The Impact of Backpack Loads On School Children: A Critical Narrative Review

International Journal of
Environmental Research
and Public Health
Review
The Impact of Backpack Loads on School Children:
A Critical Narrative Review
Michelle Perrone 1, *, Robin Orr 1 , Wayne Hing 1 , Nikki Milne 1 and Rodney Pope 2
1 Bond Institute of Health and Sport, Bond University, Gold Coast, QLD 4229, Australia;
rorr@bond.edu.au (R.O.); whing@bond.edu.au (W.H.); nmilne@bond.edu.au (N.M.)
2 School of Community Health, Charles Sturt University, Albury-Wodonga, NSW 2640, Australia;
rpope@csu.edu.au
* Correspondence: michelle.perrone@student.bond.edu.au; Tel.: +61-433-379-190

Received: 6 August 2018; Accepted: 6 November 2018; Published: 12 November 2018
Abstract: Background: Backpack loads of school students during school days have been suggested
to range from 10% to as high as 25% of their body weight and may have a negative impact on their
body. The aim of this review was to identify and review studies that have examined impacts of
contemporary backpack loads on school children. Methods: A systematic search was conducted of
the literature using key search terms. After relevant studies published in recent years were selected
using strict inclusion and exclusion criteria, the studies were critically appraised and relevant data
were extracted and tabulated prior to conducting a critical narrative synthesis of findings. Results:
Twenty-one studies were included, ranging in methodological quality from poor to good (critical
appraisal scores 22% to 77%). Students carried on average over 15% of their own body weight, which
caused biomechanical and physiological adaptations that could increase musculoskeletal injury risk,
fatigue, redness, swelling and discomfort. Conclusion: Considering the limited methodological quality
and variations in foci across studies, further research is needed to elucidate: (1) the loads students
carry around on a school day in their school backpacks and; (2) the biomechanical, physiological and
physical effects of load carriage on students.
Keywords: load carriage; children; school backpacks; configuration; impact
1. Introduction
A review by Mackenzie et al. [1] in 2003 of backpack loads carried by school students during
a school day identified that children were carrying as much as 30% to 40% of their body weight.
This review, while acknowledging that no critical maximal load had been established (to address back
pain), recommended around 10% of the child’s bodyweight as a maximum limit. The following year,
a review by Brackley and Stevenson [2] stated that the majority of work considered the loads carried
by children to be above recommended limits, likewise recommending a maximal load of between 10
to 15% of the child’s bodyweight. Since these reviews, more recent research has suggested that these
loads are lighter and in some instances may be meeting this recommendation, with loads ranging from
10% [3–6] to 25% [7–11] of the school child’s bodyweight. However, this recent research, in agreement
with the earlier reviews, also suggests that these loads have a negative impact (e.g., increased forward
lean, pain, skin pressure) on children’s bodies [3–11].
Items carried by students in their day-to-day school bags have been found to include, but are not
limited to, laptops, books, pencil cases, scientific calculators, sports uniforms, school day uniforms
and sport-specific training clothing, up to three types of shoes (sport-specific footwear, school leather
shoes, and general runners), lunch boxes and full water bottles [12]. To address the requirement to
carry backpacks weighted down by all these items, the review by Mackenzie et al. [1] recommended
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2018, 15, 2529; doi:10.3390/ijerph15112529 www.mdpi.com/journal/ijerph
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2018, 15, 2529 2 of 25
the provision of school lockers. However, with school lockers being removed from many schools in
recent years due to vandalism and security fears [13], anecdotal evidence suggests that school children
are often required to carry their backpacks, loaded with all of these items for long periods of time.
In addition, loads may be increasing due to increases in the size of school backpacks and increases in loads
carried due to changes in the school curriculum (e.g., more homework being assigned, and increases in
after-school/extracurricular activities) and the carriage of emerging items (like laptops) [14–16]. The need
for children to have to carry a full day’s class schedule of schoolbooks, in addition to other items and
supplies (e.g., sporting and musical equipment for after-school/extracurricular activities), throughout the
day is thus a growing concern [15]. The sight of young children marching off to school heavily burdened
by backpacks, coupled with a rising rate of non-specific back pain among schoolchildren, has led to
increasing parental and community unease [15].
Given the loads being carried by children, whose musculoskeletal systems are still developing [12]
and are undergoing rapid physical development [17], it is not surprising that this load carriage has
been associated with musculoskeletal injury concerns [18]. Concerns associated with load carriage
are not only prevalent in school children but in workplace occupations as well. Tactical populations,
like those serving in law enforcement, firefighting, first response and the military, by nature of their
occupations, are also required to wear and carry loads that can range from 8 kg in law enforcement
officers [19] to 45 kg or more in army personnel [19]. In these well-trained adult populations, injuries
like rucksack palsy (also identified in school children who carry loads [2]) and in the lower back
are associated with load carriage [20]. With the growing spine vulnerable to physical stresses, and
physical stress being a predisposing factor in adolescent spinal pain [17], the supposition that the
carrying of a backpack is a contributing risk factor to adolescent low back pain bears merit [15,21].
This supposition is supported by Sheir-Neiss et al. [22], who found that backpack use and backpack
weights were independently associated with back pain in adolescent school children. With research in
young military recruits suggesting that once someone is injured carrying a load they are more likely to
be injured again [23], any injuries induced by carrying a school backpack should be concerning for all
involved and justify the concerns raised by parents, educators and health care professionals regarding
the role of heavy backpacks [1,21].
In essence, as their school loads increase, the bodies’ of students may be subjected to the same
stresses as those faced by trained tactical professionals. However, unlike trained tactical professionals,
the school student is required to carry their loads almost daily for a period of up to 12 years, without
the benefit of specific physical training to endure such stress and prior to reaching full maturity of
their musculoskeletal system. Furthermore, with the levels of obesity in school children rising [24]
and the overall relative demands placed on a school child’s body to carry these loads being greater in
sedentary and overweight children [1], the potential impacts of schoolbag loads on the child may be
increasing. Therefore, the aim of this systematic review was to determine the impacts of contemporary
backpack loads on school children through a critical appraisal and synthesis of key findings from
recent studies. The findings from this research will inform future research on this topic and assist with
the development of risk management strategies for school backpack loads.
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Search Strategy

To identify and obtain relevant original research for this review, key literature databases were
systematically searched using specific keywords relevant to the topic. The selection of keywords was
guided by a review of terms used in related relevant published articles. To improve the relevance of
search results, filters that reflected study eligibility criteria were applied to each database. The databases
were searched for specific key words (see Table 1).
Table 1. Keywords, search terms and filters used in the literature search, by database.
Date
Database Search Terms Filters Results
Searched
(Load* OR carriage OR carrying OR carried OR English
backpack* OR bag* OR knapsack* OR Abstract available
CINAHL 30/8/2017 rucksack* OR pack*) Child 6–12 years 6522
AND (Child* OR adolescent* OR juvenile* OR Child 13–18 years
minor* OR pubescent OR youth* OR teen*) 2002–2017 publication
(Load* OR carriage OR carrying OR carried OR English
backpack* OR bag* OR knapsack* OR Abstract available
EMBASE 30/8/2017 rucksack* OR pack*) School Child 6–12 years 10,000 *
AND (Child* OR adolescent* OR juvenile* OR Adolescent 13–18 years
minor* OR pubescent OR youth* OR teen*) 2002–2017 publication
* This figure represents the maximum number of results available from the database with results ordered by ‘most
relevant’.
2.2. Screening and Selection

Articles identified from the database search were first screened by title and abstract to identify
and remove duplicates and articles that did not meet the review’s inclusion criteria (see Table 1).
Publications reporting studies that used the same data set, analysed in similar fashion, as another
study were treated as duplicates and were removed, along with duplicates arising from searching two
different databases. All remaining articles were then obtained in full text and subjected to the review’s
inclusion and exclusion criteria to determine their eligibility for inclusion in the review, identifying a
final set of eligible articles for inclusion.
2.3. Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria

Inclusion criteria for this review were as follows: (a) human subjects, (b) English language,
(c) children 6–18 years, and (d) publication date within the preceding 15-year period. Subject matter
experts were consulted to decide upon the 15-year date range employed for this review. Reasons for
this time period included the emergence of the use of the traditional (non-touch screen) notebook
computers in the classroom and the use of personal laptop computers, which saw a dedicated surge
around 2004 [16], with US school districts subsequently encouraged to provide students with personal
laptops in 2010 [25].
Exclusion criteria were as follows: (a) studies that addressed backpack carriage in children with
disease and illness; (b) studies of backpack usage with non-school children; (c) studies on backpack
usage but with no relevance to school children (e.g., backpack-back pain complexity and the need for
multifactorial safe weight recommendations [26]); (d) systematic reviews on backpack usage; and (e)
articles that were not reports of original research (e.g., policies or guidelines on how to wear a backpack
correctly).
2.4. Critical Appraisal and Data Extraction

Following study selection, the included studies were critically appraised using the Downs and
Black checklist [27]. The checklist has 27 items designed to assess the methodological quality of
randomized controlled trials and non-randomized studies and identify the strengths and weaknesses
of these studies, and has been used in previous reviews [27]. Most of the items are scored on a
dichotomous scale, awarding one point for a ‘yes’ answer and zero points for a ‘no’ answer or where
the answer cannot be determined from the published report of a study. Item 5 on the checklist, however,
is scored on a three-point scale, awarding two points for ‘yes’, one point for ‘partially’, or zero points
for ‘no’ or ‘unable to determine’. The final question in this checklist, which assesses the statistical
power of the study, is normally scored on a scale of 0–5 based on the study’s sample size relative to
requirements to ensure adequate power. This question was modified for the current review to give one
point for a ‘yes’ answer, indicating the authors of the study reported a power analysis, or zero points
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2018, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 25
for a ‘no’ answer, indicating the authors did not report a power analysis. This modified approach
approach
to to thehas
the checklist checklist has been
been used used previously
previously to limit subjectivity
to limit subjectivity in scoring in scoring
[28]. Through[28].this
Through
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modified approach, the maximum possible raw score became 28,
approach, the maximum possible raw score became 28, as opposed to the original maximum score of as opposed to the original
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the level of interrater agreement determined via a Cohen’s
with the level of interrater agreement determined via a Cohen’s Kappa analysis. Final Kappa analysis. Final scores were
were
determined by
determined by consensus
consensus between
between the the two
two raters.
raters. Where agreement was not not achieved
achieved through
through
consensus, aa third
consensus, third reviewer
reviewer(Rodney
(RodneyPope)Pope)determined
determinedthe thefinal
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score.
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systematic of keyofattributes
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headings lead (a)
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and publication date,date,
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theparticipants,
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conditions, (d) outcomes measures used, (e) main findings and (f) the critical appraisal of studies critical appraisal of studies
(CAS), expressed
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narrative synthesis
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3.
3. Results
The
The results
results of
of the
the search,
search, screening
screening and
and selection
selection processes are shown in Figure 1 with
with key
key
outcomes
outcomes extracted
extracted and
and compiled
compiled in
in Table
Table2.2.
Figure 1. Preferred
Figure 1. Preferred reporting
reporting items
items for
for systematic
systematic reviews
reviews and
and meta-analyses
meta-analyses (PRISMA)
(PRISMA) diagram
diagram [31]
[31]
detailing results of the search, screening and selection processes.
detailing results of the search, screening and selection processes.
Table 2. Details and findings of included studies.
Critical
Loading
Authors (Year) and Title Participant Details Outcome Measures Used and Context Main Findings Appraisal
Conditions
Score (%)
The objective of this study was to research the
Y6 Primary school
Six gravitationally referenced accelerometer outcomes of backpack placement options on spinal
children in Hong
(ADXL311, Analog Devices (National deformation and repositioning error in school
Chow et al. (2010) Kong. Commercial
Instruments Corporation, Austin, TX, USA) children.
Short-term effects of Mean Age 11.4 ± 0.5 backpack, double
were placed on the student’s body measuring Changes to spinal curvature and repositioning error
backpack load placement years strapped.
spinal curvatures of cervical, upper and lower with backpack posterior and anterior positioning (p 56% = Fair
on spine deformation and Mean Height 148.2 Load 15% of
thoracic, upper and lower lumber regions as < 0.05) (repositioning error is associated with the
responding error in school (standard deviation student’s Body
well as pelvic tilt. backpack positioning).
children [32]. (SD) 7.7) cm Weight (BW)
Testing was conducted in a laboratory setting. Less changes with backpack positioned on T12.
11 males and 8
Students in stationary standing position. Changing backpack from posterior to anterior helps
females (19 Total)
reduce the effects on the spine.
Six-camera gait analysis—25 mm diameter
Y5, Y6, Y7 and Y8 The aim of this study was to explore the causes of
retro-reflector markers attached to the skin
Primary and carrying a variety of school backpack loads on the
surface (pelvis and lower limbs: thigh, knee,
Secondary school girls Dummy designed gait patterns of normal adolescent schoolgirls.
Chow et al. (2005) shank, ankle and foot).
in Hong Kong. backpack, double No gross changes in gait observed
The effects of backpack load Walk with bare feet for 10 m, along a designed
Mean Age 13.4 (SD strapped. Statistical analysis showed significant changes of 52% = Fair
on the gait of normal walkway in controlled environment (two force
1.1) years Load 15% load of the measured gait parameters with increased load.
adolescent girls [33]. platforms mounted along the walkway).
Mean Height 1.45–1.67 student’s BW Increased load → decreased step length (p < 0.047),
Students walking with a loaded backpack (7.5%,
(SD 0.06) cm cadence (p < 0.047), walking speed (p < 0.004), single
10.0%, 12.5%, or 15.0% of the student’s BW) and
22 females support time (p < 0.001).
without load.
Y4 and Y5, Primary Students height was measured and weight
This study recognized schoolbag-related discomfort
school students in under three conditions:
with the association of individual, physical and
Ireland.
Dockrell et al. (2015) (1) Without any bags psychosocial factors.
Mean Age 13.4 (SD Student’s own
Schoolbag carriage and (2) While carrying their school bags Carried bag only short distances and duration, thus
1.1) years school bag loaded
schoolbag-related (3) While carrying their school bags and all limiting the exposure to load carriage as primary
Mean Height 1.45–1.67 with school 74% = Good
musculoskeletal discomfort additional items. students leave bag in classroom all day.
(SD 0.06) cm equipment and
among primary school No physical factors were significantly associated
55.8% (n = 295) males unloaded. Questionnaires were used to access information:
children [7]. with discomfort, but students did perceive that if a
and 44.2% (n = 234) (e.g., Body Discomfort Chart (BDC), Visual
schoolbag was heavy it was also associated with an
females (12 different Analogue Scale (VAS), Strength and Difficulties
increased prevalence of back discomfort (p < 0.05).
schools-529 total) Questionnaires (SDQ).
Table 2. Cont.
Critical
Loading
Conditions
Score (%)
This study’s aim was to assess postural parameters
in the sagittal plane for an uneven/unbalanced
Body posture was measured using a specialized
Y4, Y5 and Y6, backpack load equal to 10% of a child’s body mass.
Drzal-Grabiec et al. (2015) electronic system for machine picture diagnosis
Primary school Increase in lumbosacral region angles with carriage
Effect of asymmetrical called the “CQ Electronik”.
students in Poland. Load at 10% of of asymmetrical load (p < 0.054).
backpack load on spinal Test 1. Baseline asymmetrical load with student 70% = Good
Age 11–13 years student’s BW Significant flattening of Thoracic Kyphosis with
curvature in school children standing up right without a backpack on.
80 males and 82 right shoulder load (p < 0.040).
[4]. Test 2. Backpack on right shoulder (10% BW).
females (126 total) 10% BW load → increase in upper Thoracic spine
Test 3. Backpack on left shoulder (10% BW).
curvature and moving head forward thus resulting
in the flattening of Thoracic Kyphosis (p < 0.040).
The aim of this study was to explore the
biomechanical stresses of continuous load carriage
Data was collected in a controlled testing
Y4 and Y5, Primary upon children by examining the adaptations of
Hong and Cheung (2003) environment (university gym), using a Latin
school males in Hong stride and temporal parameters, and trunk posture
Gait and posture responses Loads at 0%, 10%, Square design.
Kong. in the school setting.
to backpack load during 15% and 20% of Four sessions used to collect the data, students 56% = Fair
Age 9.43 years Gait pattern was not altered by load but a
level walking in children student’s BW walked with set loads for each session (0%, 10%,
Height 1.34 cm significant increase in trunk inclination (p < 0.05).
[8]. 15% and 20% of student’s BW) for 23 laps of a
11 males total 20% of students BW load → significant forward lean
basketball court (1978 m).
of trunk especially as walking distance increased (p
< 0.05).
Data was collected in a controlled testing
environment (university gym) using a Latin The purpose of this study was to look at the impacts
One-strap athletic
Y4 and Y5, Primary Square design. of load and backpack carrying methods on ground
bag (across right
Hong and Li (2005) school male students An in-shoe pressure measurement system reaction force and gait temporal characteristics
shoulder)
Influences of load and in Hong Kong. (Novel Pedar System, 99 force sensors) was used during ascent and descent stair walking in children.
Double strap
carrying methods on gait Mean Age 12.21 (SD to record the temporal and kinetic data during No significant difference between left and right foot.
backpack (on both 74% = Good
phase and ground reactions 0.98) years stair walking. Athletic bag increased peak force on left foot more
shoulders)
in children’s stair walking Mean Height 1.59.66 Students gait was assessed during 400 m flat than right foot.
Loads at 0%, 10%,
[9]. (SD 9.67) cm ground walk with 20% of the student’s BW. Load of 15% and above of the students BW showed
15% and 20% of
13 males Students then stair walked 33 steps up and to induce a significant increase in stance and double
student’s BW
down 3 consecutive times, while carrying 20% support duration with the backpack on (p < 0.05).
BW load.
Table 2. Cont.
Critical
Loading
Conditions
Score (%)
This study researched the school-bag weight of
primary school pupils (aged 7–9 years) and to
Students’ bags were weighed (by BW scales
Y1, Y2 and Y3 Primary identify the number of students that carried
Zelmer 34Z013, SMARTFIT, Warszawa, Poland)
Lasota (2014) school students in backpacks in excess of the recommended limit of
at the start of each school day on five
Schoolbag weight carriage Poland. Students own 10% of their BW.
consecutive days (Monday–Friday). 70% = Good
by primary school pupils Age 7–9 years backpacks. No statistically significant differences in bag
Students once at school left their bags next to
[5]. 54 males and 54 weights were identified (p < 0.647).
their desk the entire day and did not carry them
females (108) Bag weight varied during the week.Heaviest bag:
around at all.
Y1—5.5 kg (p < 0.001), Y2—7.0 kg (p < 0.001),
Y3—6.2 kg (p < 0.001).
The aim of this study was to research the
biomechanical changes during walking with
asymmetric backpack carrying in adolescents,
focusing on the effects of asymmetrical backpack
carriage on kinematic parameters of the lower body
under both loaded and unloaded conditions.
When carrying load, and relative to unloaded gait:
ankle peak dorsal flexion increased on unloaded
Data collection was done in a controlled side and decreased on loaded side (p < 0.05).
environment (university laboratory). Mean knee varum value increased on unloaded side
Kinematic parameters of the subject’s gait at a but decreased on loaded side (p < 0.05).
Ozgul et al. (2012)
self-selected speed was analyzed using a In the sagittal plane, knee flexion increased at initial
Effects of unilateral Y7 Primary school
Carrying backpacks six-camera motion analysis system used, with contact on loaded side relative to both the unloaded
backpack carriage on males in Turkey.
at load of 15% two force plates. side and unloaded walking (p < 0.05). 59% = Fair
biomechanics of gait in Mean Age 13.2 years
student’s BW. Markers located on student’s bodies (Helen Hip joint maximum extension angle decreased on
adolescents: a kinematic 20 males
Hayes, 1991 protocol) [34]. the loaded side compared to unloaded (p < 0.05).
analysis [34].
Students were analyzed walking with no Mean hip adduction increased on loaded side and
backpack vs. walking with backpack on one decreased on unloaded side (p < 0.05).
shoulder at a load of 15% BW. Mean anterior pelvic tilt during stance increased on
loaded side (p < 0.05).
Pelvis was elevated on loaded side and depressed
on unloaded side (p < 0.05).
Both loaded and un-loaded sides were affected by
asymmetrical backpack carriage.
Extra load on lumbar vertebral joints and altered
frontal knee biomechanics → increase in back pain
and pathologies in the knee joint.
Table 2. Cont.
Critical
Loading
Conditions
Score (%)
Y1, Y2, Y3, Y4 and Y5, This study investigated the outcome of backpack
Primary school carriage in primary school children from the point
students in Italy. of view of possible changes occurring in the
Students first removed their shoes, then their
Mean Age 6.75 (SD foot-to-ground relationship.
Pau et al. (2011) height, body and backpack weight were all
0.06)–10.82 (SD 0.07) Foot–ground contact was significantly affected by
Effects of backpack carriage recorded.
years Student’s own the backpack presence (p < 0.01).
on foot–ground Students stood on a pressure plate with and 66% = Good
Mean Height 120.68 loaded backpack. Significant effect of the backpack only on forefoot
relationships in children without backpack load on.
(SD 1.27)–145.12 (SD and midfoot regions (p < 0.01).
during upright stance [6]. Students used their own school backpacks as per
1.27) cm Load up to 10% BW increased plantar pressure in
a normal school day.
231 males and 216 the midfoot and forefoot.
females (3 different Heavy load and exposure time → increase in foot
schools—447 total) discomfort.
Y1, Y2, Y3, Y4, Y5, Y6,
The purpose of this study was (1) to evaluate the
Y7 and Y8, Primary
effects of backpack carriage on planter pressure
and Secondary school
Students removed their shoes, then stature, BW, quantity and issuing, and on spatio-temporal
students in Italy.
and backpack weight were all recorded. parameters of gait; (2) to examine the association
Pau et al. (2015) Mean Age 6.8 (SD Students own
Static plantar pressure distribution measured in between carried load and plantar pressure
Short-term effects of 0.3)–13.4 (SD 0.3) backpack mean
upright stance in quiet controlled conditions parameters.
backpack carriage on years weight 5.2 kg. 77% = Good
was acquired (using a pressure platform). Spatio-temporal gait not affected by load
plantar pressure and gait in Mean Height 116.8 Load 15% of
Students were asked to standing still for 10 s Significantly increased contact areas in the forefoot,
schoolchildren [18]. (SD 5.0)–161.5 (SD 7.3) student’s BW.
then asked to walk with and without their midfoot and rear foot (p < 0.001).
cm
school backpack. Significant increase (up to 25%) in plantar pressure
109 males and 109
during both standing and walking on the fore foot
females (3 different
(p < 0.001).
schools—218 total)
Table 2. Cont.
Critical
Loading
Conditions
Score (%)
Students were divided into two groups:
(a) Students who carried backpacks and
group; and
(b) Students that carried single
strap backpacks.
The manner in which the bag was carried was
Y7 Primary school This study focused on the relationship between
then divided into three categories:
students in South school bag carriage and pain in school children.
Africa. 1. Students that carried bags over Examined bag type, individual characteristics, the
Puckree et al. (2004) Mean Age 12.2 (SD both shoulders; load carried and the pain experience.
Student’s own
School bag carriage and 0.8) years 2. Students that carried bags over Type of school bag, the manner it is carried in and 70% = Good
backpack.
pain in school children [14]. 57.5% Indians, 41.0% one shoulder; the gender of the student all associated with level of
Blacks and 1.5% 3. Students that carry single strap over ‘Shoulder pain’ (p < 0.001).
Colored’s (4 different one shoulder. More females experienced pain than males (p <
schools—195 total) Pain was assessed via a questionnaire (open and 0.01).
closed-ended questions).
Students experiencing pain were then divided
into those who’s bag mass exceed 10% of the
student’s BW.
The students bags were then weighted using
calibrated digital bathroom scales.
The aim of this study was to explore the changes in
Students removed their shoes and were asked to postural angles under various backpack loads in
Y7 Primary school
stand on a force plate, where their weight was preadolescent children.
males in India.
Student’s own recorded before any measurements were taken. Craniovertebral Angles changed significantly after
Ramprasad et al. (2009) Mean Age 12.5 (SD
backpack weight Students then stood on a stadiometer and their carrying 15% BW load (p < 0.05).
Effects of backpack weight 0.5) years
measured at 5%, height in centimeters was recorded. Head and Neck angles changed after carrying 10% 74% = Good
on postural angles in Mean Height 142.5
10%, 15%, 20% and Image Tool version 3.0 digitizing software load BW (p < 0.05).
preadolescent children [10]. (SD 7.4) cm
25% of student’s BW. (University of Texas Health Service Centre, San Trunk and lower limb angles changed after carrying
410 males (6 different
Antonio, TX, USA) was used for analyzing 5% BW load (p < 0.05).
schools)
photographs. Backpack load changed all body angles and affected
overall posture.
Table 2. Cont.
Critical
Loading
Conditions
Score (%)
The objective of this study was to examine the effect
Students were weighed with their school
of backpack weight on back pain and back
Y6, Y7, Y8, Y9, Y10, backpacks twice on digital scales (with a height
pathologies.
Y11 and Y12 Primary meter).
Rodrigues-Oviedo et al. Heaviest backpack resulted in an increase of back
and Secondary school Student’s height was obtained and recorded.
(2012) Student’s own pain.
students in Spain. Questionnaire was also used to obtain
School children’s backpacks, backpack. Most students carried loads above 10% BW. 52% = Fair
Age 12–17 years information (information relating to the
back pain and back Mean weight 7 kg. Backpacks altered posture and gait, resulting in
Males and females (11 students lifestyle, including duration and
pathologies [35]. modifications to the head–neck angles, shoulder
different frequency of their sport and sedentary activities).
asymmetry and lumber lordosis.
schools—1403 total) 61% carried 10% BW
Girls had a higher risk of back pain and an
18% carried 15% BW
increased risk with age (60.2%).
Main diagnostic criteria were pressure marks The objective of this study was to determine the risk
Y7 Primary school
(redness or swelling) over neck and shoulders, factors and clinical presentation caused by
students in India.
Soares et al. (2012) stooping shoulders, pain or stiffness in neck, backpacks among Indian school children.
Mean Age 12.94 (SD Student’s own
Backpack injuries in Indian upper back, shoulder. Pain results:
4.53) years. backpack which
school children: risk factors Body regions were categorized into seven 40% upper back, 27% neck, 20% shoulders, 7% 22% = Poor
Mean BMI 16.70 (SD recorded a mean
and clinical presentations regions for clinical evaluation for the collection forearm and 6% lower back.
2.81) load of 5.57 kg.
[36]. of signs and symptoms (i.e., neck, upper back, All had pressure marks over shoulders.
45% males and 55%
shoulders, forearm, and wrist, lower back, thigh 54.55% had myofascial pain and the rest Thoracic
females (22 Students)
and wrist). outlet syndrome.
Y5, Y6, Y7, Y8 and Y9
Primary and Students were asked questions through the use The purpose of this study was to assess the presence
Secondary school of a body chart, pain intensity (using a face pain of back pain in school children, as well as its link
students in Malta. scale-revised) frequency and consequence of with school bags.
Spiteri et al. (2017) Age 8–13 years Student’s own back pain (questions asked: bag type, how the Over 70% had a backpack that exceeded the 10%
Schoolbags and back pain in 50% males and 50% backpack recorded bag was carried, the use of lockers, participation BW level.
59% = Fair
children between 8 and 13 females median overall bag in sport, presence of back pain, pain location). 32% complained of back pain, but 74% said it was
years: a national study [37]. (63 primary schools weight of 5 kg. Students weight and bag weight was recorded low intensity pain (p < 0.001).
and 48 using stadiometer scales. Self-reported pain in school children is
secondary—134 Students also underwent a face-to-face interview independently linked to carrying heavy schoolbags
schools = 3852 with a physiotherapist. (p < 0.001).
Students)
Table 2. Cont.
Critical
Loading
Conditions
Score (%)
The aim of this study was to explore the effects of
lengthy load carriage on muscle activity and fatigue
in children when walking.
Data was collected in a laboratory over four Increased muscle activity was recorded at all loads
trials with different backpack loads for each (p < 0.05).
Y1 Primary school student. 15% BW load significantly increased muscle activity
Hong et al. (2008) Student’s own
male students in Students were told to wear specific clothes for in upper traps (p < 0.05).
Effect of prolonged walking backpack.
China. the trial (black shorts/tights and no shirt). During prolonged walking, the 20% BW load was
with backpack loads on Loads at 0%, 10%, 63% = Good
Age 6 years Disposable surface electrodes were attached to associated with the most significant muscle activity
trunk muscle activity and 15% and 20% of
15 male students in the students right side of their body (upper in upper and lower traps (p < 0.05).
fatigue in children [11]. student’s BW.
total. trapezius and rectus abdominis). Fatigue in upper traps was identified within 10 min
Students walked on a treadmill for 20 min with under load and in lower traps within 15 min (p <
each of the 4 loads. 0.05).
No increased muscle activity found in rectus
abdominus at any load or any duration of walking
(p < 0.05).
Test done in controlled setting at the student’s
school, using their own school bags.
Height and weight was recorded using
The aim of this study was to examine the effects of
stadiometer and a scale).
the backpack type on students’ lung function and
Lung function and respiratory muscle strength
Y5 Primary school strength of inspiratory and expiratory muscles in
data was measured in the following settings:
students in Portugal. children (aged between 10 and 12).
Vieira (2015) Mean Age 10.8 (SD (1) Unloaded erect standing position (without Mono strap restricted and affected lung function,
Student’s own the backpack).
Impact of backpack type on 0.8) years. decreasing expiration and muscle strength (p <
backpack.
respiratory muscle strength Mean Height 148.6 (2) Bilateral shoulder strap carried over both 0.001). 63% = Good
Load at 15% of
and lung function in (SD 7.1) cm shoulders (with 15% of the students BW). Double strap backpack a preferable option (p <
student’s BW.
children [38]. 12 males and 25 (3) Bilateral shoulder strap carried over one 0.001).
females shoulders (with 15% of the students BW). Walking with a backpack more than 10% BW
(37 Students) (4) Padded, adjustable mono shoulder strap. increases trunk forward lean and increases
breathing rate and decreases trunk Range of
Inspiratory and expiratory muscle strength was
Movement (p < 0.001).
tested with a digital mouth pressure meter,
student exhaled slowly then inhaled with force
for two seconds (repeated 3 times)
Table 2. Cont.
Critical
Loading
Conditions
Score (%)
Parents asked to complete a questionnaire
relation to gait patterns and movement This study determined the impact of a variety of
Y6 Primary school (locomotion, physical activity and disease) and methods of how students carry their book bags on
students in France. backpack carrying methods of their children. gait kinetics (children age 11–13 years).
Mean Age 12.2 (SD Set double-strapped Students gait was assessed in a controlled Treadmill ergometer measured the student’s ground
Cottalora et al. (2003)
0.5) years backpack. environment (3 trials) reaction forces of their right and left feet.
Influences of school bag 63% = Good
Mean Height 152 (SD Load 10 kg of Students were asked to walk bare-foot on an Carrying a backpack on both shoulder is the
carrying on gait kinetics [3].
8.0) cm student’s BW ADAL (Techmachine, Andre’zieux Bouthe’on, preferred method.
Males and females France) treadmill for 3 min at 3.5 km/h. Carrying the backpack increases the students stride,
(41 Students) Students were tested with the both the school stance and double stance.
backpacks straps on and then carrying the pack Vertical forces increase with the use of just one strap.
with one/single strap on.
This study identified the associations between
Y7 and Y8 Middle school backpack weight (recorded as a percentage of
school students in the student’s overall BW), how the students wore
Student’s shoes were removed and they were
California USA. their backpack, how long they carried the backpack,
weighed as well as their backpacks (using two
Siambanes et al. (2004) Mean Age 12.75 their socioeconomic status, and the prevalence,
calibrated digital electronic scales).
Influence of school yearsMean Weight of Student’s own severity and chronicity of back pain.
The content of the backpack was not assessed. 77% = Good
backpacks on adolescent backpack 9.33 kg backpack Students who walked to and from school and
Students were then sked 22 questions in an
back pain [13]. 49.5% males and method of wearing the backpack were associated
administered questionnaire (chronicity,
50.5% females with level of pain.
prevalence, severity and frequency of back pain).
(4 schools and 3497 64% reported back pain.
students in total) 41% felt pain whilst carrying backpack.
Girls reported a higher level of back pain.
The purpose of this study was to describe backpack
use by children to assess the severity of the problem.
The study examined:
(1) Common backpack type used.
(2) Average backpack load.
Y5, Y6, Y7 and Y8 Questionnaire was used to gather information (3) Backpack pain.
primary and middle (student demographic, play and leisure activity (4) Association between history of back pain and
school students in levels, bag type and carrying methods). back pack load.
Goodgold et al. (2002)
Boston USA. Student’s own Students were weighed with and without their (5) Whether children who wear a backpack that is
Backpack use in children 77% = Good
Age 11–14 years backpack. normal school backpack. greater the 15% of their BW were able to
[15].
169 males and 176 Students reported they did not carry their identify that the load was heavy.
females backpacks around with them on a school, they
97% of the students do not carry the school
(345 students in total) store them in lockers.
backpack around on the school day; they use lockers.
Younger students were found to carry heavier loads.
Y5—19% BW.
Y6—21% BW.
Y7—14% BW.
Y8—15% BW.
Table 2. Cont.
Critical
Loading
Conditions
Score (%)
This study investigated the effects of different
backpack carrying methods on school-aged children.
Y7 Primary school GAITRite system was used to test the students’
Student’s own No significant difference found during loaded walk
students in Tennessee walking patterns (six sensor pads) measuring
Connolly et al. (2008) backpack, 1 and 2 with student’s base of support, stride length and
USA. temporal and spatial gait parameters.
Effects of backpack carriage shoulder straps velocity when compared with the unloaded walk.
Age 12–13 years Electronic walkway was used in controlled 63% = Good
on gait parameters in tested. Double limb support significantly increased with
15 males and 17 environment.
children [39]. Load at 15% of the loaded walk (little difference between one strap
females Students walked under the backpack load and
student’s BW carry or two strap carry).
(32 students in total) under no-load a total of 8 m.
Little change in temporo-spatial gait parameters
with 15% BW load when compared with no load.
3.1. Critical Appraisal of Studies (CAS)

The final CAS percentage scores, indicating the methodological quality of each study, are presented
in Table 2, along with information regarding the outcome measures that were used in each study and
the study’s findings. The Cohen’s kappa analysis revealed an interrater agreement level (k = 0.728)
indicating ‘substantial agreement’, as per Viera and Garrett’s interpretation [40]. Fourteen studies were
graded as ‘good’ quality studies [3–7,9–11,13–15,18,38,39], six were graded as ‘fair’ quality [8,32–35,37],
and one was graded as ‘poor’ quality [30]. The mean CAS percentage for methodological quality of
the included studies was 59%, (‘fair’ quality), with a high score of 77% (‘good’ quality) [13,15,18] and a
low score of 22% (‘poor’ quality) [36].
3.2. Participant Characteristics

Of the 21 studies eligible for review (Table 2), five were conducted in China [8,9,11,32,33],
three were conducted in each of the USA [13,15,39] and Italy [6,18,35], two conducted in Spain [35,38],
two in India [10,36], two in Poland [4,5], and one study was conducted in each of the following
countries: Ireland [7], Turkey [34], South Africa [14] and France [3]. Five of the studies involved only
male participants [8–11,34], one study involved only female participants [34], 13 studies involved both
male and female participants [3–7,13,15,18,32,35,37–39], and three studies did not specify the gender
of participants [14,36,41]. In regard to ages of the students, 12 studies focused on primary school children
aged 6–13 years [3–9,11,18,32,34,38], six focused on middle school children aged 13–15 years [10,13,15,37–39],
two focused on secondary school children aged 13–17 years [35,37], and one study focused on both primary
(10–12 years) and secondary (12–14 years) students [33]. The participant sample sizes of the studies varied.
Two studies involved large samples encompassing 3852 [37] and 1403 [35] students, eight studies had
sample sizes that ranged from 162 to 529 [4–7,10,14,15,18] students, six studies had sample sizes that ranged
from 20 to 41 students [3,33,39] [34,36,38], and four studies had relatively small samples that ranged from 4
to 15 [8,9,11,32] students. One study did not mention its sample size [13].
3.3. Nature of the Load Carriage

When considering the nature of the loads being carried, all but four studies [9,32,33,40]
involved students utilizing their own school bags, whereas the four [9,32,33] divergent studies used
dummy/commercial/mono backpacks (Table 2). Four studies observed students carrying backpacks
around the school on a daily basis [3,8,9,35], two studies stated students used lockers at school or left
bags next to their classroom desk [5,15], one study stated students only carried backpacks over a short
distance [7], and five studies did not state the nature of the backpack carriage at school [4,6,18,32,33].
It is important to state that none of the included studies investigated and itemized the contents of the
loads carried by students in the real world (i.e., school environment). This lack of itemization of loads
is a gap that demands further research, especially given technological advances and the fact that the
school students’ backpack loads are evolving as a result.
3.4. Contexts of Measurement

Fourteen studies collected data in a controlled environment (Table 2) (e.g., laboratories and
rooms) [4,6–10,18,32–36,38,39], five through visual observation in a controlled environment and
questionnaires [5,13–15,37], and two tested their participants on treadmills [3,11]. Seven of the 21
studies reported set distances and times over which measurements were taken in the testing conditions
(e.g., three minutes, 20 min, eight meters, 10 m, 400 m) [8–11,18,33,39]. Fourteen studies reported that
testing was conducted with students standing still [4–7,10,13–15,32,34–38] for periods of 20 s [8] to
3 min [32]. No studies were conducted outside in the school yard and no studies calculated distances
that loads were carried between homes and the school, suggesting that further research is needed to
address these deficits identified previous research.
3.5. Load Weight

Ten studies (Table 2) weighed students and their backpacks [5,6,8,10,11,14,18,35,37,38], and three
reported weighing the backpack only [9,13,35]. In these 13 studies, the mean backpack loads ranged
from 5.5 kg [5] to 7 kg [5]. Four studies involved the testing of backpack load carriage using backpacks
weighing 10% of the student’s body weight (BW) [3–6], five reported testing of backpack load carriage
at 15% of the student’s body weight [18,32–34,38] and five reported the testing of backpack load
carriage at 10%, 15%, 20% and 25% of the student’s body weight [7–11].
3.6. Biomechanical Outcome Measures

A variety of biomechanical impacts of load carriage were investigated (Table 2).
These biomechanical impacts of load carriage included changes in postural parameters and changes to
gait parameters.
3.6.1. Posture-Related Biomechanical Measures

The impacts of backpack load on posture focused primarily on changes in postural angles.
Drzal-Grabiec et al. [4] examined postural parameters, including habitual posture, with the backpack
on the participant’s left and right shoulders. The student participants, in this study, exhibited a
significant reduction of thoracic kyphosis during load carriage when compared to no load being
carried (p < 0.05). In particular, the angle of thoracic kyphosis increased between measurements
(p < 0.05) [4]. Similarly, Ramprasad et al. [10], who also examined changes in various postural angles
with different backpack weights, found that the craniovertebral (CV) angle changed significantly after
15% BW was reached in backpack loads (p < 0.05). Head on neck (HON) and head and neck (as a
single unit) on trunk (HNOT) CV angles were found to significantly change after a load of 10% of BW
was reached (p < 0.05) [10]. However, trunk and lower limb angles, which also altered significantly,
changed after only a load of 5% of BW was reached in the backpack (p < 0.05) [10]. Furthermore,
in a study by Chow et al. [32] changes in spinal curvature and repositioning of the student’s centre
of gravity (CG) were observed, when backpack loads exceeded 15% of the student’s body weight,
at different CG locations (anterior and posterior at T7, T12, L3) [32]. This is the same percentage of
body weight found to induce biomechanical changes that were reported by Ramprasad et al. [10].
Pau et al. [6] assessed the effects of backpack load carriage on plantar pressure distribution and
spatio-temporal gait parameters among children. Measures were obtained during both quiet standing
and walking, both with and without the backpack in 208 participants. More than half of the children in
this study exhibited a backpack/body mass ratio higher than 15%. Pau et al. [6] found that backpacks
introduced significant increases in overall center of gravity (CG) contact area (up to 10%). They also
observed that plantar pressure peaked in the forefoot and midfoot regions when loads were carried by
children, with a significant shift in the average position of the center of pressure towards the forefoot
and midfoot, indicating the body’s attempt to restore the initial balance conditions challenged by the
load. Pau et al. [6] suggests that heavy loads and significant exposure may increase the risk of foot
discomfort and onset of foot structure alterations or pathologies.
3.6.2. Gait-Related Biomechanical Measures

Six studies [3,6,9,11,37,39] investigated the impact of backpack loads on parameters of gait.
Three of the studies [9,39], compared both unilateral (single shoulder backpack carry) and bilateral
(two-shoulder backpack carry) loads, whereas one study [37] looked at a unilateral load only,
comparing a loaded side to an unloaded side. In the study by Hong et al. [9], the researchers examined
the effects of carrying methods (backpacks and single-strap athletic bags) and loads on phases of gait
and ground reaction forces during stair ascent and descent in children. The threshold load that caused
a significant increase in the peak forces observed, regardless of bag type or stair mode, was 15% of
body weight [9]. Hong et al. [11] demonstrated that stride length decreased in the right and left legs
when the backpack was worn over one shoulder but increased in both legs when the backpack was
worn over both shoulders.
Contrary to the findings above, Cottalorda, et al. [3] found that when children carried a backpack
(on one or two shoulders) they walked with longer stride, stance and double stance than when walking
without a backpack. Connolly et al. [39] found an increase in double limb support when weight was
added to the backpack as a counter measure to causing increased instability during gait. They also
suggested that when carrying the backpack over one shoulder, the individual may lean in a direction
opposite to the force (or load). As such it is not surprising that Pau et al. [6], while not directly
observing spatio-temporal gait parameters, observed a significant increase (up to 25%) in plantar
pressure, especially in the forefoot.
The consequences of the aforementioned changes in gait parameters from increased load, such
as reduced stride length might be explained by the findings of Ozgul et al. [34]. Ozgual et al. [34]
found peak ankle dorsiflexion and hip extension, as well as range of pelvic rotation, all decreased in
adolescents carrying loads. Furthermore, knee flexion, a loading response for the support phase of
gait, increased on the loaded side relative to the unloaded side when loaded walking was compared to
unloaded walking. Decreased maximum hip extension during late stance, increased hip adduction,
an elevated pelvis and increased anterior pelvic tilt were seen on the loaded side, and if the pelvis was
lowered, ankle dorsi flexion increased and the hip was abducted on the unloaded side as a counter
effect, when bags were carried on one side [34]. Thus, Ozgul et al. [34] suggest that both unloaded
and loaded sides were affected by asymmetrical backpack carriage, putting more load on the lumbar
vertebral joints, altering frontal knee biomechanics and contributing to lower back pain. These findings
however do require further research given the ‘fair’ methodological quality (CAS score of 59%) of
this research.
3.7. Physiological Outcome Measures

Vieira et al. [38] examined the influence of backpack type on lung function and respiratory muscle
strength (Table 2) in both primary and secondary school children carrying a backpack under three
controlled conditions: (1) with bilateral shoulder straps used to carry the load evenly on both shoulders,
and carrying 15% of the student’s body weight; (2) with bilateral shoulder straps used to carry the
load over one shoulder, and carrying 15% of the student’s body weight; and (3) with padded mono
adjustable shoulder straps, carrying the load over one shoulder and across the body, and carrying 15%
of the student’s body weight. The observed restrictive effect of load carriage and the resulting decrease
in expiratory muscle strength were more pronounced for the backpack with a mono shoulder strap,
suggesting a double strap backpack is preferable [38].
3.8. Measures of Physical Discomfort and Pain

Seven studies (Table 2) investigated physical discomfort imparted by backpacks [5,7,11,13,14,35,
36]. The methodical quality of these studies ranged from ‘poor’ [36] to 77% good [13]. Dockrell et al. [7]
analysed musculoskeletal discomfort among primary school students and found that the prevalence
of baseline musculoskeletal discomfort was high (63.4%) and that schoolbag-related discomfort
was reported more frequently in the shoulders (27.3%) than in the back (15%). The dose-response
assessment indicated that both statistically and practically significant increases in discomfort were
observed following school bag carriage. Multiple logistic regression models indicated that psychosocial
factors and a history of discomfort were predictors of schoolbag-related back discomfort, while gender
(being female) and a history of discomfort were predictors of schoolbag-related shoulder discomfort.
Puckree et al. [14] also found through their research that more females than males (91.9% vs. 78.5%)
experienced school bag carriage pain [14].
Four of the included studies [13,14,35,36] investigated the impact of pain felt by the students from
carrying their school backpacks. Two studies [13,14] focused on non-specific mechanical back pain, one
study [13] looked at the regions of the body that were most affected by school backpack carriage, one
study [35] analysed the influence of backpack weight on back pain and back pathologies, one study [36]
analysed backpack injuries in school children and one study [11] analysed the patterns of shoulder
and abdominal muscle activation during prolonged walking with loads in children. These studies
found that back pain was highly prevalent in the school children, as students reported severity and
chronicity of pain was high, with Siambanes et al. [13] finding that 64% of the students reported back
pain, 41% felt pain when carrying their backpacks and almost all students reported relief upon taking
their backpacks off their backs. Among these children, 13% rated the pain as being ‘not bad’ and 87%
reported the pain to be ‘bad/very bad’. Furthermore, 16% reported that they missed days off school,
gym classes and participating in sport because of the pain, while 17% of the students reported that they
had seen or continued to see a doctor due to their backpack-related pain. The study by Siambanes et
al. [13] found 86.9% of the school children participating in their study experienced pain in the region of
the back, shoulders and neck, with most of the students relating their pain to lugging heavy schoolbags
everyday [13].
In the study of Puckree et al. [14], of the 39 students, 14 reported severe pain and 20 reported
moderate pain whilst carrying their backpack on both shoulders. Shoulder pain was reported most
commonly, with 15% of students reporting pain in this region of the body, followed by shoulder
and back pain at 7%, then neck and shoulders at 5% [14]. Rodriguez-Oviedo et al. [35] analysed the
influence of backpack weight on back pain and back pathologies. 61.4% of students carried school
backpacks exceeding 10% of their body weight and 18.1% exceeded 15% of their body weight; 25.9%
reported having back pain for more than 15 days in the previous year, and the most frequent pathology
from these reports was scoliosis (70% reported) followed by lower back pain ad contractures (10%
each). Students carrying backpacks weighing in the highest quartile of loads relative to body weight
had a 50% higher risk of experiencing back pain for more than 15 days than those in the lowest load
quartile, with girls reporting a higher risk of back pain and an increasing risk of experiencing pain
with age. It should be noted that in this study, the relative quartile loads were not provided.
Soares et al. [36] analysed backpack injuries in Indian school children, finding pressure marks
(redness and swelling) over the neck and shoulders, corresponding to locations of the straps of the
backpack, stooping posture while carrying the backpack, pain or stiffness in the neck, upper back and
shoulders predominantly while carrying the backpack, and an absence of these symptoms during the
school holidays. Soares et al. [36] also found the upper back (40%), neck (27%) and shoulders (20%) were
the most prevalent body regions in which pain was reported, followed by the forearm and wrist at 7% and
lower back at 6% [36]. Hong et al. [11] found that when assessing the patterns of shoulder and abdominal
muscle activation during prolonged walking with loads of up to 15–20% of body weight in children, signs
of muscle fatigue were found in the upper trapezius muscles after 10 min.
Five of the 21 included studies (23.8%) used questionnaires [7,13–15,37] asking the students for
ratings of pain and body discomfort experienced while carrying their school backpack, through use of
pain visual analogue scales (VAS) and ordinal scales. Five of the studies [7,13,33,37] presented results
relating to backpack physical discomfort in the wearer. One study by Dockrell et al. [7] asked the
student participants to answer questions linked to a body discomfort scale (BDS), and 38% of the
students reported baseline discomfort (before they donned the backpack) in their shoulders and 30%
reported pain in their back region while carrying the load. Students in the study were also asked
questions using the VAS, with results showing a statistically significant difference between scores given
before bag carriage (1.6 ± 2.3) and after bag carriage (4.7 ± 2.4) for shoulder discomfort and for back
discomfort (before 2.8 ± 2.6; after 5.8 ± 2.4). This study also asked questions related to carrying their
school backpack, using a strength and difficulties questionnaire (SDQ). The SDQ questionnaire is a
25-item behavior screening questionnaire, which calculates five dimensions of behavior and emotional
state in 4- to 17-year-old children (e.g., emotional symptoms, conduct problems, hyperactivity, peer
problems and pro-social behaviors). Parents rate each question on a grading system comprising
the grades of ‘not true’, ‘somewhat true’ or ‘certainly true’, with higher scores indicating greater
difficulties [7]. From these questions, the researchers found 86% of the students had a normal SDQ
score, 8% were borderline, and 6% had an abnormal score [7]. The SDQ score for girls increased as their
body weight increased. Another study, using a numerical pain experience scale [14], reported that 87%
of students experienced bodily pain in the regions of the shoulders, with 7% feeling pain in the back
and 15% feeling pain in the neck [13]. In a study by Spiteri et al. [37], the most common self-reported
site of pain in students in grade 5 and 6 (8 and 9 years old) was the neck (25%), and in students in
grades 7–9 (10–13 years) was the upper and lower back (44%), with a total of 8% of students in grades
5 and 6 and 17% in grades 7–9 reporting pain in multiple sites in their spines. The prevalence of
self-reported back pain was higher among female students, students in non-public schools, and those
in secondary schools [33].
4. Discussion
The aims of this literature review were to identify, critically appraise and synthesise key findings
from recent studies investigating impacts of contemporary load carriage on school children, in order
to inform future research and assist in the development of risk management for school backpack loads.
In total, 21 publications were critically reviewed, achieving a mean ± standard deviation (SD) raw
score for methodological quality of 16.86 ± 4.34 (range 5 to 21) out of 28 on the modified Downs and
Black checklist [27]. Common weaknesses were identified in the included studies by the Downs and
Black checklist [27]. The distributions of principal confounders in each group of subjects were typically
not clearly described. External validity was often poor due to the majority of studies using controlled
facilities in which to conduct assessments (for example, laboratories, classrooms and treadmills), which
were not representative of the environment in which students would typically perform load carriage.
For example, they often did not observe walking to and from school, walking around school grounds,
walking from classroom to classroom (which may include a number of stairs), activities undertaken
during recess and lunch breaks, or the associated requirement to don and doff the backpack. Internal
validity also frequently scored poorly, since most of the included studies did not make an attempt
to blind the participants or assessors. This was mainly due to the nature of the studies, as it would
be difficult to blind participants in the studies given that participants would be aware of either their
backpacks or themselves being weighed, and whether or not they were carrying loads at the time of
data collection. However, given that many of the papers were rated overall as being of ‘good’ quality,
the findings in general can be considered informative for the present review.
Six naturally emerging themes arose as part of the data extraction. These six themes were: (1) the
participant age groups studied and contexts of study have been limited, and this warrants further
research; (2) the weight of loads carried were variable but often relatively heavy; (3) the nature of loads
carried are unknown (i.e., none of the students backpack contents were itemized in any of the studies);
(4) the biomechanical impacts of these loads were statistically significant; (5) the physiological impacts
of the loads were also significant but under-researched; (6) the pain and discomfort impacts of these
loads were extensive.
4.1. Age Groups of Participants

Of the 21 studies included this review, only two (9%) [35,37] focused on secondary school children
aged between 13–17 years. It is therefore evident that limited research has been conducted in the
secondary school system (ages 13–17 years). This is important to note, given that primary school
children typically carry school bags over a shorter distance and, therefore, may have a more limited
exposure to load carriage [7]. A study by Mackie et al. suggests that secondary school children typically
move from one classroom to another between subjects (according to their timetable) putting on and
taking off their schoolbags as required and therefore carry them for longer periods of time [41].
4.2. Contexts of Load Carriage That Have Been Studied

Just four of the 21 studies (19%) involved students carrying their backpacks around the school on a
daily basis [3,8,9,35]. Only one study (5%) [35] investigated load carriage in secondary school students
carrying loads at school on a daily basis. With respect to the contexts of measurements and assessments
used in the 21 studies included, in 17 studies (81%) measurements and assessments were conducted in
controlled environments (e.g., laboratories, rooms and on treadmills [3,4,6,8–11,18,32–36,38,39] and
15 (71%) reported testing conducted with students standing still [4–8,10,13–15,32,34–38]. No studies
involved measurements or assessments conducted in the school yard or looked at the distance travelled
between classrooms or during lunch periods. With research investigating load carriage practices,
noting that the contexts in which loads are carried (including the speed, terrain grade and type and
distances) [5] can have a greater impact on the carrier than load weight alone, it is imperative that
future research includes variation in these contextual factors as part of investigations into school child
load carriage. Evaluation of the exact distances travelled whilst carrying their backpacks during a
school day is needed. This may include taking into account walking to and from home, moving from
classroom to classroom, movement during recess and lunch breaks and the movement after school
(e.g., moving to sporting activities/venues/work/home). In addition, the types of terrain should
be considered (e.g., concrete, grass or stairs), as should the speed of load carriage (e.g., walking to a
classroom, running across an oval following lunch, etc.). These future research requirements were
acknowledged by Lasota et al. [5] who suggested that the failure to measure the time a student spends
carrying their backpack prevents the determination of the duration of load experienced, which should
be considered in future studies.
Eighteen of the included studies involved students utilising their own school backpacks
(double/two strapped backpack) [3–8,10,11,13–15,18,34–39]. Puckree et al. [14] found that the manner
in which a backpack is carried (for example, carried over both shoulders or over one shoulder)
significantly affected the number of children who reported pain, and so this should also be considered
in future research. In that study, pain also varied with duration of load carriage, another factor that
should be considered in future studies on this topic [14]. Hong et al. [9] found that no significant
difference between bag types in the impacts of load carriage, with one type assessed being an athletic
bag and the other a backpack, but the effects of bag type should be further investigated in future
research. Typically, school backpacks lack the rigid frame of an outdoor-style backpack and include
only a few pockets in the front, in addition to the main storage compartment [42]. While traditionally
very simple in design, school backpacks are often made with padded shoulder straps and backs as well
as additional reinforcement to support the intended load [42]. To decrease injury and improve comfort,
experts recommend that children use backpacks that match the size of the child [42]. This constrains the
number of items that can be carried in the backpack, and, as such may not be feasible without changes
to loads needing to be carried. Backpack features from most manufactures can include elements like
wide, padded shoulder straps for comfort and to distribute weight across the shoulders, padded back
sections for comfort and protection, and multiple compartments for distribution of load [43]. However,
these features may also add weight to the backpack itself. One area that was not discussed in the
literature was the use of hip belts. A review of load carriage found that the use of hip belts affected
energy costs and injury risks in tactical populations [44]. As such there may be value in investigating
the use of hip belts in school bag carriage. Likewise, further research into backpack design (e.g.,
as mentioned above: wide, padded shoulder straps for comfort, padded back sections for comfort and
protection and multiple compartments for distribution of load) is needed, particularly as materials
from which the backpacks are made evolve.
Of the 21 included studies, only one paper by Pau et al. [18] addressed or mentioned alternative
carrying methods (i.e., trolley bags or other kinds of bags) and this was due to these forms of bags
being excluded from the study. Therefore, further research is needed to address this gap in the existing
literature. In addition, several studies [44–47] have indicated that high load placement results in
significantly higher levels of muscle activity than lower placement of backpacks. The differences in
muscle activity are primarily due to the movements and forces arising from the angular and linear
acceleration of the trunk whilst carrying load [43]. As such load placement should be considered in
future research on load carriage in school children.
A study conducted by Grimmer et al. [45] also discovered that, for postural efficiency, loads should
be limited to 10% of body weight and the backpacks should be worn high on the spine, considerations
in agreement with load placement in the military [44]. Furthermore, the findings from this study led
the authors to conclude that neither age nor gender were a significant factor when comparing postural
responses to backpack loads or conditions.
4.3. Natures and Weights of Loads Carried

Eleven studies [5,6,8,10,11,14,18,35,37,38] weighing both the students and the backpack, reported
bag loads ranging from 5 kg [37] to 7.0 kg [5]. Three studies [9,13,35] reported weighing the backpack
only, with loads ranging from 0% (no load) [9] to 20% [9] of body weight. No studies were found that
itemized the backpack contents (e.g., books, notebooks, stationary, toys, drinks, lunchboxes, additional
uniforms, musical instruments, sporting equipment, computers etc.) nor did any study weigh an
empty backpack to determine the weight of the load carriage device (i.e., backpack) itself. Lasota et
al. [5] discussed the limiting impact of not investigating backpack contents, making it impossible to
determine which specific elements influence the final backpack weight. In a study investigating load
carriage with adult police officers, a review by Orr et al. [20] found that the average police officer
carries around 7–10 kg of load (10–12% of body weight) and specialist police (like SWAT) can carry
loads of around 22 kg (around 25% of body weight) as part of their occupation. While the absolute
loads carried by the children in the studies included in the present review may be lighter (i.e., up to
7 kg), children have a lower total body mass than adults and as such it is evident that carried loads
will be relatively heavier. As an example, Lasota et al. [5], in a study of Grade 2 children, found that
the students (mean age = 8 years) were carrying up to 24% of their body weight (range 1.5–7.0 kg)—a
relative load greater than those carried by general police officers and similar to those carried by elite
police. This high relative load is also supported by the study conducted by Buhagiar et al. [48], who
found that male children in their study (mean age = 9 years) were carrying loads of more than 20% of
their body weight in the school environment.
Considering these relative loads, 14 studies in the current review reported testing backpack loads
of at least 10% (range 0%/no load to 25%) of a student’s body weight [3–11,18,32–34,38]. Nearly
all studies reported that a load of 10% of the student’s body weight was the appropriate maximum
weight to be carried by students to limit the effects of load discomfort and injuries in agreement with
the earlier recommendations by Brackley et al. [2] of a load of 10 to 15% of the child’s body weight.
Conversely, Negrini et al. [21] found that around 35% of 11-year-old children in Italy carried backpacks
as heavy as 30% of their body weight, stating that the average daily load of 9.3 kg carried by the school
children would equate to a daily average of load of 17.6 kg for an 80 kg man. As such, determining and
ensuring the optimal backpack load, relative to the student’s body weight, is a potential approach that
could help mitigate the impacts of load carriage. One potential limitation of an approach of enforcing
a maximum relative load, however, akin to the limitation found by militaries attempting to employ a
relative loading system or protocol [49], is the requirement for a given number of items to be brought
to school by the student. On this basis, if students are required to bring and carry key items (e.g.,
laptops, required textbooks, etc.) to school, and the weight of these items leads to a load more than the
relative load recommendation, meeting a relative load recommendation may not be viable.
Harsha and Berenson [50] suggest that if students were to stop carrying a school bag they could be
limiting their exposure to physical activity and even the benefits of daily resistance exercise imposed
by the weight of their bag. Shultz et al. [51] go on to state that this is particularly relevant in the current
situation of rising levels of obesity in children. Schools have seen a reduction in the duration and
frequency of physical education classes and sport in recent times, with the battle of curriculum vs.
curriculum activities. Dollman et al. [52] discuss this against a backdrop of rising youth obesity, noting
that diminishing curriculum time for PE represents a serious public health issue. Dockrell [7] discusses
two conflicting outcomes associated with the activity of carrying a school backpack—on the one hand
it provides a form of physical exercise, and on the other it can cause physical pain or damage to a child.
4.4. Biomechanical Impacts of School Backpack Loads

Six of the included studies [3,8,9,33,34,39] found that backpack load carriage impacts the gait
of school children, resulting in significant changes to gait parameters. Hong et al. [8] found that as
loads increased to 15% of students body weight, stride length decreased, with a significant decrease
in step length (p = 0.047), cadence (p = 0.057) and walking speed (p = 0.004) [9]. Two studies [8,10]
reported findings associated with the student’s body posture, including an increase in lumbosacral
angles, flattening of the thoracic kyphosis, and deepening of the cervical lordosis. Backpack loads
of even 5% of body weight can significantly change trunk and lower limb angles and loads of 15%
of student’s bodyweight resulted in changes in all the angles pertaining to head, neck, and lower
limb, affecting overall posture [4,10]. Two of the studies found that when a backpack was worn
it significantly affected foot-ground contact area and increased plantar contact pressure, especially
at loads equivalent to 25% of the student’s body weight [6,18]. As such, Pal et al. [4] recommends
that students should be carefully screened for possible ‘high load-high exposure time’ with a loaded
backpack to reduce the risk of foot discomfort or injuries and to allow correct development of the
foot structure and functionality during critical stages in a child’s physical development [6]. However,
future research is needed to investigate links between load and exposure time, to quantify the level at
which risk increases, and to determine whether statistically significant findings do in fact translate
to clinical significance. This information can then be used to inform maximal load or maximal time
dosages for backpack load carriage. Alternative carriage of the backpack by changing the positioning
occasionally between anterior and posterior positions might help relieve the effects of the backpack on
the spine, as identified by Chow et al. [32] who found that spinal curvature and repositioning errors
were affected by backpack anterior–posterior positioning and CG levels.
4.5. Physiological Impacts of School Backpack Loads

The effects of backpack loads on the students’ respiratory muscle strength (inspiration and
expiration) and lung function was reported in a study by Viera and Garrett [40] involving four
conditions: (1) unloaded and standing still in erect stance; (2) 15% body weight load in a bilateral
backpack stance; (3) 15% body weight load in a one shoulder backpack stance; and (4) 15% body
weight load with a mono strap backpack, in erect stance. They found that when walking with more
than 10% body weight load there was an increase in breathing rate and a decrease in trunk range of
movement. The mono strap backpack, which is positioned diagonally across the body, was found
to significantly lower forced vital capacity, forced expiratory volume in one second and maximal
expiratory pressure. This bag design was found to restrict respiratory efforts and decrease expiratory
muscle strength, so the double strap backpack is recommended as the preferred backpack option [38].
4.6. Physical Discomfort Caused by School Backpack Loads

Eleven of the 21 studies included provided evidence that students who were carrying backpacks
recorded bodily pain, redness, swelling, fatigue and/or musculoskeletal discomfort in the upper or
lower back, upper or lower trapezius, shoulders, neck or forearms, with most of the students relating
their pain, fatigue and discomfort to lugging heavy schoolbags around every day—almost all students
reported relief upon taking their backpacks off [5,7,11,13,14,32–35]. The prevalence of back pain was
reported to be higher among female students, students in non-public schools, and those in secondary
schools [33].
4.7. Summation of Findings

Students carried on average over 15% of their own body weight and exhibited significant
biomechanical and physiological impacts of these loads as well as reporting pain, fatigue, skin redness,
swelling and discomfort. Considering the limited methodological quality and variations in foci across
studies, further research is needed to better elucidate: (1) the loads students carry around on a school
day in their school backpacks; and; (2) the biomechanical, physiological and physical effects of load
carriage on students.
From the findings in this review it is evident that there have been limited changes or improvements
in student’s backpacks (in relation to load and impact) since previous reviews on this topic were
conducted in 2003 [1] and 2004 [2]. The earlier review by Mackenzie et al. [1] noted that a student’s
school book bag was reported to weigh more than 15% to 20% of their body weight, was associated
with back pain, and when improperly used resulted in changes to the child’s posture and gait. The
findings of this review were similar, with reported loads ranging up to 20% of body weight, and
associations between load carriage and back pain, changes to gait and posture affirmed. Likewise,
where the review by Brackley and Stevenson [2] gave maximum load recommendations for school
children of 10–15% of body weight, 14 of the 21 studies in this review reported that a load of 10% of
the student’s body weight was the appropriate maximum weight to be carried by students to limit the
effects of load discomfort, injuries and other adverse impacts [3–11,18,32–34,38].
As a final consideration, the review by Mackenzie et al. [1] in 2003, noted that large, heavy
backpacks were a relatively recent phenomenon, and discussed inadequate numbers of student lockers,
less time between classes to get to lockers, larger textbooks, sports bags, musical instruments, and
other objects as areas of concern regarding student loads. While the research highlighted in this review
bears many similarities to that considered in earlier reviews, the contextualization of load carriage
in regards to lockers, additional items being carried and travel between classrooms, and in general,
was limited. As such, the load weights carried by students, backpack pain and other concerns have
shown little to no improvement over the past 15 years and the recommended load of around 10% body
weight is still maintained, although typically still not met. The contextualization of the carriage of
these loads is also very limited. Ultimately, the concerns and unease regarding load carriage in school
children remain.
4.8. Limitations of This Review

The literature search employed in this review was limited to two databases due to the relevance
of those databases and the high numbers of papers that were identified from them. Whilst stricter
search terms may have limited the overall number of initial studies identified, this approach may have
meant that relevant papers were not identified in the initial search. On this basis, while limited to two
databases, the search terms used were deliberately kept broad to minimize the risk of not identifying
key articles.
5. Conclusions
Based on the methodological quality of studies included in this review and limitations in the
contexts in which these studies have been conducted, it is apparent that further research into the
impacts of backpack loads in real-world school settings is required using a wider range of school
year levels and student ages. In particular, further research of this nature is required to assess (1) the
contemporary loads students carry around on a school day in their school backpacks; (2) the impacts
those loads may have on the student’s body; and (3) the biomechanical, physiological and physical
effects that occur to the students as a result of carrying these loads. Despite the shortcomings of
recent, available research in this area, it is nevertheless apparent that the wearing of school backpacks
does have significant biomechanical, physiological and discomfort impacts on the wearer, especially
with loads above 10% of the student’s body weight. Such impacts may include changes to posture
(e.g., changes to spinal posture, lumbo-sacral angles, and thoracic kyphosis), gait (increases in plantar
pressure during foot-ground contact and increased double support), increases in physical discomfort
and muscle activity, and increases in breathing rate. Further research is required to identify and
select optimal backpacks for school children, with careful consideration of the loads to be carried on a
daily basis, duration of backpack load carriage and how students best carry the load to minimize the
negative outcomes associated with wearing school-related backpacks.
Author Contributions: M.P. conceived the critical review topic, performed the systematic search of the literature,
critical appraisal analysis, and data extraction, analyzed the data, synthesized the findings, and drafted the
manuscript. R.O. confirmed the literature search, conducted a critical appraisal analysis and the Kappa analysis,
moderated final critical appraisal scores, and reviewed the manuscript. R.P., W.H., and N.M. aided in the
development of the search terms and strategies, aided in elements of drafting the manuscript, and reviewed and
edited the final manuscript.
Funding: This research was supported by an Australian Government Research Training Program Scholarship and
APC was funded by Bond University.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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© 2018 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access
article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution
(CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

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Keywords: load carriage; children; school backpacks; configuration; impact

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Search Strategy

2.2. Screening and Selection

2.3. Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria

2.4. Critical Appraisal and Data Extraction

Table 2. Details and findings of included studies.

3.1. Critical Appraisal of Studies (CAS)

3.2. Participant Characteristics

3.3. Nature of the Load Carriage

3.4. Contexts of Measurement

3.5. Load Weight

3.6. Biomechanical Outcome Measures

3.6.1. Posture-Related Biomechanical Measures

3.6.2. Gait-Related Biomechanical Measures

3.7. Physiological Outcome Measures

3.8. Measures of Physical Discomfort and Pain

4.1. Age Groups of Participants

4.2. Contexts of Load Carriage That Have Been Studied

4.3. Natures and Weights of Loads Carried

4.4. Biomechanical Impacts of School Backpack Loads

4.5. Physiological Impacts of School Backpack Loads

4.6. Physical Discomfort Caused by School Backpack Loads

4.7. Summation of Findings

4.8. Limitations of This Review

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