http://dx.doi.org/10.

17159/2411-9717/2016/v116n6a1

Copper mining in Zambia - history and

future
by J. Sikamo*†, A. Mwanza†, and C. Mweemba†

Although on a small scale, the mining

activities by the natives were wide spread
across the Copperbelt region and other places.
'C>?4:@: In fact, most of the deposits discovered by the
The Zambian copper mining industry as we know it today had its genesis settlers were found with the assistance of local
in the 1920s. Consistent private sector-driven investment in the industry scouts, who had knowledge of the
over a period of over 50 years in exploration, mine development and
whereabouts of the copper minerals. The
operation, development of minerals processing facilities, building of
Chibuluma mine deposits are the only ones in
infrastructure for pyrometallurgical and hydrometallurgical processing,
with attendant support facilities, including building of whole new towns, Zambia known to have been discovered
resulted in copper production rising to a peak of 769 000 t in 1969, without information passed on from the local
providingover 62 000 direct jobs. The industry was nationalized in 1973 people.
and remained in government hands for just over 24 years. During this It was the presence of copper in Zambia
period, the industry experienced a serious decline in production levels, which led to the region being put under British
reaching the lowest level in the year 2000 when production was 250 000 t. indirect rule in 1889 (About.com, 2015) after
An average of just under 2000 jobs were lost every year in the 24-year the partition of Africa. The years following
period, reaching just over 22 000 direct jobs in 2000. 1889 saw extensive exploration activities in
Following the return of Zambian politics to pluralism and liberalized
the region by western companies and
economic policies, the government decided to privatize the mining
individuals. Exploration activities led to the
industry. The process started in 1996 and by the year 2000 all the mining
assets had been privatized. The new investors embarked on serious
first commercial copper being produced at
investment to upgrade the assets and to develop greenfield mining Kansanshi, Solwezi, in 1908 (Roan
projects. Fourteen years later and after more than US$12 billion Consolidated Copper Mines, 1978). Later,
investment, production levels increased year-on-year to a peak of prospectors obtained concessions from the
763 000 t in 2013 with direct jobs reaching 90 000. British South African Company (BSA) which
This paper discusses the impact of the mining industry in Zambia on had obtained mining rights in the area from
the economy in areas such as employment, support for other industries, King Lewanika of the Lozi in 1900
direct contribution to the national gross domestic product (GDP), foreign (About.com, 2015). As more copper deposits
exchange earnings, and social amenities. The paper also focuses on the were found, Zambia was put under direct
performance of the mines during these periods vis-à-vis mineral
British rule as a protectorate under the
availability, mineral grades and complexity, new technologies, and human
Colonial Office in 1924.
capital. This is looked at particularly in the light of current challenges the
industry is facing. Suggestions are proposed on how the industry can be Post-1924 saw the beginning of massive
nurtured to continue being a major driver for the Zambian economy and a investments in mine developments, led mainly
major player in the international copper mining business. by American and South African companies. As
a result, there was an influx of white settlers
AC,?<1: into the area as well as natives who migrated
copper mining, Zambia, history, nationalization, privatization, production,
from their villages to provide labour on the
national economy.
mines. Table I shows the increase in the white
population during this period.

>;<?179;@?>
Mining had been going on in the region
known today as Zambia long before the white
settlers came on the scene. The mining was of
a traditional and subsistence nature and * Zambia Chamber of Mines.
confined to surface outcrop deposits. The † Chibuluma Mines Plc, Zambia
© The Southern African Institute of Mining and
natives of Zambia would melt and mould the
Metallurgy, 2016. ISSN 2225-6253. This paper
copper into ingots used as a medium of was first presented at the, Copper Cobalt Africa
exchange and other metal products, such as Conference, 6–8 July 2015, Avani Victoria Falls
hand tools and weapons. Hotel, Victoria Falls, Livingstone, Zambia.
L


   
VOLUME 116  
 491
Copper mining in Zambia - history and future
Table I

2@;AB4?47.=;@?>B@>B?<;2A<>B"2?1A:@=BB8-6B;?B8-6-B)'"+B6/8*

A=< 8-6 8-6& 8-6 8-6 8-6 8-6 8-6-

White population 260 438 474 756 1038 1066 1861

Table II

(@>A:BA:;=0.@:2A1B@>B?<;2A<>B"2?1A:@=B=>1B;2A@<B4<?9A::@>3B@>#<=:;<79;7<A:B)"?=>B?>:?.@1=;A1B?44A<B(@>A:+
8-*

,>A< (@>A A=<B:;=<;A1 >#<=:;<79;7<A

Rhodesia Selection Luanshya 1928 Underground Concentrator Smelter

Trust (RST) Mufulira 1933 Underground Concentrator Smelter Refining
Chibuluma 1955 Underground Concentrator Leach plant
Chambishi 1965 Underground Open pit Concentrator Leach plant Refining
Kalengwa 1969 Open pit Concentrator
Anglo American Nchanga 1937 Underground Open pit Concentrator Roaster leach Leach plant Refining
Corporation (AAC) Rhokana 1931 Underground Open pit Concentrator Roaster leach Smelter Refining
Bancroft 1957 Underground Concentrator

Population increase lead to the establishment of However, the period 1964 to 1969 saw reduced
settlements which rapidly grew into new towns. Support investments in the mining industry, due to the issue of
industries emerged and infrastructure such as hospitals, royalties between the government and the mine owners.
schools, roads, markets, and recreational facilities were built. Mineral royalties in Zambia were held by the BSA Company
Thus, by 1964, when Zambia was born, it had a strong from inception to 1964, when the country achieved
economy driven by the mining sector. independence (Roan Consolidated Copper Mines, 1978). After
1964, the mineral rights went to the government without
changing the taxation structure. However, the cost became
%<?5B;2AB0A3@>>@>3B;?B>=;@?>=.@=;@?>B)8-68-*
real for the owners since they were shareholders of BSA
Although copper had been produced at Kansanshi and Bwana Company and never used to view the royalties paid to BSA as
Mkubwa in 1908 and 1911, respectively, the first commercial a real cost. As such, their arguments to have the mineral
mine in Zambia was established in Luanshya in 1928 (Roan royalty tax reduced were denied by the Zambian government.
Consolidated Copper Mines, 1978). Opening of other mines During this period (1964–1969), the government was not
followed, as shown in Table II. happy with the level of participation of the indigenous
The owners of these mines were driven by the high population in the national economy in general and the mining
demand and favourable prices of copper and the need to sector in particular. A number of reforms were embarked
maximize their profits. Flotation technology for separating upon. The Mulungushi reforms in 1968 gave 51% ownership
copper sulphide minerals from ores had been commercialized in major industries to the Zambian government, managed
and this advance enabled large quantities of copper to be under the parastatal Industrial Development Corporation
produced. The mine owners therefore invested in concen- (INDECO). In 1969, the Matero reforms were announced,
trators, smelters, and other metal extraction facilities, a which gave the government 51% ownership of the mines,
situation which continued until 1969. managed under Mining Development Corporation
By 1964, Zambia was a major player in the world copper (MINDECO). Thus began the era of mining nationalization,
industry, contributing over 12% of global output (Sikamo, which was completely effected by 1973 (Sardanis, 2014b;
2015). The economy grew to an extent where, in 1969, the SARPN, 2015).
nation was classified a middle-income country (Sardanis,
2014a) and had one of the highest gross domestic products =;@?>=.@=;@?>B?#B;2AB5@>A:B)8-8--6///*
(GDPs) in Africa, higher than Ghana, Kenya (see Figure 1), Nationalization of the Zambian mines began with the Matero
and South Korea, whose per capita income in 1965 was declaration of 1969, when the government obtained a 51%
US$106 compared with Zambia’s US$294 (SARPN, 2015). shareholding in the then two existing mining companies.
The mining sector continued providing direct and indirect These were Roan Selection Trust and Anglo American
employment, such that, by 1972, 62 000 people were directly Corporation, which owned all the operating mines in the
employed by the mines (Sikamo, 2015). Growth in the country between them. Prior to the Matero declarations, the
economy also led other sectors of the economy to grow, such government had issued the Mulungushi declarations, under
as transport, construction, manufacturing, and trading. The which 51% of the shares in all the major industries (except
national GDP growth was above 5% between 1964 and 1970 mines) were put in state hands. This led to the formation of
(Figure 2). INDECO as the holding company for these shares. The Matero
L

492  
 VOLUME 116


   

Copper mining in Zambia - history and future

%@37<AB8!B?#B:?5AB
<@;@:2B#?<5A<B9?.?>@A:B=:B=B#<=9;@?>B?#B;2ABB?#B;2AB>@;A1B@>31?5 B)'?7<9AB2;;4,,, 0@>3 9?5@5=3A:B4A<B9=4@;=.B#?<

B9?.?>@A:*

%@37<AB6!=50@=$:BB3<?,;2B=>1B9?44A<B4<@9A:B0A;,AA>B8-/B=>1B6/8/ B)'?7<9AB"?AB
+B6/8&*

reforms resulted in the formation of a holding company for term. Prior to nationalization, private owners did very little to
the mines’ shares to be called MINDECO. An umbrella advance the knowledge base of the indigenous population—
company for MINDECO and INDECO was formed and was all measures were meant to benefit the settlers and their
called Zambia Industrial and Mining Corporation (ZIMCO). children. However, after nationalization, there was a
Roan Selection Trust became Roan Consolidated Copper deliberate policy by government through the mines to educate
Mines (RCM), comprising Mufurila, Luanshya, Chibuluma, the children of Zambians. High-standard schools were built
Chambishi, Kalengwa, and Ndola Copper Refinery. The where excelling children of miners and sometimes non-
Zambian arm of Anglo American Corporation became miners were enrolled. These students were later sent to top
Nchanga Consolidated Copper Mines (NCCM) and was in universities all around the world to train, mainly in mining
charge of Rhokana, Nchanga, and Konkola mines. disciplines. Artisan training colleges were also set up for
The Matero reforms were implemented in January 1970 miners and school leavers who were to be employed by the
and the government was to pay for those shares over a mines. Gradually, the gap left by the white settlers in areas of
period of roughly 10 years (SARPN, 2015). However, in skilled manpower was greatly reduced. The mining skill level
1973, the government decided to redeem all the outstanding of Zambia improved so much that later, when the mines were
bonds and made the following changes in the management re-privatized, the new owners did not need to employ many
structure. MINDECO was no longer in charge of RCM and expatriates. In some cases, Zambian mining professionals
NCCM, but other small mines in the country. INDECO, were appointed as chief executive officers (CEOs) of foreign
MINDECO, RCM, and NCCM all fell under the management of mining companies after re-privatization.
an overarching parastatal Zambia Industrial and Mining Meanwhile, there was no letting up on the government’s
Corporation (ZIMCO). All the managing directors of RCM and stranglehold on the mines. In 1982, the government merged
NCCM as well as the chairman of ZIMCO were political RCM and NCCM into one entity called Zambia Consolidated
appointees. The Minister of Mines was the chairman of RCM, Copper Mines (ZCCM), which continued financing national
NCCM, and ZIMCO. In the same year, the country changed its programmes at the expense of its own operations. This
constitution and became a one-party state. financial burden on ZCCM took its toll. The mines suffered
The government started using the revenues from the undercapitalization and could not replace worn and obsolete
mining sector to advance the national developmental agenda. machinery. There was little investment in technological
Massive projects were embarked upon, such as the Kafue and upgrades, despite the increasing difficulties in mining and
Itezhi Tezhi hydropower stations, the TAZARA rail line, processing as mining proceeded deeper and the mineral
housing projects, schools, hospitals, and road infrastructure. grades leaner and more complex. Inevitably, production
The education sector is one area that received massive output declined while production costs were soaring.
investments from the mines during this period. Both the Employment levels reduced as the mines downsized their
mines and the country benefited both in the short and long labour forces. The price of copper remained low while that of
L


   
VOLUME 116  
 493
Copper mining in Zambia - history and future
oil was skyrocketing. The business prospects of the mines Copper production reached a peak of 720 000 t in 1969,
were bleak, and so were those for the national economy, the same year that the nationalization discussions picked up
which was heavily reliant on mining. speed. By the time nationalization was being completed in
Shortage of consumer commodities in shops became the 1973, production had dropped slightly to 700 000 t. This
order of the day and political agitation for the end of one- resulted from the fact that immediately the nationalization
party rule started. In 1990, the country reverted to multi- discussions started, investment in the mining industry
party politics and a new government, which promised to started falling. After nationalization, production continued to
privatize the mines, was voted into office in 1991. drop and, in the subsequent 24 years of nationalization,
production dropped to 250 000 t by the year 2000. Following
"A4<@=;@=;@?> the massive investment of the new mine owners in
Although the new government, which had promised privati- refurbishing the mines, which had not been seeing any
zation of the mines, was in place by 1991, the privatization investment, and investment in greenfield projects (see
exercise started only in 1996 and was not completed until Table III), production levels began to increase. By 2013,
2000. Critics had mixed views on the pace of the re-privati- production had reached 763 000 t (see Figure 3) and the
zation process, but, with hindsight, one cannot help but think industry had over 90 000 direct employees from the low of 22
that it should have been faster. This is because the decline in 000 at the time that privatization was completed. It is worth
copper production continued in this period, exacerbated by noting that the amount of copper produced per person in
job uncertainties, as mines continued the exercise of labour 2013 is lower than in 1972 due to the fact that, before re-
reduction. The national economy was not doing any better, privatization, mines were jointly owned and overhead
although the effects were being mitigated by donor financing services were shared. Furthermore, the copper grades were
in a spirit of goodwill to the new government. higher, which increased unit labour productivity.
When re-privatization started, the government decided to
unbundle ZCCM into smaller units. Smaller mines were the ?>;<@07;@?>B?#B;2AB5@>@>3B@>17:;<CB;?B;2AB=50@=>
first to be put into private hands. However, privatization can A9?>?5C
be said to have happened only when the two big units, Although it is the desire of the Zambian government to
Konkola Copper Mines (KCM), which comprised Nchanga, diversify the economy, the Zambian copper mining industry
Konkola, Nampundwe and part of Nkana assets, and Mopani will remain the engine that will drive this diversification for a
Copper Mines, which comprised assets at Nkana and long time to come. In the work done by International Council
Mufulira, were privatized in 2000. Mopani Copper Mines was on Metals and Mining (ICMM), verified data from 2012
sold to Glencore as the major shareholder, while KCM was statistics shows that, in that year, 86% of the foreign direct
offered to Anglo American Corporation (AAC). In 2002, AAC investment that came into Zambia was due to the mining
returned the mines to the government, which offered them to industry, 80% of the country’s export earnings came from the
Vedanta of India in 2004. mining industry, as well as over 25% of all revenues collected
The new mine owners invested massively in the mines by government. The mining industry contributed more than
and there was a sudden economic upturn, not only on the
Copperbelt but in the country as a whole, with the mining
industry as a pivotal contributor. Investments went into new
Table III
machinery, new mining methods, and new mineral
processing and metal extraction technologies. There were also (@>A:B@>A:;5A>;:B:@>9AB<A4<@=;@=;@?>+B'
massive greenfield projects at Kansanshi and Lumwana, both 0@..@?>B)"?AB
+B6/8&
B'@=5?+B6/8*
in the North West Province of Zambia, which brought newer
technologies into the industry. These mines were able to (?4=>@ ( 70=50A % ( 75,=>= =>:=>:2@
process large quantities of low-grade copper ores at very low
2.24 2.9 0.49 2.23 2.0 2.54
cost.

%@37<AB!=50@=$:B9?44A<B4<?179;@?>B=>1B@;:B:2=<AB@>B3.?0=.B4<?179;@?>B)'@=5?+B6/8&*
L

494  
 VOLUME 116


   

Copper mining in Zambia - history and future
10% to the GDP, and more than 1.7% of all formal of the country, and to realize their potential through
employment in the country (see Figure 4). These parameters improved resource governance that encompasses and fully
show that Zambia’s reliance on the mining industry is way implements the principles and criteria of the EITI. ZEITI has
above that of other countries that are similar to Zambia in so far released six reports for 2008 to 2013. These reports
terms of their dependence on the extractive industries. show remarkable agreement between what government
The same ICMM study looked in more detail at the contri- acknowledges as having received and what the mining
bution to government revenue in terms of all taxes paid, as companies say they have paid. From the reports, and as
shown in Figure 5. It is clear that, during the period 1995 to summarized in Figure 6, it is clear that the mining industry
2000, taxes paid by the mines constituted around 1% to 2% has been contributing revenues to the treasury on an
of all taxes. As investments began to mature and increasing basis in line with increasing production and
improvements put in place began to bear fruit, all the taxes copper price fluctuations (Moore Stephens, 2013, 2014). For
paid began to show an upward trend—to the extent that, by comparison with international currencies, refer to Figure 7,
2011, taxes collected from the mines averaged 35% of the which shows the Zambian kwacha (ZWK) exchange rate
total taxes. This trend shows that increasing revenues to against the US dollar in the period 2008–2013, which
government can be guaranteed by increasing production and averages between ZWK 4 and ZWK 5 to US$1.
a favourable price. This is clearly seen in Figure 6, by the
doubling of revenue collection between 2010 and 2011
?>9.7:@?>BB;2AB#7;7<AB?#B5@>@>3B@>B=50@=
without a change in tax regime.
In terms of revenue collection, Zambia joined the The geology of Zambia shows great potential for further
Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative (EITI) as a investment in mining. The past few years have seen
candidate in May 2009 and was fully compliant in September significant instability in the fiscal regime and this has
2012 (Moore Stephens, 2013, 2014). EITI is an international undermined new investment into the sector. The challenges
organization that promotes transparency in the declaration of of the 2013 to 2014 fiscal regime resulted in copper
earnings and revenues arising from the extractive industries. production dropping from 763 000 t in 2013 to 708 000 t in
In Zambia, the local organization is called Zambia Extractive 2014. The first half of 2015 saw a further decline in
Industries Transparency Initiative (ZEITI) and it monitors production, particularly following the uncertainty brought
what the mining companies say they have paid into about by the Mineral Royalty Taxation regime of 2015. It is
government and government agencies and what government gratifying to see that the government has shown serious
acknowledges as having received. The overall objectives of desire to engage in dialogue to arrive at optimum levels of
the reconciliation exercise are to assist the government of taxation which will ensure that government continues to
Zambia in identifying the positive contribution that mineral receive taxes from the mines, and also that the mines
resources are making to the economic and social development continue to thrive and invest, on a sustainable basis. Clearly

%@37<AB&!(@>@>3$:B9?>;<@07;@?>B;?B=50@=$:BA9?>?5@9B4@..=<:B)"?AB
+B6/8&*

%@37<AB!(@>@>3$:B9?>;<@07;@?>B;?B=50@=$:B<AA>7AB@>B;=A: B)(??<AB';A42A>:+B6/8+B6/8&
B'@=5?+B6/8*
L


   
VOLUME 116  
 495
Copper mining in Zambia - history and future

%@37<AB!(@>@>3$:B9?>;<@07;@?>B;?B=50@=$:B<AA>7AB)'@=5?+B6/8&*

%@37<AB!=50@=>B,=92=B) *BA92=>3AB<=;AB=3=@>:;B;2AB'B1?..=<B0A;,AA>B6//B=>1B6/8&B)'?7<9AB,,, ;<=1@>3A9?>?5@9 9?5*

this is the way to go. This state of affairs has been confirmed "A#A<A>9A:
by government, which has said that it is committed to putting
ABOUT.COM. 2015. African history. http://www.africanhistory.about.com/
in place a taxation regime that is stable, predictable,
od/zambia/ l/Bl-Zambia-Timeline.htm
consistent, and transparent. Investors have welcomed this
and obviously this should translate into a very bright future MOORE STEPHENS. 2013. Zambia Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative.
for the Zambian mining industry. Fifth reconciliation report based on the financial year 2012.
The mines performed badly during the period of national-
MOORE STEPHENS. 2014. Zambia Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative.
ization, since they lost focus from their core business.
Sixth reconciliation report based on the financial year 2013.
Continuous re-investment in machinery and new technology
https://eiti.org/files/zeiti_2013_ reconciliation_ final_
is very important for increasing productivity. Investing in
report_18_12_14%20%281%29%20%282%29.pdf
human capital is another area that is very important and new
mine owners will do well not to neglect this aspect. It is ROAN CONSOLIDATED COPPER MINES. 1978. Zambia’s Mining Industry: the First 50
gratifying to see that the mining companies operating in Years. (Privately published).
Zambia are taking all these important aspects of mine
development into consideration, and the results are visible. ROE, A., DODD, S., OSTENSSON, O., HENSTRIDGE, M., JAKOBSEN, M., HAGLUND, D.,
DIETSCHE, E., and SLAVEN, C. 2014. Mining in Zambia–ICMM Mining
For its part, government should continue providing
Partnerships for Development. Toolkit Implementation. International
policies that will attract capital into the mining industry.
Council on Mining and Metals. http://www.icmm.com/ document/7066
These policies should be dynamic in nature so that the
country remains competitive with other major players on the SOUTHERN AFRICAN REGIONAL POVERTY NETWORK (SARPN). 2015.
global market. The key here is continuous engagement with www.sarpn.org/documents/ d0002403/3-Zambia_copper-mines_Lungu.
stake holders so that the government is abreast of the
changing challenges and other requirements in the industry. SIKAMO, J. 2015. Presentation on the state of the Zambian Mining Industry.
To counter the legacy of prolonged undercapitalization of the Zambia Chamber of Mines, Lusaka.
old mines, particularly regarding modern machinery and
SARDANIS, A. 2014a. Zambia: the First 50 Years. I.B. Tauris.
technology, government should encourage greenfield projects
that are able to build low-cost mining operations that can SARDANIS, A. 2014b. Africa: Another Side of the Coin. Northern Rhodesia’s
withstand the constant shock of copper price fluctuations. Final Years and Zambia’s Nationhood. I.B. Tauris. N
L

496  
 VOLUME 116