffering from Mental disorder

Tulsi Bai v/s Manoharan held that- Suffering from schizophrenia as a sound ground for a decree of
nullity. Whether the disease is curable or not does not make any difference. Where in due course the
disease is cured.

In Bala Krishna v/s Lalitha – held that if a person is insane or suffering from the recurrent attacks
of insanity it amount to nullity of marriage.

Parties should not be within prohibited degree of relations

The prohibition is also based on the rule of exogamy. The Dharamshastra consider sex relationship
which one’s mother, sister, daughter, son’s wife as the highest sin.

Degree of Prohibited relationship- two person cannot merry if they related to each other within
the degree of prohibited relationship unless customs and usages permits.

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Sapinda Relationship- two person cannot marry with each other if they are into sapinda
relationship with each other means upto 5 lenient descendent from paternal side and 3 lenient
descendent form maternal side

S.7 Necessary Ceremonies for a Hindu Marriage

To perform the necessary ceremonies or rituals is the essential condition for valid Hindu marriage
like satapadi etc.

What are the Void & voidable Marriages?

S11& S12
S 11 pertaining to Void and S12 pertaining to Voidable Marriage.

S11 says- any marriage solemnized after the commencement of this Act shall be null and void and
may, on a petition presented by either party thereto (against the other party) be so declared by a
decree of nullity if it contravene any one of the conditions specified in clause (i),(iv) and (v) of
section 5.

Therefore, there are only three grounds, which declared marriage null and void ab initio.

In Suresh Kr. V/s Smt. Asha Rani, held that, any party means only the actual parties not any
third party.

Grounds for void marriages

Bigamy- clause (i) of section 5- Prohibetate the bigamy, and section says- neither party has
spouse living at the time of marriage.

- this is condition precedent for every Hindu Marriage, and it allow only monogamy, means only
one husband or one wife at a time of marriage.

HMA not only makes bigamous and polyandry marriage void but also punishable u/s 17 of HMA
r/w 494 and 495 of IPC

In Gopal Lal v/s State of Maharashtra SC Held – what is to be establish is that the second
marriage is valid but for this provision and the spouse to the first marriage is the legally wedded
spouse and that marriage is having its existence on the date the second marriage is solemnized.

Parties should not be within prohibited degree of relations

The prohibition is also based on the rule of exogamy. The Dharamshastra consider sex relationship
which one’s mother, sister, daughter, son’s wife as the highest sin.

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Degree of Prohibited relationship- two person cannot merry if they related to each other within
the degree of prohibited relationship unless customs and usages permits.

Sapinda Relationship- two person cannot marry with each other if they are into sapinda
relationship with each other means upto 5 lenient descendent from paternal side and 3 lenient
descendent form maternal side

Voidable marriage- S13

Voidable means it is not void ab inito, it remain valid or has got some legal sanity till petition for its nullity
is granted by the court.

Section 13 Speaks about the voidable marriage-

Any marriage solemnize whether before or after the commencement of this Act, shall be voidable and may
be annulled by a decree of nullity on any of the following grounds,-

Marriage has not been consummated owing to the importance of the respondent

Marriage is in contravention of the condition specified in clause (ii) of section 5

The consent of petitioner or consent of the guardian in marriage was obtained by force or by fraud

Respondent was at the time of the marriage pregnant by some person other than the petitioner

Impotency -Marriage has not been consummated owing to the importance of the respondent
Companionship is also a main purpose of marriage, and an individual has a liberty to marring like an
important, eunuch, procreation of child is the secondary aspect and it can be bridged by way of adoption.

A party is impotent if his or her physical or mental condition makes consummation of marriage a practical
impossibility, or inability to perform to sexual act.

Singh J . Defined –

Consummation is something referred to as vera copula, means erection, intromission

(penetration) by the male of the female. Full and complete penetration is an essential
ingredient of ordinary and complete inter-course, though the degree of sexual satisfaction
obtained by the parties is irrelevant.

After the amendment of 1976, in Rajinder v/s Shanti held a person who is capable of
consummation of the marriage naturally or after a surgical operation of medical treatment cannot
be called important as the consummation of marriage is possible.

Marriage is in contravention of the condition specified in clause (ii) of section 5

I. Incapable of giving valid consent due to unsound of mind

II. Suffering from mental disorder, unfit for marriage or unfit for procreation of children
III. Subject to recurrent attacks of insanity
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Exceptions –

No petition for annulling a marriage on the grounds specified in clause (c) of sub section 1 not be
entertain if-

I. Petition is presented after the one year of consent obtain by force

II. The petitioner has with or her full consent lived with the other party
III. Petition on ground (d) of sub section (1) if the petitioner was at the time of marriage
ignorant of the fact alleged

Originally under the Hindu Marriage Act 1955, it was laid down that- if at the time of marriage one
of the parties to marriage was important and continued to be so till the presentation of the
petition , the other party could sue for annulment of marriage.

The marriage law Amendment Act 1976- has reworded the cluse-

The marriage has not being consummated on account of impotency of the responded.

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Sapinda Relationship
The prohibition is also based on the rule of exogamy. The Dharamshastra consider sex relationship
which one’s mother, sister, daughter, son’s wife as the highest sin.

Two theories

I. Obligation theory- Hindus believe that pind dan is the obligation to their ancestors, and
every year they offer pind dan to their ancestor. When two persons offer pindas to the same
ancestor, they are called sapindas to each other
II. Particle of the same body- it was propounded by Vijnaneshwara, he change the meaning
of pinda from ball to particle of body. He said one ought to know that whatever the word
sapinda is use, there exist between the persons to whom it is applied a connection with one
body, either immediately or by descent. But he has given a very wide definition meaning
who ever have the same blood are related to each other. Because such relationship can exist
up to 10 2o or 100 more generation also. So to limit he said upto 7 degree on the father
side and 5 degree from the mother side

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Remember-------
Evolution of the institute of marriage- Animal, sexual relation ship.

Concept of Marriage-

Holy union, essential sanskara-

Satpath Brahman – Religious duty.

Manu- Husband and wife tied not for this life but coming life also. No widow remarriage.

Apasthamba – way of attainment of Moksha.

Nature of Hindu Marriage.

Sacrament-

Gopal Kishan v/s Mithiliesh Kumari- not a mere social legal contract it is a sacrament husband
and wife become one, wife losses his original gotra.

Shivanandy v/s Bhagawanthyamma- once the tie it cannot be untied, it is forever.

Contract

Cause of industrialization, and concept of freedom of individual

Bhagwati saran singh v/s parmeshvari manohar singh- not only a sacrament but contract also.

Muthusami v/s mahalaxmi- undoubtly a contract consideration with co relative rights and
duties.

Anjana dasi v/s ghosh- suits relating in the eye of law as a civil contract and importance civil
rights arise out of that contract.

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Q- Critical note on the restitution of conjugal rights under HMA. Is it violation of the right of the
personal liberty u/a 21 of the constitution. What defenses may be taken in answer to petition for the
restitution of conjugal rights.

Necessary implication of marriage is that party live together, and cohabitation is the basic and essential
thing for matrimonial life.

Section 9 provide the legal grounds which compel to other party if he or she withdraw from once society,
without any reasonable cause. u/s 9 a decree of restitution of conjugal rights implies that the guilty party is
ordered to live with the aggrieved party.

The concept of restitution of conjugal rights borrowed from Jews Law, it gives the impression of ancient
days when wife consider a property of her husband, and therefore he was therefore required to live all the
time at home provided by the husband, and if she refuse to do so or ran away from the home, she could
compelled to live with him.

With the passage of time the scope of this rights has been wider and both the parties ( husband and wife )
comes under this principle.

Analysis of Section-

Section underlines the few things-

 Either party has a right.

 Withdrawn from the society
 With reasonable excuse

Mulla’s says – a wife first duty to her husband to submit herself obediently to his authority and remain
under his roof.

Punjab and Haryana High Court and Madhya Pradesh high court says in some cases that-

In the modern society wife is no longer the property of husband hose hold, it is open for both the
husband and wife to choose their job, and if any one due to his job obligation live separately it dows
not amount to withdraw from the society. To hold otherwise would be violation of Constitutional law
provision of equity of sex Art 14 and Art 21.

Constitutional Validity of Sec 9-

In Sareetha v/s T. Venkata Subbih held that-

S. 9 violative of right of Art 21 of the constitution of India is ultra vires of the constitution.

Not only this but it also violate the Art 14.

On the other hand SC in Saroj Rani v/s Sudarshan, says that the object of the restitution decree is to
bring about cohabitation between the parties, so that they can live together in the matrimonial life.

So it is not ultravirus and snatch the liberty provided under Art 21 of constitution
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What changes have been made by the Amendment Act 1976? What remedy may the court provide to
the aggrieved party?

Matrimonial causes- legal action in respect

of marriage
Q- Discuss the ground of divorce and judicial separation as provided to Hindu spouse u HMA 1955.

On which specific grounds a wife can file a petition for divorce and husband cannot.

Distinguish between judicial separation and divorce

Whether marriage can be dissolved based on mutual consent? If yes, state the provisions of HMA in
this regard.

What re the Matrimonial causes.

Means legal action in respect of marriage, before 1955 in their real sense did not exist in Hindu Law. HMA
1955 recognized four matrimonial causes

I. Nullity of marriage
II. Separation
 Separation by Agreement
 Judicial Separation
III. Dissolution of marriage
IV. Restitution of conjugal rights
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Nullity of Marriage- the law of nullity relates to pre marriage impediment (obstructions), the subject
matter of impediment is cover under-

 Capacity to marriage- if the party marry despite the impediment the marriage may not be valid. It
can be divided in two types-
1. Absolute Incapacity- it is void ab inito, it is also called the void marriage which attract
clause (i), (iv), and (v) of Section 5 like – bigamy, prohibited degree of relation, or sapinda
relationship
2. Relative Incapacity- it is at the will of the party, if they want to continue the marriage. It
usually attract clause (ii), (iii), of section 5, and Section 12. Like impotency, mental capacity,
age etc.

Separation- Parties may each other by the decree of court or by an mutual agreement.

1. Separation by Agreement- HMA is silent on separation by agreement, it was prevail before the
HMA, and not its also exist. According to Indian contract act all agreement must be in present,
future agreement are void. A consensual separation is essentially a contract between the parties.
Separation agreement sometimes stipulates covenants not to seek against restitution of conjugal
rights, or not to molest each other. A covenant against restitution is enforceable, but courts are not
bound by it.

Judicial separation- Section 10 says parties my separate from each other by the decree of the court .
Judicial separation either leads to reconciliation or to divorce. In exceptional circumstances, it may mean
permanent separation.

It granted on certain specified grounds which specified in sub section (1) of section 13 ( grounds for
divoce), and in the case of a wide also on any of the grounds specified in subsection (2) thereof, as ground
on which a petition for divorce might have been presented.

Subsection (2) of section 10 says where a decree for judicial separation has been passed, it shall no longer
be obligatory for the petitioner to cohabit with the respondent, but the court may, on the application by
petition of either party and on being satisfied of the truth of the statement made in such petition, rescind
the decree, if it consider it is just and reasonable to do so.

Dissolution of Marriage- Divorce

Divorce puts the marriage in an end, and parties free to remarriage.

Section 13 speaks about the divorce, Marriage Laws (Amendment) Act 1976, equalize grounds for divorce
and judicial separation.

HMA 1955 originally based divorced on the fault theory, and talk about 9 grounds which stipulated in
Section 13(1).

In 1964 by amendments are also added which is called the breakdown of marriage.

In 1976 Marriage Laws (Amendments) inserted new section 13B and recognized two additional grounds
for divorce under fault theory.

Following are the ways under which Divorce can be obtained

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1. Fault Theory
 Grounds on which either party can obtain divorce
 Grounds on which wife alone can obtain divorce.
2. Break down theory.
3. Divorce by mutual consent
4. Customary divorce and divorce under special law

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Faulty Theory

Fault means when either of the party at wrong side. Section 13(1) talks about 9 grounds relating to
fault theory. Which are-

1. Adultery - when either of the party voluntary sexual intercourse with any person other than his
or her spouse. In Sanjukta Pradhan v/s Laxmi Narayan Pradhan held that – it is not the
requirement that there must be direct proof of adultery.
2. Cruelty- when petitioner treated by other party cruelly.
In Jayachandra v/s Anil Kaur- held that -The expression of cruelty used in relation to human
conduct or human behavior in relation to or in respect of matrimonial duties and obligations.
Cruelty is the course of conduct of one which adversely affecting the other. It may be physical or
mental, intentional or unintentional.
In Rangarao v/s Vijaya laxmi held that- when wife threat to commit suicide is amount to
cruelty.
In Radhay Shayam v/s Kusum- held that- when wife refuse to sexual intercourse without
any reasonable cause it amount to cruelty at husband.
3. Desertion- when one party desert the other party without any reasonable cause without the
consent or against the will of other party for a period which not less than 2 years amount to
desertion. It is not merely an act but also conduct, which includes willful neglect.

4. Conversion of another religion.

21
5. Unsound mind or has been suffering continuously ro intermittently from mental
disorder.
6. Suffering from a virulent and incurable form of leprosy.
7. Venereal disease in a communicable from
8. Renounced the world by entering any religious order
9. Not being heard of being alive for a period of 7 years.

22
Adoption, Maintenance, Minority and
Guardianship
Q- what is adoption? What are the requirements of a valid adoption under HAMA 1956?

Discuss the capacity of a male and female Hindu to take a son or daughter in adoption.

Who are capable to give a child in adoption? Also, state that who can be adopted?

What are the legal effects of a valid adoption?

Discuss the validity of the following adoptions-

a. A’s father and mother are dead but B has adopted him.
b. A’s wife has gone to her father and is not able to join the physical act of giving and taking the
boy in adoption, can Adopt B under the above contingency?
c. B’ a stranger, has been adopted by A.
d. A’s father is dead and mother has renounced the world, B’s brother has giving in adoption.
e. A’s age at the time of adoption is 16 years and has not married, B takes him in adoption.

Can a valid adoption be subsequently cancelled?

Explain the doctrine of the Relation Back Theory based on decided cased. How far they are
prevalent at present.

Enumerate the important changes brought about by the Hindu Adoption and Maintenance Act.

What are the

23
24
25
What are the legal effect of a valid Adoption-

Adoption one of those function of law which have been marshaled for furtherance of the individual interest.

Law of adoption made a children less person enable to treat someone else children as their own, and all the
link severed from his or her previous family.

Section 12 put some condition of legal adoptions which are follows.-

An adopted child shall deemed to be the child of his or her adoptive father or mother for all purpose with
effect from the date of the adoption and from such date all the ties of the child in the family of his or her
birth shall be deemed to be severed and replaced by those created by the adoption in the adoptive family-

Provided that-

Degree of Prohibited Relation prohibition for marry-He or she could not married with his birth family
if he or she prohibited to marry, if he or she continued in the family.

Interest in the Property continue with obligation- any property which vested in the adopted child
before the adoption shall continue to vest in such person subject to the obligations, if any, attaching to the
ownership of such property including the obligation to maintain relatives in the family of his or her birth.

No divest of property not allowed- the adopted child shall not divest any person of any estate which vest
in him or her before the adoption.

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Relating back theory- adoption after the
death of husband

27
Hindu joint family- Mitashara- Dayabhaga
Composition of Hindu Joint Family-

 Common ancestor all his lineal male descendants upto any generation including, wife, widow and
unmarried wife of that common ancestor.
 Death of common ancestor not make the Hindu joint family an end.
 Illegitimate son, and widow daughter also be a part of Hindu joint family, Ancient Hindu law
recognized their right of maintenance.
 HJF is not a jurist person, has no legal entity distinct and separate from that of member composite e
it.
 Composite family- distinct from HJF, CF is a creature of custom and it constituted to be an
agreement, where two or more family are a greed to live together, share their resources.
 Hindu undivided family only for the purpose of assessing the Income Tax, which consist a
male his wife and daughters or even of two widows of a sole survival coparcener.
 Every hindu family presumed to be a joint family, normally a joint family is joint in food, worship,
and estate, but if it is not there it would not ceased to be a hindu joint family.
 There is no presumption that joint family possess the joint family.
 Coparcener Rule- so long as one is not removed by more than 4 degree from the last
holder of the property, one will not be a coparcener.
 Last Holder is the senior most living lineal male ancestor.


Mitashara-
 It based on the notion of son’s birth in the joint family property. Not merely a son but also a
Son’s son > and Son’s Son’s Son’s acquire an interest by birth in the joint family property.

Incidents of Coparcenership-

 A coparcener has interest by birth in the joint family property, until the partition
take place. This interest is unpredictable and fluctuating which increase by birth and
diminish by death, every coparcener has a JOINT POSSESSION AND
ENJOYMENT OF JOINT PROPERTY.
 Every coparcener has a right to be maintained by the joint property, including the right of
marriage expanses.
 Every coparcener is bound by the alienation made by the karta for legal necessity or for the
benefit of estate.
 Every coparcener has a right to object and challenge alienation made without his consent
or made without legal necessity.
 Every coparcener has a right of partition and survivorship.

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Unpredictable and fluctuation Interest.

 The share of each coparcener can only determined at the time of partition not before that.
Before partition it presumed to be the joint possession and joint enjoyment rights.

Community of Interest and Unity of Possession.

 Mitashara Joint Family is the evolution of village community.

 It enrich the common possession of property principle and deny the exclusive right,
exclusive rights can be exercised only after partition take place.

Right of maintenance- every member of Mitashra Joint Family has a right of maintenance out of
the joint family property.

Coparcener’s Right of partition

 Illegitimate child as a filius nullius- has always being regarded as a member of his
putative father’s joint family and as such as has a right to be maintained out of the joint
family funds.
 Sane coparcener- sane has no right to claim partition and share partition, but it does not
ceased to be a coparcener, when he cured of insanity his both right revive.

No female can be a coparcener

1. In mitashra coparcernary no female has any interest by birth in the joint family
property, and no right of survival ship though she is the member of joint family. But if
a partition take place certain female are entitled to a share.

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CLASSIFICATION OF PROPERTY UNDER MITASHRA

30
31
32
Dayabhaga joint family

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Son pious obligations
What properties are liable for the payment of personal debt of Hindu? Are sons under pious
obligation for the payment of their father’s personal debt even after partition, if so to what extent.

Explain son liability to pay father personal debt before and after partitions.

Following properties are liable for the payment of personal debt

1. Separate property- The separate property of Hindu is under all circumstances always liable
for the personal debt, whether incurred from immoral or unlawful object.
2. Undivided coparcenary interest – such property may be attached in his lifetime in execution
of a decree against him and if so attached it may be sold even after his death.
3. Coparcenary property- when coparcenary consist of an ancestor and his sons, grandsons, and
great grandsons, and the ancestor dies the whole coparcenary property is liable for his debt
even after his death, subject to the conditions that the debt was not incurred for an immoral or
unlawful purposes.
4. Nature of Liability.
5. Debt occupy a very important place in the Hindu System of Law. It treated a fundamental
principle of Hindu jurisprudent, viz. moral obligations takes place legal rights.
6. Hindu sages emphasis that one must pay one’s debt. Bharaspati says – one who do not pay his
debt will be born hereafter in the creditor house as a slave, servant or woman.
7. A/c to Narada- if a very religious and devoted person died without paying his debt, all his
religious benefit will lose.
8. This is considering being the religious or pious duty of a son, and he must reply his father debt.
9. Not only this but son, son’s son also liable to pay his grandfather debt. But the liability differ
according to their status like-
10. Son is liable to pay full debt with interest of father.
11. Son’s Son liable to pay only the principle.
12. Grate grandson is liable to pay the extant he accrued the joint family property, he is not liable
personally.
13. Doctrine of Pious Obligation
14. The doctrine applies to all coparceners who are father, and not merely to the father who is head
of the family i.e. Karta. When the coparcenary consist of the father and sons and if the father
dies indebted the sons have the pious obligation to pay the debt of their father, not merely to the
extent of the father’s interest ( determined only when partition take palace.) but to the extent of
entire joint family property.
15. The doctrine is not recognized under the Dayabhaga school.

Effect of Judicial decisions on the Doctrine- When Son liable to pay the debt.

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Since the liability of the son is pious the charter of the father’s debt is material, and the son is liable for the
Father’s pre partition debt and not post partition debt. Provided the debt are not avyavaharika ( i.e.
illegal dishonest or immoral).

Son’s liability only before partition.

In RAGHOTHAMAN V/S KANNAPPAN held that – sons are not liable for the post partition debts.

It is also held in Keshav and v/s The Bana of Bhihar , and also in Jayanti Lal v /s Srikant.

When liability arises-

It is immaterial the father is alive or not , the liability arises the movement father fails to pay or father share
in the joint property or his self acquire properties are found insufficient to meet the debt.

Duration of liability-

It subsists only so long as the liability of the father subsists. Their liability is neither joint nor several. It
arises even in father’s life time and not mere after father deaths.

Son’s Liability- it is not son’s personal liability but only to the extant his interest in the coparcenary
property

35
Liability of son before partition and after partition

36
Partition
37
Q-What is partition? According to Mitashra and Dayabhaga? How it can be effected? What property
is liable to partition? Who are entitled to share in partition? Who are entitling to partition under HL
and under Dayabhaga School.

Can a partition be re-opened?

Distinction and similarity between Dayabhaga and Mitashara.

Partition Meaning- bringing the joint status to an end. And after partition the joint family ceased
to be the joint and become nuclear families or separate joint family.

Meaning Under Mitashara Meaning Under Dayabhaga

1. Severance of status or interest. It is the Division of property in accordance with the
matter of individual decision or desired to specific share of the coparceners.
sever himself and enjoy his hitherto
undefined and unspecified share separately
from others.
2. Actual division of property in accordance
with the shares so specified known as
partitions by metes and bounds. It is the
result or consequent of his declaration of
intention to sever but which is essentially a
bilateral action. It may be arrived at by
agreement, arbitration or by suit.

Meaning of partition according to Mitashra- it has two meaning

1. Adjustment into specific share diverse right of different members according to the
whole of the family property. Severance of status or interest. It is the matter of
individual decision or desired to sever himself and enjoy his hitherto undefined and
unspecified share separately from others.
2. Severance of the joint status with the legal consequences- Actual division of
property in accordance with the shares so specified known as partitions by metes and
bounds. It is the result or consequent of his declaration of intention to sever but which
is essentially a bilateral action. It may be arrived at by agreement, arbitration or by suit.

Thus partition under mitashra may be defined as the crystallization of the fluctuating interest
of a coparcenary into a specific share in the joint family estate.

Each coparcener is deemed the owner of the whole, in the same manner as other coparcener of
the whole.

According to mayukha, partition is the process whereby the member of the joint family becomes
separate. The question whether the status of the family is altered is depending on the intention of
the parties.

38
According to Lord Westburn- there are two stages in partition under Mitashara-

1. Division of Right -Ascertaining and fixing with an intention to become separate, the
share to which each coparcener is entitled.
2. Division of property Actually making off, and assigning portions of the erstwhile joint
estate to individual coparcener in portion to the share of each.

What properties are liable for partition-? Only a coparcenary / joint property not the
private property.
Properties which are not capable of Division
General rule is every property is liable for partition however some properties by their very nature
is not liable for partition such as-

Manu says- following properties are not subject to in division

1. Properties indivisible by nature like Dress, vehicle, Ornaments, Cooked food, Water and
female slaves, as road, garden, utensils, documents, right to way, furniture etc
2. Properties meant for pious use, or scarifies, object for worship.
3. Separate property of a member

In respect of those properties three methods of adjustment are available-

 may be enjoyed by coparcenary by jointly or by turn
 My be allotted to the share of coparcener and its value adjusted.
 May be sold and distributed the incident.

Properties like family shrines, temples and idols cannot be divided and nor sold.

Deduction and Provisions

Before division of properties certain deduction should be made-
 Debts
 Maintenance- to whom those are disqualified coparcenary or immediate dependant such a
female members of the joint family ( wife, daughter, son, mother, step mother, grandmother
and in certain circumstances illegitimate sons)
 Marriage- marriage of daughter by father or brother.
 Performance of ceremonies

Persons who have a right of partition and entitle for share in partition.

Every coparcener has a right of partition and entitle for share in partition.

Following person has a right to a partition and share in partition–

Father- he can impose a partition, partial or total between his minor son and himself with bond
fide intention, else, it will reopen. In case of major son and father, it should be by mutual consent.

39
Sons and Grandsons, and grate grand son. Under Bombay School, the son has no right partition
without the assent of his father, if the father is join with his own father and in case of Punjab
Customary Law , as under Punjab Customary law son have no right by birth.

Son Born After Partition- According to Vishnu and Yajnavalkya the partition should be reopen to
give the share after born son. However Gautama, Manu, Nerada says the after born son could get
the share of his father alone.

According to Mitashara we have two rule for this-

Son conceived at the time of Partition but born after partition- person in the whom is equated
the person exist. The tax lay down that if the pregnancy is know the partition should be postponed
till the time child birth, if the other coparceners are not ready for this a equal share should be
reserve if the child born son share should be allowed to them, in case female it should be expand
on her marriage.

1. Not in the whom when partition take place If the pregnancy is not known and no
share has been reserved then the partition should be reopen after childbirth.
2. Son begotten and born after partition- in this case two general rule under Mitashara
I. When Father has taken hi share in the partition- son become the coparcener
with his father.
II. When Father has not taken hi share in the partition – son has a right to
reopen the partition and get his share.

Adopted Son- he has right if partition take place after adoption, but if partition take place before
adoption he has no right.

Illegitimate Son-not entitle for partition and share but for maintenance only.

Son void marriage and annulled marriage- not entitle.

Minor Coparcener- no distinction between major or minor.

Person are not entitle for partition but entitle for share after partition.

No female has a right to partition but if partition takes place, some female (father’s wife, mother
and grandmother) has a right for share in partition. However, after 2005 daughter are also entitle
for partition.

How partition is affected

1. Severance of Joint Status or interest- expression of intention- one member of joint

family can express his intention to partition, even though no actual partition take palace.
40
 2. Partition by Notice
3. Partition by Will
4. Conversion to Another Religion.
5. Marriage under special marriage act.
6. Partition by agreement
7. Partition by arbitration
8. Partition by father
9. Partition by suit

Reopened the Partition- under following condition

 Son in the whom and not born at the time of partition, where his share not reserved.
 A begotten son as well as born after partition can demand a reopen the partition.
 A disqualify coparcener after the removal of disqualification.
 A minor coparcener after attaining the majority.
 When a coparcener obtain a unfair share in the partition.
 A son adopted to a deceased coparcener by his widow after the partition he entitle for
reopen the partition if he occupies in law.
 If a coparcener absentee when the partition take place.

Partition according to Dayabhaga

Under Dayabhaga it means, splitting up joint possession i.e. parting or dividing the share among
coparcener according to metes and bound.
Division of property in accordance with the specific share of the coparceners. Under the
Dayabhaga the essence of coparcenary is unity of possession, while in Mitashara it is unity of
ownership.
Who are entitle to enforce partition- Every adult coparcener whether male or female

Who are no entitle to enforce partition

Sons, Grandsons and great grandsons have no birth interest in ancestor property against their
father, so there is no right for partition.
It consider the illegitimate son of sudra becomes a coparcener with legitimate sons when they
inherit the property after the death of the father.
Father’s wife- no such right.
Childless step mother no entitle to a share after partition.
Allotment of Share
sons are not entitle for any share in presence of father.
The share of deceased coparcener passes to his heir.

Similarity

Basis Mitashara Dayabhaga

Right of partition and entitle for share Only the coparcener, not Only the coparcener, not
41
 anyone else anyone else
Intention to separate Important Important
Distribution of share
Illegitimate son Cannot succeed the Cannot succeed the
property property

Distinction

Basis Mitashara Dayabhaga

Quantum of share It is uncertain and fluctuation It ‘s not confer any birth right on
with any birth or death in the son, and it is fixed for every
joint family coparcener.
Partition effected It affected by the irrevocable It is not affected unless there is a
intention to separate separation of shares and specific
portion are assigned to each
coparcener.
When partition complete Mere institution of partition suit Is completed when decree is
operate as partition passed.
Who can enforce partition Father, Son, grandson, great Son, grandson, great grandson
grandson can demand for cannot demand for partition.
partition against three immediate
ancestor
Female coparcener Not entitle for enforcing the No such right arise
partition but entitle to a share
equally with son share when
husband and sons divided. After
2005 daughter also a coparcener
Nature Joint ownership Joint possession
Ownership of Father Father has no absolute ownership Father has absolute ownership
Right of Step Mother Entitle to a share when she is No such right entertains.
sonless
Principle Survival ship Succession
Right conferred Conferred by birth Conferred after the death of
father.
Reunion after partition Valid only between the parties to Valid only between father
partition, and only between father
and son, between the paternal
uncle and nephew, and between
btothers.

42
Rule relating to division of property
In a partition by metes and bout there are four rules

1. Division between father and son- -Equal share

It applies on Mitashara.
It does not apply on Dayabhaga as partition take place only after the death of
father.
2. Division between brothers- Equal share in the joint property.
It applies on Mitashara and Dayabhaga both.
3. Division among branches- Each branch take per Stripes ( according to the stock),
as regard to the other branch, and the member of each branch takes per capita
( per head)
Under Mitashara, it is possible for example

P 1/4

S 1/4 S1 1/4 S2 1/4

SS 1/16 SS1 1/16 SS2 1/16 SS3 1/8 SS4 1/18 SS5 1/4

Under Dayabhaga

P 1/4

S S1 S2

SS 1/3 SS3 & SS4 1/3 (jointly) SS5 1/3

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 4. Doctrine of Representation-
Under Mitashara
coparcener’s interest devolves by survivorship , this is subject to the rule that where a
coparcener leaves male issues, the latter represent their ancestor in a partition and take
his share, provided that such issue with the limit ( 3 male lineal descendant) of
coparcenary.

Under following example- if the partition will take place in the first step properties will be divided
into 4 shares i.e. per stripes ( s1, s2,s3,s4 are the four branches)

P 1/4

S1 1/4 S2 S3 S4 Last Holder of Prt.

SS1 1/8 SS2 1/8 SS3 SS4

SSS1 1/4 SSS2

SSSS will not take any

share he got remove by
more than 4 degree
from the last holder of
property and lost his
right of ever becoming
a coparcener. The share
of his branch has gone
by survivorship to the
other coparceners.

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Under Dayabhaga (Doctrine of Representation)
Applies with some modifications, the doctrine extend beyond daughters. The daughter of
the same class inherits their father per strips. The daughter son do not take as a
representative of their mother but as a heir to their maternal grandfather. This means
daughter‘s son inherit per capita and not per stip.

D1 D2

DS1 1/7 DS2 1/7 DS3 1/7 DS4 1/7 DS5 1/7 DS6 1/7 DS7 1/7

45
Succession
Intestate- died without will.
Act not apply on the following properties-
In case of special marriage act.
 Deceased has any agreement with govt.
 If anyone murder to get the property.
 Ceased to be hindu
General rules of succession in the case of males- for devolution of property Section 8

46
Section 9 – Distribution of property among heirs in Class- I heirs.

Intestate shall be divided among heirs in class-I

Rule-1- The instate Widow, if there are more than one widow all the widow together shall
take one share.

Rule-2- Surviving son, daughter, and mother of the instate shall each take one share.

Rule-3- the heirs in the branch of each pre-deceased son or each predeceased daughter of
the intestate shall take one share between them.

Rule-4- The distribution according to Rule -3 each will take equal share.

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Section 15- General Rule of succession in case Female
Female property dissolved According to S16.

48
49