Basics of Electrotherapy PDF

Basics of
Electrotherapy
Basics of
Electrotherapy
Subhash Khatri
BPh.T (Nagpur), MPT Ortho (Kottayam)
Associate Professor and Head
Department of Physiotherapy
Jawaharlal Nehru Medical College
Belgaum
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Basics of Electrotherapy
© 2003, Subhash Khatri

All rights reserved. No part of this publication should be reproduced, stored in
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This book has been published in good faith that the material provided by author
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First Edition: 2003
Publishing Director: RK Yadav
ISBN 81-8061-171-X
Typeset at JPBMP typesetting unit

Printed at Gopsons Papers Ltd., A-14, Sector 60,Noida
In loving memory of my father Maniklal
Khatri who raised me, guided me and
believed in me no matter what. I could
not have asked for a better teacher and
mentor than my father.
to
my daughter ‘Trishala’
Preface
Day today we come across various physical forces such as

warming rays of sun, light of moon, force of gravity, movement
of our body, our ability to move from one place to another, our
ability to move an object from one place to another, movement
and flow of cold and hot water, electrical changes, magnetism
and so on. Almost all these things around us form the part of
nature’s inexhaustible and powerful array of forces. The same
physical forces, harnessed and properly directed are of great
value in promoting the healing. They can relieve pain, increase
circulation, speed up repair and healing of injured body part,
improve body mechanics, metabolism, inhibit growth of germs,
restore disturbed function, cure the diseased status of body,
restore homeostasis, improve health and so on. This could be
the basis of physical medicine. It appears that the evolution of
Physical Medicine or Physiotherapy has occurred gradually but
the physical agents in some or the other form, which are used
for the treatment purpose, are reasonably old, may be as old as
matter itself.
Electrotherapy is an essential and basic subject for
undergraduate and postgraduate physiotherapy students. There
are enough and more books available on this subject by western
authors. But personally I feel that there are very few books
available on this subject by Indian authors who can understand
their needs in better way. So a need was felt to bring out a
book, which will comprehensively cover Electrotherapy. The
purpose of this book is to provide a foundation of knowledge
for the management of most of the type of the patients with the
viii Basics of Electrotherapy
Electrotherapeutic modalities. I have tried to write the chapters

in such a way that as if I was sitting in front of you and trying to
explain the matter and hence you may feel as if you were reading
my lecture notes. I have also included my memory tricks for
remembering the subject matter; you may use them if it works
for you. Although the book is primarily written for physio-
therapeutic professionals, much of the information in this book
may be useful for other clinicians who are actively involved in
the management of various patients.
Medical and Physiotherapy knowledge is constantly
changing. As new information becomes available, changes in
treatment procedures, equipment and the use of these
equipments in clinical situations become necessary. The author
has as far as possible taken care to ensure that information given
in this book is accurate and up-to-date. However, readers are
strongly advised to confirm the information. A large number of
references and suggested readings have been included at the
end. This will help more interested readers to conveniently look
for extra material on the subject of their interest.
I have received valuable assistance from various people in
the preparation of this book, Basics of Electrotherapy. I would
like to thank all of them for their suggestions and help. I am
particularly thankful to my students and colleagues who inspired
me and provided important feedback. I am grateful to my
brothers Mohanlal Khatri, Dr Jeevan Khatri and Sanjay kumar
Khatri for their constant encouragement and support in various
ways. For the help in the typing and correction of the manuscript
I am indebted to my wife Mrs Sejal Khatri and my clinical assistant
Dr Poonam Bagi.
The publisher M/s Jaypee Brothers Medical Publishers (P)
Ltd, New Delhi bestowed upon this work with their highly
painstaking efforts in the examination of this text, its editing and
Preface ix
printing. The author hereby thankfully acknowledges all of this

assistance. I am thankful to Principal Dr VD Patil, JN Medical
College, Belgaum for kind permission to publish this book.
I would appreciate your comments about this book. I have
included my personal thought and comments and they should
be taken as just guidelines.
Subhash Khatri
Contents
1. What is Electrotherapy? ................................... 1

2. History of Electrotherapy ................................. 7
3. Muscle and Nerve Stimulating Currents ......... 13
4. Diagnostic Electrotherapy .............................. 51
5. Thermotherapy ............................................... 73
6. Therapeutic Ultrasound .................................. 93
7. Cryotherapy ................................................. 107
8. Phototherapy ................................................ 116
9. Safety Precautions in Electrotherapy ............ 135
10. Clinical Decision Making in Electrotherapy .. 140
11. Biofeedback ................................................. 144
Appendix ................................................................ 151
Glossary .................................................................. 159
References and Suggested Reading ......................... 165
Index....................................................................... 167
chapter one
What is Electrotherapy?
DEFINITION AND AREAS OF STUDY

Electrotherapy generally includes various forms of therapeutic
applications using electricity as the primary source of energy. In
order to have comprehensive idea, first let’s try to understand
the meaning of the word therapy. The dictionary meaning of
the word therapy is non-surgical treatment approach. Electro
means electrical current or electricity or electrical means. Hence,
one can say that electrotherapy is a non-surgical treatment
approach characterized by the treatment of various diseases and
disorders with the help of electricity or electrical means.
Alternatively one can put it this way; ‘Electrotherapy is a branch
of physiotherapy characterized by the treatment of various
diseases and disorders with the help of electricity or electrical
means’. In my view, it is one of the essential basic subjects for
physiotherapy students. The scope or outline of electrotherapy
can be understood with the help of following diagram.
Low Frequency Medium Frequency High Frequency

Currents Currents Currents
Electrotherapy
Electrotherapy
Phototherapy Electrodiagnosis Biofeedback
Fig. 1.1: Areas of study in electrotherapy

2 Basics of Electrotherapy
If you see the figure 1.1 then you might have noticed that
there are two common words, one is frequency and the second
is current. Current is nothing but the flow of electrons. Frequency
is the number of occurrence of any event per unit time. If you
take five cups of coffee per day then I may say that your
frequency of coffee intake is five cups per day. Similarly if you
are a smoker and smoke three cigarettes per day then the
frequency of your smoking is three cigarettes per day. With this
kind of analogy let’s try to understand the use of word frequency
in electrotherapy. In electrotherapy, we use the currents whose
impulses commence and cease at regular interval. The number
of times these impulses comes in a particular unit time (second)
is regarded as frequency. Usually it is expressed in cycles per
second or hertz, kilohertz, megahertz, etc.
Low frequency currents Low frequency currents are
therapeutically used currents whose frequency is in the range of
0 to 100 cycles per second. The primary use of low frequency
current is the stimulation of nerve and muscle. Various current
in this category which are used for the physiotherapeutic
treatments are direct current, interrupted direct current, sinusoidal
current, diadynamic current, high voltage pulsed galvanic
current, micro amperage electrical nerve stimulation,
transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation, etc.
Medium frequency currents Medium frequency currents are
therapeutically used currents whose frequency is in the range of
1000 to 10,000 cycles per seconds. They are basically used to
stimulate deeply situated muscles and nerves since it’s difficult
to stimulate these muscles and nerves by low frequency currents
without the spread of current. Clinically they are used for muscle
re-education, to retard the rate of muscle atrophy, drainage of
edema and for pain relief. Various currents in this category, which
are used for physiotherapeutic purpose, are Russian current,
Interferential current, etc.
What is Electrotherapy? 3
High frequency currents High frequency currents are

therapeutically used currents whose frequency is more than
10,000 cycles per seconds. High frequency currents are used
for their ability to produce the deep heat inside the tissues.
Various electrotherapeutic modalities, which work on this type
of currents, are short wave diathermy, long wave diathermy,
therapeutic ultrasound, and microwave diathermy.
Phototherapy Phototherapy refers to the treatment of various
diseases and disorders with the help of light. The primary effect
of these phototherapeutic modalities is pain relief by heat and
acceleration of healing through elevation of temperature,
counterirritation and photochemical effects. Various modalities
such as infrared rays, ultraviolet rays and laser comes under
this category.
Electrodiagnosis Electrical currents can also be used for the
diagnostic purpose. Electrodiagnosis means the detection of the
diseases and disorders by the use of electrotherapeutic currents
or electromyography. We can use currents like interrupted direct
current and perform various electrodiagnostic tests such as
rheobase, chronaxie, strength duration curve, pulse ratio,
myasthenic reaction, galvanic tetanic ratio, nerve conduction
test, nerve distribution test, faradic galvanic test, etc.
Electromyography is the study of electrical activity of the muscle
by means of surface electrodes placed over the skin or needle
electrodes inserted in the muscle itself. By electromyography
we can study motor unit potential, motor nerve conduction
velocity, sensory nerve conduction velocity, etc.
Biofeedback Biofeedback is the process of furnishing the
information to an individual about the body function so as to
get some voluntary control over it. Some biofeedback devices
are related to electrotherapy and hence, they can be included
under electrotherapy for example EMG biofeedback. However,
one should remember that there are lot many biofeedback
devices which works on mechanical principles.
CLASSIFICATION OF CURRENTS
Therapeutic currents can be classified on the basis of direction,
frequency, voltage, amperage and biophysical effects in different
ways.
On the basis of direction On the basis of the direction of the
flow, therapeutic currents can be classified as alternating and
unidirectional currents. Unidirectional currents are those that
flow in one direction only for example direct current and
interrupted direct current. Alternating currents flow in both the
directions. Examples of this type of currents are sinusoidal current
and interferential currents.
On the basis of frequency On the basis of the frequency
therapeutic currents can be classified as low frequency, medium
frequency and high frequency currents. Examples and more
about these currents are mentioned earlier.
On the basis of voltage On this basis, therapeutic currents
are classified as low voltage and high voltage currents. Low
voltage currents are with a voltage of less than 100 volts for
example low frequency currents. High voltage currents are of
several hundred volts for example high frequency currents.
On the basis of amperage On the basis of amperage the
currents are divided into two types such as low amperage and
high amperage currents. Low amperage currents area those
currents whose amperage ranges from 1 to 30 milliampears and
are same as that of low voltage currents. High amperage currents
have amperage from 500 to 2000 milliampears and are usually
of high tension.
On the basis of biophysical effects On this basis currents
can be divided into two types such as currents causing ionic
changes and currents causing thermal changes.
I always get surprised to see a chapter on cold therapy in
electrotherapy textbooks and similarly chapters on paraffin wax
What is Electrotherapy? 5
bath, hot pack, contrast bath, etc. One may think that it is not
the part of electrotherapy but traditionally cold is described along
with heat and hence mostly we find that cold therapy and other
things such as paraffin wax bath, hot pack, contrast bath,
fluidotherapy, etc. are often described in electrotherapy
textbooks. However, personally I like the authors who put the
title of their textbook as physical agents since it avoids the
dilemma of what can be included in electrotherapy. One should
be aware of the fact that all physiotherapy modalities which
work on electricity may not be necessarily called as
electrotherapeutic modalities. I always remember one of the
professor asking this question to undergraduate students, is
traction an electrotherapy modality? Of course the answer is
no. But few students may get confused and may say yes. We
have continuous passive motion devices, intermittent
compression devices and traction machines, which may work
on electricity but should not be ideally called as electrotherapy
modalities!
Students of physical therapy must appreciate that any form
of physical energy applied to the body exert significant primary
as well as secondary physiological effects. There is a need to
accurately measure the dosages in the application of all physical
agents just as in the use of medication, there is a therapeutic
range required to achieve the desired effects. Too low an intensity
may not produce any physiological changes and too high a dose
may produce serious detrimental consequences. Also as in
medication, there is need to determine when to discontinue the
use of these electrotherapeutic procedures. They cannot be
utilized indiscriminately by using it almost indefinitely in patients
who may not further benefit from its continued use. However,
we should keep in mind that even if we use too many
sophisticated or complicated electrotherapy machines in treating
the patients, they just form the part of total physiotherapy
management and we should not forget other things, at least we
should not forget the human touch what we could always offer
to our patients through manual therapy.
SUMMARY
Various areas of study in electrotherapy are low frequency
currents, medium frequency currents, high frequency currents,
phototherapy, electrodiagnosis and biofeedback. Low frequency
currents are used for stimulation of muscles and nerves. Medium
frequency currents are used for re-education of deeply situated
muscles, pain relief and for drainage of edema. High frequency
currents are used for the production of deep heat inside the
tissues. Phototherapy is used for pain relief and acceleration of
healing. Electrodiagnosis helps in the study of electrical reactions
of muscles and nerves for the diagnostic purpose.
chapter two
History of Electrotherapy
Well, you must have got wondered to see a chapter on history

of electrotherapy in this book. I always tell my students about
the importance of knowing the history. I feel that one’s
knowledge is always incomplete without knowing the history of
that subject. The knowledge of the history helps in knowing the
subject in depth and philosophically it is also said that when
one is aware of the history then he won’t repeat the same mistake
done by others in the past.
Here is the abstract form of historical aspects of
electrotherapy. In 1646, Sir Thomas Browne, physician used
the word Electricity for the first time. Aetius, a Greek physician
had prescribed the shocks of Torpedo, an electric fish for the
treatment of gout. By1780, Luigi Galvani a professor of the
anatomy at the faculty of Bologna, first observed the quick
twitching of the muscle produced by the electricity in a nerve
muscle preparation of the frog’s leg. History records that famous
French physicist Abbe Nollet administered the shock from
Leyden jar to 180 royal guards simultaneously in presence of
the King. Johann Gottlob Kruger, professor of Medicine at Halle,
Germany gave a series of lectures to medical students in 1743
entitled thoughts about the electricity. These were published in
1744 enlarged by notes and reprinted the following year. It was
the first book on medical electricity, although subsequent book
written by his pupil Christian Gottlieb Kratzenstein and published
in 1745 was the first to use medical electricity in its title.
Richard Lovett in England treated many persons with static

shocks and published a treatise in 1756 describing the numerous
conditions for which electrotherapy was to be recommended.
John Wesley, the religious leader became interested in his work
and published his own experiences on the subject in 1759 in
the book titled the Desideratum. Bertholon described his
techniques with its role in the cure of eight paralytics. In 1768
an electrotherapy instrument was installed at Middlesex hospital
in London. The electrical department established at Guys
hospital in London is now historically recognized as the first
hospital physical therapy department. Electrotherapy received
another boost when the renowned physician S. Weir Mitchell,
endorsed exercises of muscles by faradic stimulation.
Surprisingly, I came to know that once upon a time
Electrotherapy was supposed to be the part of radiology through
professor Nayak, honorary professor of radiology at JN Medical
College, Belgaum. Of course later on I got the similar reference
from one of the textbook on this matter by a Philippine based
author.
It is interesting to note that due to many similarities, the
development of radiology and electrotherapy paralleled each
other. Electrical machines were placed along side X-ray machines
in hospitals. By 1919, physiotherapy became an adjunct of
radiology in the years prior to and immediately after World War
II.
Muscle Nerve Stimulation

In 1780 professor Luigi Galvani, professor of anatomy at the
faculty of Boulogne first observed the twitching of frog’s leg
muscles by electricity. Twenty years later Volta proved that this
was due to sudden make of the current flow in an electric cell.
In 1831 Faraday discovered induction or faradic coil. The man
probably did the most to place electrotherapy on scientific level
clinically was Guillaume Benjamin Amand Duchenne of
History of Electrotherapy 9
Boulogne who in 1855 described its application for electrical

stimulation of muscles and recommended the localized
application of faradic current in the treatment of muscle atrophy.
Reamak first demonstrated the motor points for accurate
electrical testing of muscles. Dubois Reymond in 1849
formulated the law of electrical muscle and nerve stimulation
and first used the induction coil for muscle stimulation. Leduc
introduced an interrupted direct current. In 1934 Morris reasoned
out that denervated muscle will not contract unless the stimulus
last for about 100 milliseconds.
Iontophoresis
The idea of driving the drugs in the body through the skin by
means of electric current was advanced by Private in 1747. For
many years the iodide remained the favorite for the trial
introduction, as its recovery through the urine was conclusive.
In 1888, Erb recovered electrically driven iodide from the saliva
and urine of the patient. In the same year Arrhenius published
his thesis on electrolytic dissociation and the process had been
incorrectly termed ionization since then up until the end of
second World War. During the last decade of the 19th century
Ensch scooped a weal out of a potato and filled it with a solution
of potassium iodide. He then applied wires into each side of the
potato and passed the current through it. Starch in the potato
turned blue at the positive pole. The experiment was popularized
by Schazki of Russia and was possibly the most quoted work on
the new start of therapeutic ion transfer. Stephan Leduc of the
France proposed a unit of the dosage as one milliampere per
square centimeter of electrode surface. In addition to this
hydroelectric baths were first advocated by Sere.
High Frequency Currents

Historically treatment with the high frequency current was also
called as electropyrexia, thermopenetration, transthermy, heating
through, etc. In 1842 American physicist Joseph Henry observed

that the discharges from the Leyden jar condensor were of
oscillating character. By 1892 Arsene D’Arsonval of Paris
developed an apparatus capable of producing high frequency
current of several thousand oscillations per second and was the
first person to study effect of high frequency current on human.
In 1891 Nicola Tesla in United States observed the heating action
of high frequency current. In 1899 Von Zeyneck published a
paper in which briefly mentioned about ‘Durch warming’ or
‘Heating through’ of his fingertips when an alternating current
passed through them. In 1907 Zyneck of Germany with Austrians
Preyss and Berend used high frequency current on animals. They
also treated gonorrheal arthritis with an apparatus producing
damped oscillations and called this method of treating as
thermopenetration. In 1908 Nagel Schmidt in Berlin made
experiments independently and named his method as
transthermy later changing it to diathermy. Thus Nagel Schmidt
was the first person to coin the word diathermy. He also
demonstrated a more powerful form of it, which left no doubt
about the deep heating effects of high frequency current.
Diathermy reached its greatest popularity in 1929 when the King
of England, who had worsened on ultraviolet ray treatment,
was improved by diathermy. Microwave diathermy was the
sequence of the development of radar during second World War.
In 1928 AW Hull invented the magnetron. Hallman of Germany
and his associates did the first study on the biological effects of
continuously emitted microwaves. By 1946 Frank H Krusen and
his coworkers reported first clinical microwave heating. By the
end of the eighteenth century Spallanzani recognized the
existence of sound inaudible to human ear. Pierre Currie found
one of the best methods of producing ultrasound waves with
the quartz crystal. By 1910, Langevin of France produced the
first piezoelectric generator for practical use of ultrasound.
History of Electrotherapy 11
Phototherapy
Until seventeenth century, people had difficulty in describing
the colours. Some thought that when light passed through a red
glass it emerged as red as it was dyed by the glass. In 1801
Johann Wilhelm Ritter called the invisible rays beyond the violet
as ultravioletten. At that time the measurement of the wavelength
had not yet been fully developed and Ritter used the word ultra,
which means beyond. Since ultraviolet rays are actually below,
it would have been more accurate to use the term infraviolet.
By remarkable coincidence a similar error was done by Herschel
the year before in labeling the red rays as infrared. In 1868
Anders Jons Angstrom, Swedish physicist mapped out the
wavelength of invisible spectrum and published his results. Then
the old unit of the wavelength of measurement was named in
his honour as Angstrom unit. At the beginning of twentieth
century, the work of Bernhard and Rollier focused on the use of
ultraviolet rays in the treatment of extra pulmonary tuberculosis.
By 1910, electrically produced ultraviolet generator became
commercially available. With the popularity of ultraviolet rays it
was easier for the manufacturers to convert the ultraviolet lamps
to infrared burners and soon they started promoting them as
superior to ultraviolet lamps. However, JH Kellog gave the
impetus for the use of infrared rays. In 1981 Kellog built a device
similar to heat cradle or baker with 40 lamps of 20 candlepower.
Medical Use of Electricity

After Galvani’s experiments Humboldt then proposed the
question; can galvanism recall a person to his life who has just
died? This question obviously raised snickers among many
physicians then but it is of interest to note that a century and
half later it is used for just that purpose. Today electric
defibrillators are used in cardiac arrest and electric implants are
used for the stimulation of phrenic nerve in diaphragmatic
paralysis as those seen in poliomyelitis.
SUMMARY
In 1646, Sir Thomas Browne, physician used the word electricity
for the first time. Aetius, a Greek physician has prescribed the
shocks of Torpedo, an electric fish for the treatment of gout.
Johann Gottlob Kruger, professor of Medicine at Halle, Germany
published the first book on medical electricity, although
subsequent book written by his pupil Christian Gottlieb
Kratznstein and published in 1745 was the first to use medical
electricity in its title. In 1768 an electrotherapy instrument was
installed at Middlesex hospital in London. Electrotherapy
received another boost when the renowned physician S. Weir
Mitchell, endorsed exercises of muscles by faradic stimulation.
Electrical machines were placed along side X-ray machines in
hospitals!
chapter three
Muscle Nerve
Stimulating Currents
As I mentioned in the second chapter, muscle nerve stimulating

currents are used primarily for muscle re-education, pain relief
and to delay atrophy and wasting of muscles. In this chapter I
have included direct current, faradic current, interrupted direct
current, TENS, interferential current, sinusoidal current,
diadynamic current, high voltage pulsed galvanic current and
HVPG.
DIRECT CURRENT
Direct current is unidirectional continuous current. It is also
termed as Galvanic current or plane Galvanic current as an
honour to professor Luigi Galvani, professor of anatomy who
stimulated muscles and nerves of frog with direct current in 1786.
It is also called as constant current, as the current passes
continuously in same direction. Direct current is mainly used
for iontophoresis, anodal galvanism, cathodal galvanism and
for the acceleration of healing.
Intensity
Time
Fig. 3.1: Schematic representation of direct current

Production
Direct current can be obtained from dry batteries as well as from
household alternating current. From dry batteries: Here dry
batteries or cells are connected in series and a variable resistance
controls output. Voltmeter or ammeter can be added to this so
as to measure the intensity or output. From alternating current
source: Here AC voltage is reduced with the help of a step down
transformer. It is rectified and smoothened to get direct current.
Output is controlled via variable resistance and can be measured
by voltmeter.
Polarity
Polarity is generally marked with direct current source by colour
codes for example, red for positive and black for negative. It
may be tested with two simple experiments such as salt water
experiment and phenolphthalein experiment. In salt water
experiment, little salt is added to water in a glass container then
electrodes attached to direct current terminals are inserted. After
this when the intensity is increased then you can see many more
bubbles getting evolved at negative electrode or cathode and
very few at anode. It’s because water is splitted into hydrogen
and oxygen ions. Hydrogen being positive ion, gets liberated at
cathode and oxygen gets liberated at anode. Considering the
water molecule it is obvious that the number of hydrogen atoms
will be double than oxygen and hence many more bubbles at
cathode are evolved as compared to anode. In case of
phenolphthalein experiment, add few drops of phenolphthalein
over tissue paper and place the electrodes connected to direct
current source over it, then pass the current for some time and
then you will see pink colour under negative electrode or cathode
(Fig. 3.2).
Muscle Nerve Stimulating Currents 15
H2 O
– +
Fig. 3.2: Salt water experiment
PHYSIOLOGICAL EFFECTS
Various physiological effects of direct current are stimulation of
sensory nerves, stimulation of motor nerves, accommodation
and chemical production.
Stimulation of Sensory Nerves

When direct current is applied to the body tissue, it stimulates
sensory nerves and produces burning sensation. This sensory
irritation is felt under both the electrodes but if the current flows
for sufficient length of time then more irritation is felt under
negative electrode.
Stimulation of Motor Nerves

Direct current can produce stimulation of motor nerves during
it’s on and off. Immediately after direct current is switched on
accommodation in motor nerves takes place and hence no
further response.
Accommodation
It is physiological adaptation by nerves. Motor nerves get quickly
accommodated to direct current and hence it is not possible to
stimulate the innervated as well as denervated muscles by direct
current. Analogy of accommodation can be done with our feeling
of clothes on the body. We feel that we have put-on the clothes
after bath but afterwards we get adapted and don’t get the same
feel throughout the day. Similarly, if one’s house is by the main
road then he gets used to the night traffic and can have sound
sleep as a result of adaptation!
Chemical Production
When direct current is applied to the body tissue it produces
chemicals in form of acid and base. Base or alkali is produced
at the cathode and acid at the anode. (Remember A for acid
and A for anode)
Effect on Body Proteins

It is believed that the direct current causes coagulation of proteins
under positive electrode and liquefaction under negative
electrode.
THERAPEUTIC INDICATIONS
Therapeutically direct current is used for medical galvanism,
anodal galvanism, cathodal galvanism, surgical galvanism and
iontophoresis.
Galvanism
Use of direct current without any drug for the treatment of various
diseases and disorders is known as galvanism.
Medical Galvanism
Here both the electrodes are of same
size. It causes vasomotor stimulation
of the skin and increased circulation
to the body part where direct current
is applied. Medical galvanism is used
for acute and chronic inflammatory
conditions such as chilblain,
Raynaud’s disease, Burger’s disease,
etc.(Fig. 3.3).
Fig. 3.3: Medical
Anodal Galvanism
Here anode is an active electrode and
cathode, which is larger, acts as an
indifferent electrode. Anodal galva-
nism produces acidic reaction,
hardens the tissue and reduces nerve
irritability. (We will coin a word
‘HARN’ to remember these effects
where H stands for harden, A for acidic
reaction and RN for reduce nerve
irritability.) Anodal galvanism is used Fig. 3.4: Anodal
for pain relief (Fig. 3.4).
Cathodal Galvanism
Here cathode is an active electrode
and anode is indifferent electrode. It
produces basic reaction or alkaline
reaction, softens the tissues and
increases nerve irritability. It is used
to soften the scar tissue (Fig. 3.5).
Surgical Galvanism or
Electrolysis Fig. 3.5: Cathodal
Surgical galvanism or electrolysis is
destruction of superfluous hair (hypertrichosis) by the use of
galvanic current. Here cathode, which acts as an active electrode
is in form of a needle and anode, is indifferent electrode. Half
mA of direct current is applied for one minute. Bubble will come
out and then hair can be lifted easily with forceps. Aseptic
precautions should be taken during this procedure. Skill is
required for surgical galvanism. There are 10 to 20% chances
of recurrence following this technique.
IONTOPHORESIS
It is also known as ion transfer, ionization or cataphoric
medication (Memorize these names with synonym ICI). It is
believed that Stephen Leduc discovered it in 1903. Iontophoresis

is the specific transfer of ions into the body tissue by the use of
direct current for therapeutic purpose. [You can recall this
definition by asking questions to yourself such as what is
transferred, where it is transferred, how it is transferred, and
what for it is transferred.]
Principle
It is based on the principle that
an electrically charged elec-
trode will repel a similarly + –
charged ion. In other words, if Strychn HO HO Potass
a drug is in ionic form then it
2 2
Cyan
can be made to travel through

Fig. 3.6: Leduc experiment
the body tissue through the
skin by the use of direct current via repulsive force between
similar charges. We can understand this theory or principle with
Leduc experiment (Fig. 3.6).
Two rabbits are arranged in series. Over positive electrode
of rabbit A, strychnine is applied. Over negative electrode of
rabbit B, potassium cyanide is applied. Other electrodes are
moistened in order to allow the passage of current. Pass direct
current through this series arrangement. Rabbit B will die and
rabbit A will have convulsions. Place new rabbits and reverse
the polarity, there will be no effect. This suggests that there is
transfer of ions when placed over similarly charged electrode.
Effectiveness
Effectiveness of iontophoresis depends on number of ions
transferred and depth of penetration. Number of ions transferred
is determined by current density, duration of current flow and
concentration of ions. Iontophoresis is facilitated by increased
vasodilatation to the area under electrodes and inhibited by
insoluble nature of ions.
Method of Application
Assessment
When you have decided to go for iontophoresis then enquire
about allergy to any drug, inspect the area of body where
iontophoresis is to be done and check the sensation.
Selection of ion: Select the chemical solution containing the
desired ions with adequate concentration. For example if you
wanted analgesic effect then select salicylic acid as a solution
since it contains salisylate ions which has analgesic properties.
Explain the procedure: Explain the procedure to your patient
so that he is aware about what you are going to do and co-
operate with you.
Position: Position your patient in such a way that he is
comfortable during the treatment. I prefer mostly supine lying.
Clean the area to be treated: Clean the area of body to be
treated with spirit or normal saline and cotton swab. It reduces
the skin resistance and removes the dust particles from the area
and thus facilitates iontophoresis.
Preparation of electrodes and placement: Moisten or soak the
piece of bath towel/lint cloth in the drug solution and place it
overactive electrode and now place the active electrode over
the body part to be treated or massage the solution into the skin
and place the active electrode over it. Place the larger indifferent
electrode at least 18” away from the active electrode. Secure
the electrodes in position with velcro straps.
Application of treatment: Connect the electrodes to desired
terminals. Increase the intensity until prickling, tingling or burning
sensation is produced or 0.1to 0.5 mA/cm² of electrode.
Continue the treatment for 15 minutes and check the
undersurface of electrodes after every 5 minutes so as to prevent
electrochemical burn.
Termination of the treatment: After 15 minutes reduce intensity
gradually and remove the electrodes.
USES OF IONTOPHORESIS
Iontophoresis is commonly used for arthritic and myalgic pain,
softening of the scar tissues and adhesions, gouty and calcium
deposits, bursitis and tendonitis, hyperhydrosis, wounds and
ulcer healing and allergic rhinitis. For the relief of pain and muscle
spasm in cases of myalgia, arthritis and sprain, sodium salicylic
acid can be used. In order to soften the scar tissue and adhesions
sodium chloride solution can be used. Gouty deposits or calcium
deposits can be treated with acetic acid iontophoresis.
Inflammatory conditions such as bursitis, tendonitis, etc. can be
treated with hydrocortisone iontophoresis. Hyperhydrosis, which
is characterized by excessive sweating, can be treated with
hyloronidase iontophoresis. Iontophoresis for the acceleration
of wounds and ulcer healing can be done with zinc sulphate.
For acceleration of wounds and ulcers healing, zinc sulphate
solution with adequate concentration (5%) is used. Zinc sulphate
can also be used to reduce infection such as athlete’s foot/tinea
pedia and in the treatment of allergic rhinitis. Histamine
iontophoresis is used to increase blood supply.
(You can memories these uses with this sentence: SRG All
inflammation and infection of wounds ulcers leads to
hyperhydrosis. Here you only need to remember that SRG stands
for soften scar, relief of pain and gout and ‘ALL’ for allergic).
Polarity of Solution Ion utilized

active electrode
Negative Sodium salicylate Salicylate
Negative Sodium chloride Chloride
Negative Potassium iodide Iodide
Negative Acetic acid Acetate
Positive Zinc sulphate Zinc
Positive Copper sulphate Copper
Positive Wyeth Hyloronidase
Positive Decadron Dexamethasone
CONTRAINDICATIONS AND DANGERS

Various contraindications for iontophoresis are hypersensitivity,
impaired sensation and pregnancy. You can remember the
contraindications with pneumonic ‘HIP’ where H stands for
hypersensitivity; I stand for impaired sensation and P for
pregnancy. Dangers of iontophoresis are chemical burns,
alarming shock, electric shock and headache. Chemical burn
or tissue destruction is likely to occur if the current density is
high, metal electrode touches the skin directly because of
insufficient padding. Shock may occur if patient touches the
live part of the circuit from which direct current is produced or if
the insulation of main cable is defective. Alarming shock is likely
to occur if circuit is broken suddenly. It may occur if electrodes
are not moistened enough or when wrinkles are present or air
gaps are present between electrodes and body tissue. Blood
pressure changes/headache: It may occur in case of histamine
iontophoresis.
FARADIC CURRENT
Let us understand what is original faradic and faradic type of
currents in the beginning so that you can have comprehensive
idea about faradic current.
Original Faradic Current

Original faradic current was
extensively used in the past.
It is a type of current, which
can be produced by a faradic
coil. Please refer the figure Fig. 3.7: Original faradic
and note that it is an alternating current. It consists of two unequal
phases, the first phase is of low intensity and long duration and
second phase is of high intensity and short duration. Here second
phase is effective and its duration is one millisecond. Frequency
of the original faradic current is 50 cycles per second (Fig. 3.7).
aradic Type Current

This type of current is also called
as modern type of current. It is
a short durated interrupted
direct current with pulse
duration of 0.1 to 1msec and a
Fig. 3.8: Faradic type
frequency of 50 to100Hz. It is
obtained from electronic stimulator. It has got similar
physiological effect as that of original faradic current (Fig. 3.8).
PRODUCTION
It is produced on the same principle as that of interrupted direct
current. But values of condenser and resistance are low so as to
get short duration of impulses and high frequency. An electric
pulse generator that produces faradic current has got 4 functional
parts in form of power supply, oscillator circuit, modulating circuit
and amplifying circuit. Power supply may be from battery or
AC. Oscillator circuit provide short duration pulses of 0.1to 1ms
with a frequency of 50 to 100Hz. Modulating circuit gives surged
out put and amplifying circuit increases the output voltage
appropriately (Fig. 3.9).
Oscillator circuit
Mains Power Supply Modulating circuit
Amplifying circuit
Out put
Fig. 3.9: Block diagram of muscle stimulator circuit

INTERRUPTION AND SURGING

Faradic current can be modified by interruption and surging.
Hence two forms of modified faradic current can be made
available for treatment purpose. Incase of interrupted faradic
current the output is interrupted at regular intervals. Generally
it is used so as to avoid fatigue of muscles because of higher
frequency such as 100Hz (Figs 3.10 and 3.11).
t
Fig. 3.10: Plane faradic current
Fig. 3.11: Interrupted faradic current
Surged faradic current is a modification of faradic current

characterized by gradual increase in the intensity in such a
manner that each impulse reaches to higher intensity than that
of preceding one and after peak level it either falls suddenly or
gradually. Surging is also termed as ramping. Surging is obtained
automatically in case of modern stimulators by the use of
electronic devices. Advantages of surging are, it avoids fatigue,
it does not give surprise to the patient as current slowly increases
over the time and not abruptly, contraction of muscle is similar
to physiological/ voluntary contraction, avoid or delay the muscle
fatigue and avoid elicitation of stretch reflex (Fig. 3.12).
Fig. 3.12: Surged faradic current

It is possible to get various surged durations, frequencies and
waveform. Surged duration is the time taken by impulses so as
to reach peak level of the intensity. That means, if duration is
more, impulses will take more time to reach peak level of
intensity. Surged interval is an interval between two surged
impulses and the number of surged impulses per unit time is
surged frequency. Theoretically frequency of impulses in surged
impulses can be adjusted. Different waveforms such as saw tooth,
triangular and trapezoidal can be available with surged faradic
current. In saw tooth wave form, the intensity of impulses
increases gradually so as to reach peak level and after peak
level it falls suddenly. In triangular wave form, the intensity of
impulses increases gradually so as to reach its peak level and
after peak level it falls down gradually. In trapezoidal, the intensity
of impulses increased gradually so as to reach peak level, at
peak level it remains for some time and then it falls gradually.
Physiological effects of original faradic and faradic type of current
are stimulation of sensory nerves, stimulation of motor nerves,
effect of muscle contraction, increased metabolism, effect on
denervated muscle and chemical effect.
Stimulation of Sensory Nerves

When faradic type of current is applied to the body then there is
feeling of mild prickling sensation as a result of stimulation of
sensory nerves. Stimulation of sensory nerves also causes reflex
vasodilatation of superficial blood vessel leading to reddening

of the skin or erythema.
Stimulation of Motor Nerves

Faradic type of current stimulates motor nerves and if intensity
is sufficient then it will cause contraction of muscles supplied by
it. As stimulations are repeated 50 times per second or more
than that and hence it produces tetanic contraction. If this type
of contraction is continued for more than a short period of time
then muscle fatigue is produced and hence, the current is surged
or interrupted in order to give relaxation. Advantage of surging
is strength of contraction increases gradually in such a manner
that is similar to voluntary contraction.
Chemical Effect
Very negligible amount of chemicals are formed when faradic
current is applied, as the pulse duration is too small.
Effect on Denervated Muscle

Faradic current is never used for stimulation of denervated
muscle. Since the intensity of current required for producing a
contraction of denervated muscle with a faradic current is usually
too great to be tolerable for the treatment purposes. Therefore,
the faradic current is not satisfactory for the stimulation of
denervated muscles.
Effect of Muscle Contraction

Electrical stimulation of muscles by faradic current increases
metabolism and pumping effect of muscles. Metabolism is a
collective process, which consists of physical, chemical, anabolic
and catabolic changes in the body tissues by which living state
of body is maintained. As a result of muscle contraction due to
electrical stimulation, metabolism is increased. Increased
metabolism increases demand for oxygen and foodstuffs and

as a result of it; there is increase in the output of waste products
including metabolites. These metabolites cause dilation of
capillaries and arterioles and increase the blood supply to the
muscle.
As the muscle contract and relax it exert a pumping action
on veins, lymphatic vessels lying within and around them. The
valves in this vessel direct the fluid towards the heart. If muscle
contraction is strong and joint movement is also there then both
of these exert a pumping effect on vessels leading to increased
venous and lymphatic return.
THERAPEUTIC INDICATIONS
Faradic current is primarily used to produce contraction of
normally innervated muscles and current is usually surged so as
to get contractions, which resembles to voluntary contractions.
Facilitation of Muscle
Muscle contraction can be facilitated by faradic type of current.
The facilitation effect of faradic current can be used when a
patient is unable to produce a muscle contraction or finds
difficulty in doing so. Muscle contraction may be inhibited as a
result trauma, inflammation, pain and surgery, etc. (you can
remember with a word TIPS). Here faradic current stimulation
is used in assisting voluntary contraction, for example faradic
stimulation of quadriceps following menisectomy. Patient should
be encouraged to attempt voluntary contraction at the same
time so as to get voluntary control.
Muscle Re-education
Muscle action can be re-educated if voluntary muscle action is
lost as a result of prolonged disease or incorrect use. For instance
re-education of abductor hallucis in hallux valgus. Here the
current is applied in such a way that it produces the abduction
of great toe.
New Muscle Action

After tendon transplantation or other reconstruction operations,
faradic current can be used for training of new muscle action.
Muscle is stimulated so as to produce the new action or move-
ment. During stimulation, patient should attempt to perform
voluntary contraction. Once the patient is able to perform new
movement actively without electric stimulation then electric
stimulation is discontinued.
Motor Nerve Neurapraxia

Faradic stimulation to the paralyzed muscles can be applied
following neurapraxic lesion of the motor nerve. Electrical
stimulation can be given till voluntary control is developed.
However, electrical stimulation may not be needed in neura-
praxia as recovery takes place without any marked changes in
the muscle tissue.
Blood Supply
Faradic current can cause reflex vasodilatation and hence can
be used for increase in blood supply in conditions, where heat
treatment may not be a safer choice. For this purpose sensory
level intensity is applied with bath method of application.
Effect on Edema
Faradic current can be used in the treatment of edema for
improving venous and lymphatic drainage. Faradism under
pressure method of faradic current application can be used for
this purpose.
USES OF FARADIC CURRENT

Faradic current can be used in the treatment of muscle inhibition,
edema, incontinence, hallux valgus, Bell’s palsy (neurapraxic
lesion), metatarsalgia, postural flat feet, after tendoachillis
surgery, after knee surgeries, rheumatoid arthritis, tendon

transplantation, later stages of peripheral nerve injuries,
chillblain, muscle spasm, pain relief by counter-irritation, etc.
METHODS OF APPLICATION
Faradic current can be applied by various methods such as motor
point stimulation, labile, stabile, nerve conduction method, bath
method, under pressure faradism, etc.
Motor Point Stimulation

It involves stimulation of individual muscle. In this method an
indifferent electrode is placed at the origin of muscle and an
active disc electrode (handle/pen electrode) is placed at motor
point. With this method almost each and every muscle can be
stimulated and thus effect of passive exercise can be given to
each and every muscle. However, it is somewhat difficult to
stimulate deeply situated muscles with this method. Advantages
of this method are, contraction of individual muscle can be
obtained, each and every muscle can be stimulated and isolated
muscle contraction can be obtained in the treatment of various
conditions for example stimulation of abductor hallucis in hallux
valgus. However, there are some disadvantages of this method
such as it is tedious, time consuming, trial error method and it’s
difficult to stimulate the deeply situated muscle (You can
remember them with 3T deep).
Labile Method
This method can be used for stimulation of large muscles with
multiple nerve supply for example trunk muscles. Here an
indifferent electrode is placed at origin of muscle or muscles
and an active electrode in form of either disc or small plate
electrode is moved over area to be treated. During this method
current is not usually surged. As the active electrode approach
and leave motor point of a muscle, that muscle contracts and
relaxes respectively.
Nerve Conduction Method

In this method an indifferent electrode is placed at convenient
area and an active electrode to a point at which the nerve trunk
is superficial. It will stimulate motor nerve trunk and will cause
contractions of all the muscles that it supplies beyond the point
of stimulation. This method is used when it is not possible to
use other methods conveniently for example in case of wound,
splint and edema.
Bath Method
Application of faradic current to the body parts in a tub, tray or
tank containing water is termed as bath method of application.
Depending upon placement of electrodes bath can be of bipolar
or unipolar type. In bipolar, both electrodes are kept in bath
and in case of unipolar, only one electrode is kept in the bath
while the other one is kept at any convenient part of the body,
which is not immersed in the water. Bath method is commonly
used for the application of faradic current to the foot and which
is often termed as faradic footbath. Advantages of bath method
are that skin resistance is lowered considerably by water and in
addition to this water makes perfect contact with the tissues.
Disadvantages of this method of application are that the current
can not be localized, superficial muscles contract to a greater
extent than deeper ones and due to the presence of water,
chances of electric shock is greater as water can make earthing
easily available.
Faradism Under Pressure

This method is used in the treatment of edema to increase the
venous and lymphatic drainage from the edematous area. Here
the faradic current is applied along with an elastic bandage such
as elastocerepe bandage and the body part, which is to be
treated, is kept elevated during the treatment. This form of
treatment is applied for 15 to 20 minutes only.
Faradism to Pelvic Floor Muscles

Here the active electrode is placed in the perineal region or
rectum or vagina and an indifferent electrode over lumbosacral
region. This method of application can be used in prolapse of
pelvic organs, stress incontinence, etc.
INTERRUPTED DIRECT CURRENT
Interrupted direct current is also known as modified direct current
or interrupted galvanic current. Interrupted direct current is
commonly used for stimulation of denervated muscles and for
electrodiagnostic purpose. It is a modified type of direct current
characterized by commencement and cessation of the current
flow at regular intervals. In other words, it is a current whose
flow stops and starts at regular intervals. Impulse duration ranges
between 0.01msec to 3000 msec and the frequency vary as per
the pulse duration and the interval selected between them, for
instance if the impulse duration is 100 millisecond then the
frequency is 30 cycles per second. The pulses used in interrupted
direct current can be called as long durated and short durated
pulses. Long durated pulses are those whose duration is more
than 10 millisecond and short durated are those whose duration
is less than 10 millisecond. Various waveforms of interrupted
direct current such as saw tooth, triangular, depolarized,
trapezoidal and rectangular can be used in clinical applications.
(Memorize with ST, DTR It’s not standard deep tendon reflex!
But it is saw tooth, triangular, depolarized, trapezoidal and
rectangular) (Fig. 3.13).
I t
Fig. 3.13: Interrupted direct current

Production
Interrupted direct current for the treatment can be availed from
battery or electricity operated stimulator. Electronic muscle
stimulator works on multivibrator or flip flap circuit. Refer the
figure 3.9 for more details.
Physiological and Therapeutic Effects

Physiological effects of interrupted direct current are stimulation
of sensory nerves, stimulation of motor nerves, effect of muscle
contraction, increased metabolism, effect on denervated muscle
and chemical effect.
Sensory Nerve Stimulation

When interrupted direct current is applied to the body then there
is feeling of stabbing or burning sensation as a result of
stimulation of sensory nerves. Stimulation of sensory nerves
also causes reflex vasodilatation of superficial blood vessel
leading to reddening of the skin or erythema.
Motor Nerve Stimulation

Interrupted direct current stimulates motor nerves and if intensity
is sufficient then it will cause contraction of muscles supplied by
it. It produces very brisk contraction followed by immediate
relaxation of innervated muscles but sluggish contraction of
denervated muscles if the impulse duration is adequate. Sluggish
contraction means worm like slow contraction and relaxation.
Since interrupted direct current can produce the contractions of
denervated muscles, it is commonly used in the treatment of
peripheral nerve injuries to stimulate the muscles so as to prevent
or minimize the possibility of atrophy, degeneration and fibrosis
of muscles following denervation. (Remember it with FAD:
fibrosis, atrophy and degeneration). However, it should be
remembered that therapeutic electrical stimulation does not
accelerate the rate of regeneration following peripheral nerve

injuries or neuropathies (Fig. 3.14).
Fig. 3.14: Brisk and sluggish contraction
Effect on Denervated Muscle

Following denervation muscles undergo various changes. These
changes include paralysis, flaccidity; atrophy, decreased muscle
weight, decreased muscle protein, decreased sarcoplasm,
decrease in number of muscle fibers, replacement by fibrous
and adipose tissues, and degeneration. Stimulation of
denervated muscle improves its nutrition by increasing the blood
supply. Blood supply is increased due to muscle contractions as
a result of pumping effect. As a result of electrical stimulation
nutrition of muscles is improved and which in turn retards
atrophy, degeneration and fibrosis. For this purpose electrical
stimulation can be applied to produce 90 contractions of each
muscle every day. But this is controversial; various trends
followed are 10 to 30 contractions, 30 to 300 contractions per
day or three times per week. I personally feel that these variations
are as per the convenience of the therapist and patients!
Chemical Effect
Very negligible amount of chemicals are formed when
interrupted direct current is applied since there is pause or rest
in between any two impulses.
As the muscle contract and relax it exert a pumping action
on veins, lymphatic vessels lying within and around them. The
valves in these vessels direct the fluid towards the heart. If muscle
contraction is strong and moreover there is joint movement then
both of these exert a pumping effect on vessels leading to increase
venous and lymphatic return.
Pole Used for Stimulation

Usually cathode is used as an active electrode but sometimes a
greater response can be obtained to anode and hence, it should
be decided on the basis of clinical situation as per the response
to these poles in denervated muscles.
Uses and Methods of Applications

Interrupted direct current is used in the treatment of denervated
muscles and for elecetrodiagnostic tests such as strength duration
curves, faradic interrupted direct current test, pulse ratio, etc.
Interrupted direct current can also be used for healing purpose.
For this purpose sub sensory thresholds have been used and
this is termed as low intensity direct current therapy (LIDC).
Methods of application commonly used in the treatment with
interrupted direct current are motor point, stabile and labile.
TRANSCUTANEOUS ELECTRICAL NERVE

STIMULATION
It is a form of peripheral electrical nerve stimulation through the
skin, which is used to obtain electroanalgesia. In past, TENS
equipments were also used as nerve tracers for the search of
percutaneous nerves, for maintenance of muscle activity after
the stroke and for muscle development. Today, TENS is one of
the most commonly used electrotherapeutic modality for the
pain relief.
Historical Aspects
In the first century AD Scriborius Largus described the use of
electrical shocks for the relief of chronic pain. The Roman and
Greek physicians have reported the use of certain species of

fish for pain relief such as Torpedo mamorata, Malapterus and
Gymnotus electricus who had an organ that produces electric
charges. Typically the fish was kept in contact with the area of
the body experiencing pain to produce series of electrical shocks.
These crude methods continued until mid 18th century. During
1745 Leyden jar was introduced and the same was used as
power source for electroanalgesia. During the 19th century the
development of battery and induction coil added further
sophistication. Introduction of electroanalgesia into the medical
profession was met with considerable skepticism and inevitable
opposition to this concept. Due to this and variable clinical
results there was decline in the interest towards the end of 19th
century in the use of electrical stimulation as a means of pain
relief. In addition to this, in 20th century the increased number
of analgesics turned the interest away from the use of peripheral
stimulation as a pain-relieving mode. But in 1965 Ronald Melzac
and Patric Wall published their gate control theory and hence,
the interest again reawakened in the use of electrical stimulation
as a pain-relieving mode. During same period (1960s) dorsal
column stimulators were introduced. Dorsal column stimulators
involved the surgical implantation of electrodes in dorsal column
of spinal cord, which were activated by an external battery
operated device. Dr. Norman Shealy initially used battery-
operated device as a screening device to establish the patient’s
candidacy for dorsal column stimulator implantation surgery. If
the patients responded favorably to such external transcutaneous
stimulation then this was taken as an indication that they would
respond positively to dorsal column stimulator. But he (Norman
Shealy) noted that some of his patients responded better to
transcutaneous stimulation than to dorsal column stimulation
and so TENS was discovered almost accidentally. This discovery
initiated a new era for electroanalgesia. Meyer and Fields (1972)
were the first to report clinical use of TENS for the relief chronic
pain. In the following years, researchers and manufacturers
combinely developed several types of TENS devices with a range
of adjustable parameters.
Characteristics
Frequency In conventional TENS it is 10 to100 Hz and in
modern TENS it may vary from 2 to 600Hz. Frequency is
adjustable in both the types of TENS equipments (Fig. 3.15).
Pulse width Pulse with varies from 50 to 300 microseconds.
Pulse width is also adjustable.
Pulse shape Pulse shape is usually modified rectangular.
Output of intensity It varies from 0 to 60 milliamperes.
Power indicator light
TENS
Timer control
• 30 mins.
• 60 mins.
Timer Constant
Pulse width 30 60 C Pulse frequency
140 20
125
60
10
Pulse frequency
90 220 50
Pulse width control 245 90
60 4
8 N N 120
50 250 2 150
Mode selector switch
Fig. 3.15: Portable TENS device
Modulation of TENS
It is believed that the body tissues may get accommodated to
TENS current and hence to prevent this, TENS current is
modulated. Gradual and continuous change in one or more than
one parameters of TENS current in order to prevent
accommodation is known as TENS modulation. It can be brought
about by changes in frequency or pulse width or amplitude or all
together. Usually 10% modulation is used. Frequency modulation

is characterized by gradual and continuous changes in frequency.
For example, if modulated frequency is selected, as 100Hz then
frequency will gradually vary from 90 to100 in a manner like 90,
91, 92… 100 and once again same trend will be continued. In
pulse width modulation there will be gradual and continuous
changes in pulse width. In amplitude modulation there is
continuous and automatic variation in amplitude. In burst
modulation the output is in form of groups of stimuli ranging
from one to ten. And in train modulation the output is similar to
the arrangements of bogies in a freight train.
Classification of TENS
Depending on the frequency and its use, the TENS is divided
into two types such as high frequency TENS and low frequency
TENS. High frequency TENS is also known as high frequency
and low intensity TENS. Here the frequency is above 50 Hz. It
is used for acute pain. While applying this form of TENS only
perceptible intensity is used. Low frequency TENS is also known
as low frequency and high intensity TENS. Here the frequency
is below 50 Hz. It is used for chronic pain and while applying
this type of TENS high intensity is used. TENS is also classified
as acupuncture TENS (0.4 to 4 hertz), burst TENS (1 to 10
hertz), conventional TENS (10 to 100 hertz), etc.
Mechanism of Analgesia
Exact mechanism of analgesia is not known. The electroanalgesia
by TENS may occur as per the Endorphin theory or Gate control
theory.
Endorphin Theory
TENS causes stimulation and increase in circulation of
endorphins. Endorphins are morphine like endogenous
transmitter substances. They occur naturally in brain and
pituitary glands. Endorphins from the brain circulate and block
the pain sensation as a result of TENS application.
Gate Control Theory

Dr. Ronald Melzac and Patrick Wall described the gate control
theory in 1965 to explain the mechanism of analgesia. Theme
of this theory is, pain may be blocked at various gates through
which pain impulse travels to the brain. These gates are located
at neuronal synapses in the spinal cord.
CC
+
+
A
SG T
S BRAIN
_
_
Fig. 3.16: Gate control theory

In figure, L: large diameter nerve fiber which carries proprioceptive
impulses mainly, S: small diameter nerve fiber which mainly carries
pain impulses, SG: substantia gelatinosa, T: transmission cell, AS:
activating system and CC: central control.
Information leading to pain generation passes through gate
and depends upon the balance activity in large and small afferent
nerve fibres and in the fibres descending down from higher
centers. The transmission of pain sensation depends upon the
activation of the transmission cell (T) by large or small nerve
fibres. The amount of transmission from these fibres to the T
cell is governed intern by the action of a further cell in substantia
gelatinosa of spinal cord (SG). It produces its effect by presynaptic
and postsynaptic inhibition. SG cell is activated from the
collateral branches from large fibres, chiefly those ascending in
the dorsal columns of spinal cord dealing with proprioception

and touch. It is inhibited by small fiber activity namely those
known to be concerned with pain generation.
Normal Circumstances
In normal circumstances there is low but constant rate of activity
in small fibres, which maintain a state of readiness to transmit
noxious stimulus. But normally the activity of large fibres
predominates and hence T cell transmission for pain is inhibited
via SG cell.
Opening of Gate
When number of noxious impulses rises in small fibres then there
is simultaneous activity in large fibres, which initially inhibits
discharge of T cell by action upon the SG cell. However,
summation takes place in small fibres and activity reaches a
point at which the SG cell is inhibited by it and T cell becomes
active. The gate is opened and transmission to the brain takes
place and patient feels pain. Central activity also influences the
situation, thus it may facilitate or inhibit pain information. For
example in heightened anxiety, the level of pain is increased, as
it seems that activity generated in the limbic system of brain
and transmitted via reticular formation of brain stem results in
opening of gate. On the other hand, pain may not be experienced
while an individual is engaged in sporting contest. Perhaps it
may be due to inhibitory effects of higher centers, which closes
the gate.
TENS and Closing of Gate

Stimulation of large nerve fibres by TENS activate SG cell and
inhibit the discharge of T cell probably by its effect via presynaptic
or postsynaptic inhibition. This closes the gate and causes
analgesia. The duration for which this gate remains closed varies
and is directly proportional to the number of noxious impulses

in small fibres.
NaK Pump and Pain Relief by TENS

Repetitive antidromic stimulation of postsynaptic axon can alter
extra cellular potassium ion concentration and reduces the
excitatory postsynaptic potential.
INDICATIONS
TENS is used commonly for electroanalgesia in enormous
conditions.
Joint pain: Rheumatoid arthritis, osteoarthritis, intraarticular
hemorrhage, etc.
Acute pain: It can also be used in the treatment of the acute
pain such as obstetric or labor pain, acute trauma, acute orofacial
pain, postoperative pain, and primary dysmenorrhea.
Muscle pain: It is also used in the treatment of pain due to
various muscle disorders such as muscle spasm, spastic torticollis,
myositis, myalgia, and muscle strain.
Spinal pain: spinal cord injury, dorsal root compression
syringomyelitis, arachanoiditis, post cordotomy, spinal nerve
compression, can be very well treated.
Neoplastic pain: It can be used in the treatment of neoplasic
conditions. In severe neoplasic pain, TENS can be used for 24
hours a day with a portable device. It can be applied with self-
adhesive electrodes so that patient can perform his ADL while
receiving TENS.
Nerve disorders: peripheral nerve injuries, traumatic neuromas,
trigeminal neuralgia, causalgia, brachial neuralgia, intercostals
neuritis, mononeuritis, polyneuritis and neuropathies.
Miscellaneous conditions: itch, angina pectoris, functional
abdominal pain and pancreatitis.
Non-analgesics indications: TENS can also be used in

dysmenorrhea, Raynaud’s disease, Burger’s disease, wound
healing and following reconstructive surgeries.
Psychogenic and phantom pain: These pains also can be
treated with TENS.
CONTRAINDICATIONS AND PRECAUTIONS

The beauty of the TENS modality is there are very few
contraindications such as anesthesia or sensory loss and demand
type of cardiac pacemaker. However, precautions should be
taken while applying the TENS in case of pregnancy, area of
carotid sinus, area of mouth, on the eyelids, epileptic patients,
in patients with arrhythmias or myocardial disease, undiagnosed
pain (since it can mask the important diagnostic symptom). Keep
the TENS device out of reach of children. There are no side
effects except skin irritation, which may occur sometime. To
prevent it, it is necessary to wash the area of application and
electrode following the treatment.
Electrode Placement in TENS

Various electrodes such as carbon impregnated, silicon rubber
or pad electrodes can be used for TENS applications. Carbon
electrodes or silicon rubber electrodes of various sizes can be
used as per the requirement. Three sizes such as 45X45, 45X95,
and 45X190 mm are commonly used. But the choice of the size
varies on the extent of the area to be treated. Carbon or silicon
rubber electrodes can be kept in good contact with the skin with
the help of electroconductive gel. Electrodes are usually placed
over spinal cord segment, acupuncture point, over painful
dermatome, over and around painful area, over nerve trunk,
over tender spot and over trigger points. (You can memorize
these sites by the word SAD ANTT! Where S for spinal segment,
A for area of pain, D for dermatome, A for acupuncture, N for
nerve trunk, T for tender spot and T for trigger point).
Dosiometry
In acute pain, high frequency and low or perceptible intensity
TENS can be applied for 20 minutes and in chronic pain low
frequency TENS can be applied with high or tolerable intensity
for 30 minutes. However, if the intensity of pain is very severe
then TENS can even be applied for 8 to 24 hours!
Benefits of TENS
Due to reduced pain exercise programme can be progressed,
activities of daily living may be improved, faster reduction in
pain facilitates early return to work, there is no side effects with
TENS, TENS reduces cost of medications, early ambulation in
postoperative cases can be achieved, TENS is noninvasive, non-
toxic and nonpharmacological.
INTERFERENTIAL CURRENT
It is the production of low frequency current in the body tissue
by the simultaneous application of two different medium
frequency currents. As it is obtained as a result of interference of
two different medium frequency currents, it is known as
interferential current. Alternatively interferential current can be
defined as the resultant current produced in the body tissue when
two medium frequency alternating currents are applied
simultaneously. This current is produced at the intersection of
two medium frequency alternating currents. Historically in 1950
H. Nemac for the first time suggested interferential current for
therapeutic application. It is also called as Russian currents as
Dr. KM Kots first described its use in 1970 in the Russian
literature.
CHARACTERISTICS
Before reading the characteristics please refer the Figure 3.17
for the sake of comprehension.
Currents
Two medium frequency currents are used to produce the
interferential current. They are known as carrier waves as they
do not produce muscle nerve stimulation and are just used to
get the greater depth of penetration and to produce the
interferential current. Out of two medium frequency currents
the frequency of one current is fixed and it is 4000 hertz. The
frequency of the other current lies in between 4000 to 4100
hertz, which is adjustable. When these currents crosses each
other they will produce a third current at the point where they
crosses each other and this third current is known as interferential
current (Fig. 3.17).
Channel 1 (MFC 1) Channel 2(MFC 2)
Channel 2 Channels 1
Fig. 3.17: Interferential current
Beat Frequency
The frequency of the resultant current (third current produced
due to crossing) is known as beat frequency. Beat frequency is
equal to the difference between two medium frequency currents.
It lies between 0 to 100 hertz. Beat frequency may be kept constant
or varied rhythmically so as to prevent accommodation. Constant
beat frequency is also called as selective beat frequency. Different
selective beat frequencies can be selected in between 0 to 100
hertz.
Variable Beat Frequency

It is also called as automatic beat frequency. Various variable
beat frequencies can be used. Beat frequency of 0 to 5 hertz
stimulate sympathetic nerves, 5 to 10 hertz stimulate
parasympathetic nerves, 10 to 50 hertz stimulate motor nerves,
50 to 90 hertz produces sedative and spasmolytic effect and 90
to 100 hertz produces analgesic or pain relief effect. (Memory
cue, SPM, SP social and preventive medicine’s special portion!!
where S=sympathetic, P= parasympathetic, M=motor nerves,
S= spasmolytic, and P= pain relief)
Area of Interference
It is the area where interferential current is set-up. The pattern
of the interferential area may be static or dynamic. I would like
you to refer the Figure 3.18 before reading further.
Channel 1
Channel 2 Channel 2
Clove leaf
appearance
Channel 1
Fig. 3.18: Area of interference
Static Interference
Here the area in which interferential current is set-up remains
stationary. This area of static interference gives an appearance
of clove leaf as a result of the vector addition of two currents

and it lies to 45º angles to the perpendicular lines from each
electrode.
Dynamic Area of Interference

It is possible to move the area in which interference current is
developed in a to and fro manner through 45º. It is obtained by
varying the current intensity in suitable manner. Current is varied
from 50 to 100%. This dynamic area of interference is also called
as vector sweep, vector scan, rotating vector, etc.
THERAPEUTIC EFFECTS
Pain Relief
Interferential current is commonly used for electro-analgesia in
various musculoskeletal conditions. Exact mechanism of pain
relief by interferential current is not known. Pain relief may occur
as a result of removal of irritant or pain substances. Interferential
current can stimulate autonomic nerves, which results in
vasodilatation and improved circulation. Improved circulation
can remove the waste products or pain substances from the site
of application. Alternatively pain relief may be due to release of
endorphins or due to activation of pain gate mechanism. Pain
relief may also occur due to placebo effect.
Relief of Muscle Spasm

Interferential therapy can bring about the relief of muscle spasm.
Stimulation of Innervated Muscles

Interferential current can stimulate the deeply situated muscles,
as it is like a low frequency current.
Effect on Edema
Interferential current can improve the drainage of blood and
lymph. This effect can be used in the treatment of edema.
Electrodes
In electrotherapy, electrodes are the conductors, which are used
to allow the easy passage of therapeutic currents to the body.
Various types of electrodes can be used for the application of
interferential current; such as vacuum electrode, pad electrode,
carbon impregnated/silicon rubber electrode, four field
electrodes, two field double electrodes, quadripolar /four point
probe electrode, labile electrode, etc.
Vacuum Electrode
Vacuum electrode is like a rubber bell. Here the electrode is
kept at the base of bell and wire or lead is connected at narrow
end. Generally a soaked sponge or spontex is kept just below
the electrode so as to achieve even contact to skin and hence
better conduction. These electrodes are held to the patient with
negative pressure created by a vacuum pump. The magnitude
of the vacuum should be adjusted so that the least amount of
suction is necessary to keep the electrodes on the skin otherwise
superficial bruising may occur. Vacuum electrodes are available
in various sizes. Vacuum can be adjusted so as to get constant
or pulsed mode. When pulsed mode is used then additional
effect of massage can be obtained. Vacuum electrodes are
excellent for treating flat smooth areas where they can be applied
easily and quickly. On bony areas such as shoulder and ankle, it
is difficult to place the vacuum cup in correct position without
deformation. The deformation squeezes the cup and area
enclosed by rim is diminished. As a result of the deformation
the two electrodes in a particular channel would not be of the
same size and the circuit is unbalanced. On hairy skin it is difficult
to get an airtight seal. In elderly patients the skin is likely to be
thin and papery, it presents difficulty with contact and bruise
easily. Vacuum electrodes are considered unsafe for patients who
are taking steroids because of likelihood of bruising.
Labile Electrodes
It is a special type of plate electrode, which is insulated on one
side and is covered with sponge to provide contact. Two
electrodes are used for the treatment purpose. The operator
holds them in position while treating. During the treatment, these
electrodes are moved over the patient’s skin. Usually one side
of the electrode is insulated or operator put-on the gloves so
that current does not passes through the operator’s hand while
applying the current through these electrodes to the patient.
Then operator secures them to his palms with velcro. It is helpful
if foot control is available otherwise both the electrodes are first
held by one hand while the other hand adjusts current. Pads
are moved in see saw movement. It is useful in the treatment of
muscular conditions and awkward areas.
Dosiometry
Interferential therapy can be applied for 10 to 20 minutes for 10
to 25 days on once a day basis.
Usually the intensity, which produce a strong but comfortable
prickling sensations without any discomfort is used. Alternatively
three times toleration dose (TTT Dose) can be used. Three T
dose is used in treating localized condition that is tender and is
to be an anesthetized. Place the electrodes, increase the intensity
so as to give intense prickling, once the intense prickling
sensation is reduced, increase the intensity once again so as to
get intense prickling and repeat the same once again so as to
treat the area three times with strong prickling.
Indications
Interferential therapy is commonly used for the pain relief, relief
of muscle spasm, improve the venous and lymphatic drainage,
and re-education of deeply situated muscles, which are not easily
accessible with low frequency currents. Various conditions in which
interferential current may be used are; osteoarthritis, ankylosing
spondylitis, spondylosis, low back pain, frozen shoulder,
chondromalacia, stress incontinence, nocturnal incontinence,

brachial neuralgia, sciatica, phantom pain, Burger’s disease,
Raynaud’s disease, myalgia/myositis, edema, following
immobilization, bronchial asthma, bursitis, tendonitis, etc.
Contraindications and Precautions

Interferential current is contraindicated in patients with cardiac
pacemaker, advanced cardiac disease, hyper tension,
hypotension, thrombosis, recent haemorrhage, pregnancy,
neoplasm, tuberculosis, fever and infection. Interferential
apparatus must be kept at least six meters distance away from a
short wave diathermy machine, preferably in another room,
otherwise circuit damage can occur or the patient may
experience a sudden surge of current when the short wave
diathermy machine is turned off. To prevent the interference
from short wave diathermy a filter circuit can be used in
interferential therapy machine.
Methods of Application
Interferential current can be applied by means of bipolar,
quadripolar, stereo dynamic and labile method. In bipolar method
only two electrodes are used. It is said that in case of bipolar
method, medium frequency currents are added to give an output
similar to interferential current. This mode of treatment is
sometimes known as electrokinesy. In qaudripolar method four
electrodes are used. In stereo dynamic systems three pairs of
electrodes are used and the machine provides three out puts. It
reduces accommodation and provides three-dimensional
interferential field. In labile method two labile electrodes are used
for the treatment purpose and operator moves them during the
treatment.
Advantages of Interferential Current

Interferential current do not produce any sensorimotor irritation,
metal is not contraindicated for interferential therapy and hence
number of postoperative conditions can be treated with

interferential therapy. Interferential current is useful in treating
tissues at a greater depth, owing to the frequency the skin
resistance is very less, and current can be localized more
effectively in specific areas.
SINUSOIDAL CURRENT
It is an evenly alternating, biphasic low frequency current whose
waveform resembles to sine curve. Its frequency is 50 to 100 Hz
and pulse duration is 10 ms. Sinusoidal current is classified on
the basis of frequency as slow sinusoidal and rapid sinusoidal
current. Frequency of slow sinusoidal current is 50 Hz and rapid
sinusoidal current’s frequency is 100 Hz. Practically sinusoidal
current resembles to faradic current both in effects as well as
methods of application. Nowadays, it is rarely used for the
treatment purpose (Fig. 3.19).
Fig. 3.19: Sinusoidal current
HIGH VOLTAGE PULSED GALVANIC CURRENT

HVPG was popularized in 1970s. Here the current is not truly
galvanic. It is monophasic twin peaked high intensity current with
pulse duration less than 20 microseconds. (You can memorize
monophasic twin peaked high intensity pulsed direct current with
MTP, HIPDC) Intensity of 500 volts or 2500 milliampere is used
with this current. Higher intensity of the

current overcomes the natural resistance
of the skin and hence deeper
penetration. Advantages of HVPG are
it reduces the skin resistance, it can
penetrate to deeper tissues, HVPG have
probe electrodes for the treatment and
hence it can be used for the treatment of Fig. 3.20: HVPG
trigger points, short pulse width improves the patient comfort and
it produces polarizing effect, although it is smaller but it may be
beneficial in wound healing (Fig. 3.20).
MICROAMPERAGE ELECTRICAL NERVE

STIMULATION
Microamperage electrical nerve stimulation (MENS) is a form
of electrotherapy current that provides sub-threshold or
subliminal stimulation. The amplitude of this current is less than
one milliampere, which is insufficient to depolarize sensory and
motor nerves and hence patient does not experience either
tingling sensation or muscle contractions. MENS works on Arndt
Schulz law. According to this law weak stimuli increases
physiologic activity and very strong stimuli inhibit or abolish the
activity. It is believed that MENS increases cell permeability,
increases intracellular concentration of calcium ions, increases
fibroblast activity and increase protein synthesis. Pain relief by
MENS may occur due to reduction in the liberation of pain
producing substances at cellular level. For pain relief purpose
MENS can be applied for ten minutes initially with positive
polarity and later on by negative polarity.
DIADYNAMIC CURRENT
Diadynamic currents are also called as Bernard currents. It is
unidirectional sinusoidal current with a frequency of 50 to 100
Hz and pulse duration 10 milliseconds. Diadynamic current is
used for pain relief, minimizes inflammation, swelling, facilitation

of healing, increased circulation and motor re-education. It is
commonly used in the treatment of painful and inflammatory
disorders of muscles, ligaments, joints and peripheral nerves. It is
also used in the treatment of contusion, haematoma, myalgia,
muscle atrophy due to immobilization, inactivity and epicondylitis.
Diadynamic current is applied for ten minutes once or twice daily
with perceptible intensity. Various modulations of diadynamic
currents are fix monophase, fix diaphase, short periods and long
periods, syncopated rhythm and modulated monophase.
SUMMARY
Muscle nerve stimulating currents are used primarily for muscle
re-education, pain relief and to delay atrophy and wasting of
muscle. Various currents included in this category are direct
current, faradic current, interrupted direct current, TENS,
interferential current, sinusoidal current, diadynamic current,
high voltage pulsed galvanic current and MENS. Direct current
is unidirectional continuous current. Faradic current is primarily
used to produce contraction of normally innervated muscles
and current is usually surged so as to get contractions that
resembles to voluntary contractions.
Interrupted direct current is commonly used for stimulation
of denervated muscles and for electrodiagnostic purpose. TENS
is used mainly for pain relief and it is believed that the body
tissues may get accommodated to TENS current and hence to
prevent this, TENS current is modulated. Interferential current
is the production of low frequency current in the body tissue by
the simultaneous application of two different medium frequency
currents. Practically sinusoidal current resembles to faradic
current both in effects as well as methods of application. HVPG
is monophasic twin peaked high intensity current with pulse
duration less than 20 microseconds. Diadynamic currents are
also called as Bernard currents.
chapter four
Diagnostic Electrotherapy
In addition to the therapy, electrical currents can be used for

diagnostic purposes. Electrodiagnosis means the detection of
the electrical reaction of muscles and nerves for diagnosis,
prognosis and therapy by the use of electrotherapeutic currents
or electromyography. We can use currents like interrupted direct
current and perform various electrodiagnostic tests such as:
rheobase, chronaxie, strength duration curve, pulse ratio,
galvanic tetanic ratio, nerve conduction test, nerve distribution
test, faradic galvanic test, myotonic reaction, reaction of
degeneration, etc. When there is disease or injury of motor
nerves or muscles, alterations are likely to occur in their response
to electrical stimulation. The altered reactions to electrical
stimulation may be of considerable assistance in diagnosis of
the lesion.
RHEOBASE AND CHRONAXIE

Rheobase
Rheobase is the smallest amount of current required to produce
a muscle contraction with a stimulus of infinite duration. Usually
impulse of 100ms duration is used to find out the rheobase for
practical purpose. Denervation of muscles reduces rheobase and
hence it may be less than that of innervated muscles. However,
it may increase if reinnervation commences.
Chronaxie
Chronaxie is the shortest duration of electrical impulse that will
produce a response with a current of double the rheobase. The
chronaxie of the denervated muscles is higher than the
innervated muscles. The innervated muscle’s chronaxie is 1msec
if constant voltage stimulator is used. Chronaxie is not a
satisfactory method in case of partial denervation. In such case,
chronaxie will be of predominant fibers that are innervated or
denervated. Say in case of 75% denervation chronaxie will be
same as that of completely denervated muscle.
STRENGTH DURATION CURVES

Definition
It is an electrodiognostic procedure characterized by plotting a
graph of amount of intensity required against various durations
of impulses so as to determine the status of innervations of
muscles. It is also called as intensity time curve.
Apparatus and Other Requirements

A diagnostic muscle stimulator is used for plotting strength
duration curve. For this purpose apparatus should provide
different durations of interrupted direct current for example, 0.01,
0.03, 0.1, 0.3, 1, 3, 10, 30, 50, 100 and 300 milliseconds with
rectangular waveform. Stimulator with either constant voltage
or constant current can be used for this purpose. In addition to
this electrodes, leads, velcro straps, cotton swabs, water or
normal saline, graph paper, pencil and eraser are required for
strength duration curve plotting.
Procedure
Procedure for plotting of the strength duration curve can be
described in stepwise manner.
Diagnostic Electrotherapy 53
Preparation of Patient
Explain the procedure in brief to the patient. Position the patient
in a comfortable position, which allow you an easy access to
the body part where you would like to perform the strength
duration curve assessment. Request your patient to expose the
area to be examined and ensure adequate draping. Make sure
that there is adequate light to see the visible contractions of
muscle without straining your eyes.
Application of Electrodes
Secure the indifferent electrode at a convenient area, usually
over mid line of the body or origin of muscle and active electrode
over motor point.
Application of Current and Recording

Switch on the stimulator then select the longest impulse say 300
msec and increase the intensity so as to get minimal contraction.
This minimal contraction may be assessed visually or by
palpation of the tendon. Note the intensity of current required
to produce minimal contraction and then decrease the intensity
to zero. Shorten the impulse say now 100 msec, again increase
the intensity and note the current at which minimum accessible
contraction is produced. Repeat this procedure by shortening
the impulse duration say 30,10,3,1 and so on.
Drawing the Curve

After noting the current for various durations a graph is plotted
with strength of current on Y axis and impulses or pulse durations
on X axis.
Characteristics of Strength Duration Curves

It is the shape of curve, which is an important feature in
determining the status of muscle innervations. So when all the
nerve fibres supplying the muscles are

intact then strength duration curve is
typical like the Figure 4.1.
Normal Innervation
Strength duration curve with normal status
of innervation of muscle will have various Fig. 4.1: Normal
curve
characteristics such as; initial portion of the
graph is a straight line, which is parallel to the X axis, there is no
kink, the graph is complete in other words it is plotted from
highest duration such as 300 millisecond up to 0.01, rise in graph
line occurs around 1msec duration. Graph looks smooth. The
curve of this typical shape is there because equal strength of
current is required to get minimum assessable response with
longer durations while shorter pulses need a slight increase in
the strength of stimulus each time when duration is shortened.
The point at which this curve begins to rise is variable but usually
it is 1millisecond with constant current.
Complete Denervation
The shape of the curve obtained on
plotting of the strength duration curve
of a muscle that is completely dene-
ravated is typical in appearance. Initial
part of the curve is not parallel. Plotted
graph line look somewhat vertical line
starting from the X axis. There is no kink
in the curve. The graph line is incomplete Fig. 4.2:
because deneravted muscle does not Denervated curve
respond to smaller durations like 1, 0.3 0.1 and so on. This
typical appearance is due to required increase in the strength of
stimulus for all the impulses with a duration less than 100
millisecond. Response may not be obtained to very small
durations and hence the curve rises steeply and is further to the
right than that of a normally innervated muscle (Fig. 4.2).
Partial Denervation
The graph of a muscle that is partially
innervated is typical in appearance. The
plotted graph line shows kink. Kink
appears because the graph shows the
features of innervated as well as
denervated muscle. It happens due to
the response of the muscle to various
impulses. Impulses with higher pulse
durations stimulate denervated as well Fig. 4.3: Partial
denervated curve
as innervated muscle fibers but the
response to the smaller pulse durations is obtained by stimulating
only innervated muscle fibers and hence to get minimal palpable
or visible contractions from these innervated muscle fibers more
intensity is required. Appearance of kink may give an approximate
idea about the extent or proportion of innervation and
denervation. If a large number of fibres are denervated then greater
part of curve resembles to that of denervated muscles and vice
versa. If the kink is located exactly at the center then one may
conclude that innervation and denervation may be 50%. But if
the three-fourth of the graph appears like innervated and one-
fourth appears like denervated then innervation could be 75%
and denervation could be 25%. Appearance of kink can have
two interpretations. If initially muscle showed strength duration
curve of complete denervation and later the appearance of kink
that means that muscle is getting reinnervated. On the other hand
a muscle initially showed normal strength duration curve and
now kink that means this muscle is getting denervated. In
progressive innervation or denervation the graph will move from
the kink towards left side or right side respectively (Fig. 4.3).
Variations of Strength Duration Curve

Strength duration curve can be used to find out the status of
sensory as well as motor nerve fibers. If we take into
consideration only sen-

sory threshold or current
perception threshold
INTENSITY
(just perception of cur- Pain
rent) then it can be Motor

helpful in evaluating the C
Sensory
status of A beta fibers, if Aα
Aβ
we take motor level DURATION
intensity then motor Fig. 4.4: Strength duration curve

nerve fibers or A alpha of sensory, motor and pain fibers
and if we take suprasen-
sory painful threshold then it can tell us the status of C fibers
and A delta type of fibers. But hardly these variations are used
clinically since there are sophisticated methods such as motor
and sensory nerve conduction velocity tests which can be
performed with electromyography. However, most commonly
strength duration curve is used to find out motor nerve fiber
innervation of muscles (Fig. 4.4).
Advantages of Strength Duration Curve

Strength duration curve is simple, reliable and cheaper. It
indicates proportion of denervation. It may be less time
consuming as compared to electromyography. It can be used as
hand side method.
Disadvantages of Strength Duration Curve

In large muscles only proportions of fibres may respond hence
picture is not clearly shown. It’s a qualitative rather than
quantitative method of testing innervation. It won’t point out
the site of lesion. However, the site of lesion may be determined
by nerve conduction test.
OTHER ELECTRODIAGNOSTIC TESTS

Pulse Ratio
Pulse ratio is the ratio of current needed to produce a muscle
contraction with an impulse of 1millisecond to that of 100
milliseconds. In case of innervated muscle very small or no
increase in current is required when impulse is reduced from
100 msec to 1msec. So the ratio is small and it is around 1 but
it may vary up to 2.2 for innervated muscles (1:2.2). In case of
denervated muscles amount of current required to produce a
contraction is more and consequently the ratio is more than
2.5. Advantage of pulse ratio is, it can be performed swiftly. But
the disadvantage is that the picture of innervation is not clear if
a muscle is partially innervated.
Faradic IDC Test

It is also vaguely termed as faradic galvanic test rather than
calling it as faradic interrupted direct current test. (Since galvanic
current term indicates direct current and not modified direct or
interrupted direct current). It was widely used in past to rule out
whether a muscle is innervated or denervated. Pertaining to
characteristics of faradic current (pulse duration 0.1 to 1msec
and frequency 50 to 100Hz), it will stimulate only innervated
muscles and not denervated muscles. Interrupted direct current
with pulse duration such as 100 msec will stimulate both
innervated and denervated muscles. If a muscle responds to
interrupted direct current with 100msec duration or higher
duration but not to faradic current then it may be a denervated
muscle.
Nerve Conductivity Test

I personally prefer to call it as nerve transmission test in order to
avoid the possibility of the confusion between nerve conductivity,
nerve distribution and nerve conduction velocity tests. Normally
a stimulus to a nerve trunk can produce the contractions of

muscles supplied by it. But if the nerve fibers are degenerating
then conductivity distal to the lesion is lost. For nerve conductivity
test interrupted direct current with pulse duration of 0.1 or 0.3
millisecond is used. After applying this stimulus to a superficial
nerve trunk, contractions of muscles supplied below this point
is noted. If it produces the contractions then it suggests that at
least few or all the nerve fibers are intact and functioning. If this
test is performed along the course of a nerve then it may give us
a clue about the possible site of the lesion.
Nerve Distribution Test

Stimulating the nerve trunk and observing the resultant muscle
contractions can determine the distribution of nerve and thereby
we can find out if there is any individual variation in it. This can
help us to find out if there is any variation in the distribution of
nerve.
Neurotization Time
Neurotization time is a useful index that represents the ratio of
the duration of neuropathy to the theoretical time necessary for
reinnervation to take place. In order to calculate the neurotization
time measure the distance from the probable site of the lesion
up to the distal most muscle supplied by the affected nerve in
millimeter. Since the regeneration of nerve can occur at a rate
of approximately one millimeter per day. Calculate the
anticipated number of days accordingly (Remember that rate
of nerve growth can vary from 1 to 5 mm per day). For instance
if the distance of lesion is 105 mm then anticipated time is 105
days. Now find out the elapsed time in days from the patient.
Calculate the neurotization time by following formula;
Elapsed
_____________________
time in days
Neurotization time = × 100
Anticipated time
Less than 100% neurotization time indicates that a minimal time

is elapsed for reinnervation. When neurotization time is 250%
or more and it is accompanied with no electrodiagnostic evidence
of regeneration then the prognosis is poor and surgical inter-
vention may be considered.
Galvanic Tetanus Ratio

Galvanic tetanus ratio (GTR) is also called as tetanic frequency
ratio or the tetanus twitch ratio. Normally frequency of 20 to 50
cycles per second is required to get tetanic response with pulse
duration equal to chronaxie but in case of denervated muscle it
gets reduced to 5 to 10 cycles per second. This happens because
of loss of accommodation to long durated impulses and slow
type of contraction in denervated muscle. GTR requires the use
of a stimulator with variable impulse frequency out put of 1 to
50 per second and calibrated duration of impulses. For testing
deneravated muscle, this duration must correspond to the
chronaxie. It is convenient, to stimulate the muscle with a single
active electrode and with a current intensity sufficient to cause
minimal contraction. Gradually vary the frequency, starting at a
lower range like one per second until tetanus is produced.
Dermo-ohmometry
The study of human skin resistance is known as dermo-
ohmometry. It may also be called as neurodermometry or
galvanic skin response. It can be studied with GSR device that
is at present rarely used for this purpose but it is now days used
for relaxation purpose by incorporating it with biofeedback kind
of devices. Normal skin resistance may vary from 10,000 to 20
million ohms depending on the distribution of the sweat glands.
In complete lesion of a mixed nerve there is anhydrosis due to
reduced activity of the sweat glands. As a result of anhydrosis
there is increase in the skin resistance due to reduced sweat that
permits easy passage of the current.
Polar Formula
It is also known as Erb’s polar formula. Normal response
obtained to cathode and anode is CCC>ACC>AOC>COC.
Here CCC stands for cathodal closing current, ACC for anodal
closing current, AOC for anodal opening current and COC for
cathodal opening current. It means normally a better contraction
is obtained with cathodal closing current than anodal closing
current. Closing and opening terminologies are used because
when this experiments must have been tried at that time simple
key switch which is on by closing and off/by opening must have
been used. In denervation reversal of this formula may be noted.
In denervated muscle it may be ACC>CCC>AOC>COC.
Myotonic Reaction
In myotonic cases typical response to the faradic stimulation
occurs. The muscles remain in tetanic contraction for some time
as long as twenty seconds even after the stimulus has ceased.
This response can be obtained initially and later on due to the
exhaustion of the muscle contraction response ceases altogether
but the same response once again can be obtained after a period
of rest.
Reaction of Degeneration
Reaction of degeneration may occur following peripheral nerve
injuries. Reaction of degeneration is of three types such as:
complete reaction of degeneration (CRD), partial reaction of
degeneration (PRD) and absolute reaction of degeneration
(ARD).
Complete Reaction of Degeneration

Complete reaction of degeneration is also known as full or total
reaction of degeneration. In complete reaction of degeneration,
nerve does not respond to either faradic or interrupted galvanic
current. However, muscle may respond to long durated pulse

of interrupted galvanic current, muscle contraction is slow or
sluggish, motor point may get shifted and polar formula may
get reversed.
Partial Reaction of Degeneration

In partial reaction of degeneration there is decreased response
by nerve to faradic and interrupted galvanic current. However,
muscle may have decreased response to faradic but better
response to interrupted galvanic current. The muscle contraction
may be slow but it is not pronounced as in CRD.
Absolute Reaction of Degeneration

There is absence of any response to any current in muscle as
well as nerve. It represents final stage of complete reaction of
degeneration with unfavourable outcome. You should be sure
of this before informing it to the patient.
ELECTROMYOGRAPHY
Definition
Electromyography is the study of electrical activity of muscle by
means of surface electrodes placed over the skin or needle
electrodes inserted in the muscle itself. By electromyography
we can study motor unit potential, motor nerve conduction
velocity, sensory nerve conduction velocity, etc. Electromyo-
graphy is also called as electroneuromyography or ENMG.
ENMG is a clinical electrophysiological evaluation, which consists
of the observation, analysis and interpretation of the bioelectrical
activity of muscle and nerve.
Uses
EMG is used to diagnose the diseases of muscle such as,
myopathies, myasthenia gravis, etc. It can be used to differentiate
between the lesions of anterior horn cells, the nerve fibres and
the muscles. EMG can be used to determine sensory and motor
nerves conduction velocities. EMG can be of major help in
determining site, severity and prognosis of peripheral nerve lesions.
EMG can analyze the muscle work involved in a complex activity.
Contraindications
Although electromyography with surface electrodes have very
minimal contraindications, electromyography with needle
electrodes is contraindicated in dermatitis, uncooperative patient,
pacemaker, blood transmittable diseases, extreme swelling,
abnormal blood clotting factor and patient on anticoagulant
therapy. Gloves and eye protection should be used incase the
EMG is to be done in individuals with blood transmittable diseases.
Equipment
Electromyography machine and various accessories consist of
electrodes, preamplifier, amplifier, CRT display, stimulator,
loudspeaker, and ancillary equipment (Fig. 4.5).
Patient Stimulator
Pick up CRT &

Preamplifier Amplifier Audio
electrodes
Fig. 4.5: Block diagram of EMG
Electrodes
Electrode is a device or metal conductor, which introduces or
picks up electricity from the tissues. In other words electrode is
a conductor that stimulates or record the electrical activity of
tissues.
Stimulating electrode: In EMG study, electrodes are required

to stimulate or evoke action potential in excitable tissues of
interest that is muscle or nerve. Stimulating electrode is a bipolar
hand held electrode that consists of anode and cathode
separated by 2 to 3 cm distance. It is used to stimulate or activate
peripheral nerve and or muscle during electrophysiological
assessment.
Pick up electrodes: In order to monitor the responses of
excitable tissues to voluntary or evoked potential, pick up
electrodes are used. These pick up electrodes record the electrical
activity from the tissues of interest. Pick up electrodes are active
electrode, reference electrode and ground electrode (you can
memorize them by RAG, where R stands for reference, A for
active and G for ground). Active electrode is an electrode which
actually pick up the potential difference from the tissues.
Reference electrode is an electrode that helps to pick up potential
difference by acting as a reference terminal, which completes
the circuit. Ground electrode is an electrode, which is also known
as zero potential electrode or shield electrode or guard electrode.
It is made-up of metal and is usually larger than active and
reference electrode. It is placed on the body surface at some
distance over an area of little electrical activity such as bony
prominences.
Active and reference electrodes are of two main types such
as surface and needle electrodes.
Surface electrodes: Surface electrodes are placed on the skin
to pick up the electrical activity. These are generally made-up of
metals such as silver, gold, platinum. An efficient conduction
through these electrodes can be obtained if skin is prepared by
cotton swab dipped in spirit and by placing an electoconductive
gel in between the electrodes and the skin. A surface electrode
varies from 0.5 cm to several cm in diameter. These electrodes
must be held firmly in place with adhesive tape or straps in
order to obtain constant recording of electrical muscle activity.
These electrodes are used when the excitable tissues include a

comparatively large area. Metal disc electrode, dual electrode,
spring electrode are the commonly used types of surface
electrode.
Needle electrodes: Needle electrodes are placed underneath
the skin either near or directly in the excitable tissues of interest.
They are prepared from platinum, silver or stainless steel. Needle
electrodes are used when activity of very few motor units or
muscle fibers is to be studied. This can be done easily with these
electrodes as they have reasonably small exploring surface.
Different types of needle electrodes are monopolar, concentric,
bipolar, multielectrode, etc.
Preamplifier
It is a device, which increases the magnitude of potentials picked
up by the electrodes so that they can be carried to the amplifier
without getting influenced by unwanted potentials. It is usually
situated in a remote box connected to the main EMG system by
a cable on one side and on other side to the pickup electrodes
through leads. This arrangement allows the preamplifier to be
placed close to the electrodes to which it is directly connected by
reasonably short leads in order to minimize the interference.
Preamplifier reduces the noise as it amplifies the magnitude and
the strength of pickup potentials. Noise is nothing but any
interfering, unwanted interference. It may arise from internal or
external source and hence noise can be termed as internal noise
or external noise. Internal noise originates within the system.
External noise originates from external sources such as electric
wiring in the building, relay transmitters, radio frequency, etc.
External noise is also known as interference or artifact. Preamplifier
allows differential amplification by selecting amplification of
original potentials while rejecting interfering potentials.
Amplifier
It follows preamplifier. It is an electronic machine, which is used
to increase the amplitude of electrical signal level fed by
preamplifier. Amplifier is used to make small electrical signals larger

on signal display instrument such as oscilloscopes, computer
screen or strip chart recorders. A characteristic feature of an
amplifier is its gain. Gain is the relationship between input voltage
amplitude of the signal and output voltage amplitude from the
amplifier. If the peak voltage of a monophasic input signal is
doubled from 2mV to 4mV then the gain of the amplification is 2
and if the same output signal’s peak amplitude is increased to
10mV then the gain of amplification is 5. Most amplifiers are
constructed so that the users can adjust the amplifier gain to a
suitable level. The amplifier control for such adjustment is often
labeled as sensitivity. Frequency response or filter control in
amplifier responds to low and high frequency limits adjusted with
frequency response controls in order to minimize noise. Amplifier
may be a simple or differential amplifier. A simple amplifier is a
device that enhances all voltage differences between recording
electrodes. Differential amplifier is the amplifier, which increases
the difference between the two signals. As biological potentials
are generally of several orders and magnitude, lower amplitude
than 60Hz interferes and the use of simple amplifier may not
allow the examiner to adequately visualize the bioelectrical
potentials of interest. To overcome this a differential amplifier is
used. The differential amplification technique rejects signals that
are common to both electrodes and enhances signals that are
different. This is called common mode rejection. Differential
amplifier uses a ground electrode to compare the signals of the
two recording electrodes. Noise appears identical at both
electrodes and will be rejected by common mode.
Cathode Ray Tube Display

EMG display or CRT display is used to visualize recorded action
potentials in form of amplitude versus time graph. It consists of
following parts, evacuated envelope, electron gun, horizontal
deflection plates and vertical deflection plates.
Ancillary Equipment
For documentation, measurement and verification of transient
potentials, an ancillary equipment records CRT display. Ancillary
equipment may be an instant photographic camera, fiber optic
recorder, digital storage time transformation recorders, magnetic
recorders, etc.
Loud Speaker
A loud speaker is used in EMG apparatus so as to produce
audible sounds for audio monitoring. These audible sounds are
produced when recorded and amplified potentials are applied
to speaker. It allows acoustic monitoring of the potentials.
MOTOR UNIT POTENTIALS

Various features of the normal motor unit potential are described
here and before reading the same please refer the figure 4.6.
Normal Motor Unit Potential

Total Duration
It is the duration between initial deviations from the baseline to
the return to the baseline. Total duration depends on the
amplification gain, filter and whether or not the units are
averaged. It varies between 5-10 ms.
Spike Duration
It is the time from the onset of the initial negative spike to the
last most positive directed spike. It is 2 to 10 millisecond.
Amplitude
It is the maximum voltage measured from peak to peak. The
density of muscle fibres, their diameters and how close together
are their end plates or how synchronously they discharges
determines amplitude. Amplitude varies greatly in normal

muscles. It may be 100 to 200 microvolts.
Phases
Motor units are usually biphasic or
triphasic. Biphasic when recorded at end
plate. Triphasic when recorded away
from end plate zone. The total number
of phases is determined by adding one
to the number of base line crosses. A
MUP (motor unit potential) is considered
Fig. 4.6: Normal
polyphasic if it has greater than four
EMG
phases. Frequently the MUPs have a saw
tooth like pattern where there are many changes of directions
or turns but not actual baseline crosses. These potentials are
referred to as serrated MUPs and are the measurements of the
synchronicity of the muscle fibers discharging. Parameters of
normal unit potential are amplitude: 100 to 200 µv (micro volt),
duration: 2 to10 ms, waveform: 2 to 4 phases but usually
triphasic, frequency: 1 to 60 per second (150 in eye muscles),
sound: clear sharp thump or plunk and rise time: 100 to 200
seconds (Fig. 4.6).
Polyphasic Potential
The EMG examination may reveal
complex shape than normal motor unit
potentials. These are supposed to be the
electrical expressions of a degenerating
or regenerating but not denervated motor
units. It arises from nonsynchronous firing
of many muscle fibers comprising a
motor unit. If this polyphasicity occurs in Fig. 4.7: Polyphasic
potential
a muscle, which has previously demon-
strated widespread fibrillation on potentials of denervation such
polyphasics potentials are often called nascent motor units.

Parameters of polyphasic potentials are amplitude: 20 to 5000
microvolts, duration: 2 to 25msec, waveform: 5 to 25 phases,
frequency: 2 to 30 per seconds and sound: rough, rasping or
rattling. 1 to 12% of normal EMG may show polyphasic
potentials (Fig. 4.7).
Fibrillation Potential
Fibrillation potential occurs due to
spontaneous repetitive contraction of a
single muscle fiber. It is a fundamental
sign of denervation. It appears in 15 to
20 days but do not appear immediately
following nerve injury. It may occur as
early as 5 days following nerve lesion. Fig. 4.8:
The fibrillation tracing always begins with Fibrillation
a positive voltage. Parameters are,
amplitude: 10 to 600 microvolts, duration: 1 to 2 msec,
waveform: mono or diphasic spike (usually diphasic), sound:
sharp high-pitched click (like rain on the roof) (Fig. 4.8).
Positive Sharp Wave

It is found in denervation. It appears
spontaneously, irregularly and is not
predictable. It is seen in many denervated
muscles. Parameters are, amplitude: very
variable, duration: up to 100 msec,
waveform: diphasic, frequency: 2 to 100
per second and sound: dull thud (Fig. Fig. 4.9:
4.9). Positive sharp
Nerve Potential
It occurs when a needle electrode comes in contact with nerve
fibrils inside muscle substance. Parameters are amplitude: 20 to
250 microvolts, duration: 1 to 4 msec, waveform: biphasic,

frequency: 30 to 150 per sec and sound: machine gun and high
pitched.
Myotonic Potentials
It is a high frequency fibrillation like
discharge. It is heard as a diving airplane.
These are a train of positive waves, which
vary in frequency and amplitude (Fig.
4.10).
Fig. 4.10:
Fasciculation Potentials Myotonic
It is spontaneously occurring potential over which the patient
has no volitional control. It may be found in benign myokymia,
anterior horn cell disease, nerve compression, various forms of
muscle cramps, alkalotic states and incipient tetany.
They occur irregularly at a rate varying
1 to 50 per minute. They are of two types,
simple and complex. Simple fasciculations
are biphasic or triphasic and complex
fasciculations are polyphasic. Polyphasic
fasciculation potentials can be further
divided into usual polyphasic fasciculation
potential and iterative polyphasic potential
on the number of isoelectric crosses (Fig. Fig. 4.11:
4.11). Fasciculation
Giant Potential
These are MUPs with more than 200 microvolts and duration
12 to15 milliseconds. They are frequently seen in anterior horn
cell diseases like amyotrophic lateral sclerosis or poliomyelitis.
It may be because of selective destruction of small motor units
so that only the large ones are intact. It may be because of
sprouting of the intact motor neuron branches to its denervated
neighbors thus enlarging the scope of the neuron. Its stimulation

firing will therefore give a giant potential.
Bizarre High Frequency Discharge

High frequency polyphasic discharges up to 200 per seconds
are seen in variety of motor neuron diseases. It may be because
of muscle spindle firing of atrophied muscle.
Nascent Potential
These are also termed as reinnervation potentials. They are low
amplitude 50 to 200 mv, highly polyphasic that appear in the
process of reinnervation. Initially they may appear involuntary
and may be excited by tapping the muscle.
Myopathic Potentials
These are motor unit potentials with reduced amplitude and
duration. Their amplitude varies from 50 to 200 µv in amplitude
and 5 milliseconds in duration. They result from destruction of
muscle fibers with consequent reduction in number of muscle
fibers comprising the motor unit.
ELECTROPHYSIOLOGICAL TESTS WITH

ELECTROMYOGRAPHY
In addition to the study of electrical activity of the muscle at
rest, during activity and motor unit potential study, electro-
myography can be used for other electrophysiological studies
such as nerve conduction tests, blink reflex, evoked potentials,
H reflex, F wave test, etc. Here I am just adding a brief idea
about these tests since the more detailed technique of these
tests is out of the scope of this book and can be studied from
any other book revealing it.
Nerve Conduction Velocity

Nerve conduction velocity is an electrophysiological investigation
by which velocity of propagation of impulses by a nerve is
calculated. There are two types of nerve conduction velocities

such as motor nerve conduction velocity and sensory nerve
conduction velocity.
Blink Reflex Test

Blink reflex test is used to assess the functional integrity of both
trigeminal and facial nerve. Blink reflex is used for identifying
pathologies affecting cranial nerves such as Bell’s palsy, cerebellar
pontine angle tumors, Gullain Barre syndrome and central
demyelinating diseases.
Central Evoked Potentials

These are voltage changes monitored from the tissues of cerebral
cortex, brainstem and spinal cord in response to various applied
sensory stimuli. Thus function of somatosensory cortex, visual
cortex and auditory region of brainstem can be evaluated. They
are of various types such as somatosensory evoked potentials
(SSEP), brain stem auditory evoked potentials (BAEP), visual
evoked potentials (VEP) and repetitive nerve stimulation (RNS
or Jolly test).
H Reflex Test
It is also known as H wave or Hoffman response. It can be
performed in upper and lower limb so as to get quantitative
information about the stretch reflex pathway. In simpler words
it is an electrically elicited monosynaptic reflex.
F Wave Test
It is an evoked response due to antidromically-propagated action
potentials transmitted to the anterior horn cells or initial segment
of alpha motor neuron axons. F wave test is used when the
disease or injury is thought in the proximal segment of nerves
for example nerve compression in thoracic outlet syndrome.
SUMMARY
Electrodiagnostic tests include rheobase, chronaxie, strength
duration curve, pulse ratio, galvanic tetanic ratio, nerve
conduction test, nerve distribution test, nerve conduction
velocity, faradic galvanic test, etc. Strength duration curve is
simple, reliable and cheaper form of elctrodiagnostic test.
Following completed denervation reversal of polar formula may
occur. Electromyography is the study of electrical activity of
muscle by means of surface electrodes placed over the skin or
needle electrodes inserted in the muscle itself. Normal EMG
waveform is triphasic.
chapter five
Thermotherapy
SHORT WAVE DIATHERMY

Short wave diathermy is most commonly used physiotherapeutic
modality for deep heating. The meaning of diathermy is heat
given through an object and not confined to that object (Nagel
Schmidt 1908). Short wave diathermy is used for more than
fifty years by physiotherapists around the globe for deep heating
purpose. For short wave diathermy, high frequency current with
a frequency of 27.12 MHz and 11 meters wavelength is used.
Other high frequency currents with their corresponding
wavelengths, which are less commonly used, are 45 MHz with
7 metre and 13 MHz with 22 metre.
PRODUCTION
Principle
It is not possible to produce high frequency current required for
short wave diathermy purpose by mechanical means. Hence,
discharging a condenser through an inductance of low ohmic
resistance produces the high frequency current with desired
frequency and wavelength (Fig. 5.1).
Circuit
The basic circuit consists of two parts such as oscillator circuit
and resonator circuit. In addition to this, an ammeter can be
integrated in resonator circuit so as to register the resonance
between oscillator circuit and resonance circuit.
T2
Power tube A Tuning indicator
T1 C E
C1
R C2 To patient
electrode
Mains D F
EHT
B
Fig. 5.1: Circuit diagram of short wave diathermy.

In figure, T1: step up transformer, T2: step down transformer, R:
variable resistance, AB: inductance coil of oscillator circuit, ABC1
and power tube: oscillator circuit, CD: feedback coil which controls
grid potential and EFC2: resonator circuit.
Oscillator Circuit
It consists of condenser and inductance. The values of condenser
and inductance are such that they produce high frequency
current with a frequency of 27.12 MHz. A valve is used along
with condenser and inductance so as to allow repeated charging
and discharging of the condenser.
Resonator Circuit
It is also known as patient’s circuit. It consists of a variable
condenser and an inductance coil. High frequency currents are
transmitted from oscillator circuit to resonator circuit with the
help of variable condenser.
Ammeter
The ammeter does not show the amount of current received by
the patient but it show when the oscillator and resonating circuits
are in tune with each other. In most of imported machines there
is automatic tuner (just like television sets) and hence ammeter
is not included in these types of machines.
Thermotherapy 75
Working
When mains are switched on, it causes repeated charging and
discharging of condenser C1 and produces high frequency
current in oscillator circuit. As a result high frequency current is
also likely to develop in resonator circuit but maximum high
frequency current can be produced in resonator circuit if oscillator
and resonator circuit are in tune or resonance with each other.
Tuning can be obtained manually by varying the capacity of C2
condenser and the same can be confirmed from ammeter, which
will show maximum deflection if these two circuits are in
resonance with each other. In automatic tuner the machine does
this automatically. Output is controlled by power or intensity
control of the machine, which regulates the output by adjusting
the grid bias of valve through variable resistance.
ELECTRODES AND ARRANGEMENT OF ELECTRODES

Electrodes are conductors through which current is applied to
the body tissue. In case of short wave diathermy, electrodes are
the conductors through which short wave diathermy current is
applied. Nowadays pad electrode, disc electrode, monode,
minode, drum electrode and occasionally sinus electrodes are
used for short wave diathermy applications. However, in past
number of electrodes such as: cable electrode, axillary electrode,
rectal electrode and vaginal electrode were used.
Condenser field electrodes such as pad or disc electrodes can
be arranged in monopolar, coplanar, contra planar and cross fire
arrangement. In monopolar arrangement one electrode that may
act as an active electrode is placed over the area to be treated
and other indifferent electrode is applied to some distant part of
the body with maximum spacing so that the heating is produced
at only the area treated. In coplanar arrangement, electrodes are
placed side by side on the same aspect of the part to be treated,
provided that there is an adequate distance between them. This
arrangement is commonly used in the treatment of back. In contra
planar arrangement, electrodes are placed over opposite aspects

of the body part treated so that high frequency current is directed
through the tissues. Contra planar method is commonly used in
the treatment of hip joint. In cross fire arrangement half the
treatment is given with the electrodes in one position then the
arrangement is changed so that the electric field lies at right angles
to the electric field obtained in the first part of treatment. It is
commonly used in the treatment of knee joint, treatment of sinuses,
pelvis and thorax.
While arranging the electrodes during the treatment
consideration should be given to the size of electrode, electrode
spacing and position of electrode. Size of electrode should be
larger than the body part to be treated, spacing should be as
wide as the output of machine permits and in the space between
electrode and the body part there should be a medium with low
dielectric constant such as air, felt with air columns or towels.
Electrodes should be positioned in such a way that they are
parallel to the body part to be treated.
The main physiological effect of short wave diathermic current
on the body tissue is heat production and other physiological
effects results from the increase in temperature.
Temperature
Short wave diathermy application produces heat in the body
tissues. Increase in local temperature may occur due to the
production of heat. But if the short wave diathermy is applied
for prolonged time then there is rise in general body temperature
by few degrees. General rise in body temperature occurs due to
blood that passes through the tissues in which the rise of
temperature has occurred, it also becomes heated and carries
heat to other parts of the body.
Thermotherapy 77
Metabolism
Metabolism is the collective process by which living status of
tissues or the body is maintained. When short wave diathermy
is applied to the body tissue then it produces heat. Heat
production in the body tissues increases the metabolism. This
may occur as per the Van’t Hoff statement. Van’t Hoff has stated
that any chemical change capable of being accelerated by heat
is accelerated by rise in temperature.
Blood Supply
Short wave diathermy application increases the local blood
supply. Increase in blood supply may occur due to the direct
effect of heat on the vessels in terms of vasodilatation.
Vasodilatation may occur indirectly due to the action of
metabolites on the vessel walls. Metabolites and other waste
products production is increased due to increase in metabolic
activity. Due to increased vasodilatation there is increase in the
lumen of the vessels, which leads to increased blood supply.
Effect on Nerves
Mild heating due to short wave diathermy application may
reduce the excitability of the nerves especially sensory nerves.
Muscle Relaxation
Rise in temperature induces relaxation of muscles and increase
their efficacy of action. The muscle fibres contract and relax
very easily but strength of the contraction is unaffected.
Tissue Damage
Excessive heating due to short wave diathermy application may
cause the damage to the tissues in form of coagulation or thermal
burns.
Blood Pressure
Prolonged application of short wave diathermy can reduce the
blood pressure. This happens due to reduction in peripheral
resistance to the flow of blood due to generalized vasodilatation
and reduction in viscosity of the blood.
Sweating
Increase in the local and general temperature can cause increased
sweating either in the local region of heating or generalized
depending on the extent of heating.
THERAPEUTIC EFFECTS AND USES

Pain Relief
Short wave diathermy is one of the effective modality in relieving
the musculoskeletal pain. Exact mechanism of pain relief is not
known. But it may occur due to sedative effect of short wave
diathermy on sensory nerves, counter irritation by heat, due to
resolution in inflammation and due to the relief of underlying
muscle spasm. However, in very acute conditions (less than 72
hours of onset) short wave diathermy application may increase
the pain due to increase in the inflammatory process.
Muscle Spasm
Short wave diathermy can induce the muscle relaxation and
hence, it can be used in the treatment of muscle spasm.
Joint Stiffness
Short wave diathermy can minimize the joint stiffness due to
increased extensibility of connective tissue as a result of increase
in local temperature and due to the relief of pain, spasm and
inflammation. Usually short wave diathermy is used in the
treatment of deep joint where superficial heating modalities may
Thermotherapy 79
not be effective because of their smaller depth of penetration.

In order to make use of this effect short wave diathermy should
be applied prior to the manual therapy.
Inflammation
Increase in the blood supply increases white blood cells,
antibodies and other essential nutritive materials. Increase in all
of these may help in resolution of inflammation. Short wave
diathermic application can minimize or resolve the subacute
and chronic inflammation. It may resolve or minimize the acute
inflammation provided it is applied at precise time following the
onset of acute inflammation (after 72 hours) with right dosages
otherwise it can aggravate the acute inflammatory process.
Musculoskeletal Trauma
Short wave diathermy accelerates the healing by increasing the
amount of nutritive materials required for healing following
musculoskeletal trauma.
INDICATIONS AND CONTRAINDICATIONS

Indications
Short wave diathermy can be used in the treatment of various
orthopedic as well as some of non-orthopedic conditions.
Orthopedic conditions low back pain, osteoarthritis,
rheumatoid arthritis, sprains, strains, muscle tear, tendon tear,
capsulitis, tendonitis, frozen shoulder, mayalgia, bursitis,
hematoma, neuralgia, neuritis, traumatic arthritis, ankylosing
spondylitis, fibrositis, etc.
Sports Injuries rectus femoris strain, hamstrings strain, tensor
fascia lata strain, hip pointer and contusions to thorax.
Surgical conditions infected surgical incisions and stitch
abscess.
ENT conditions chronic sinusitis and chronic otitis media.

Chest conditions chronic bronchitis, chronic obstructive
airway disease, pleurisy and pleuritis.
Gynecological conditions nonspecific pelvic inflammatory
disease.
Other conditions abscess, inflammation of gallbladder and
ducts, peritoneal adhesions and prostatitis.
Contraindications
Short wave diathermy is contraindicated in presence of preg-
nancy, cardiac pace maker, hemorrhage, thrombosis, peripheral
vascular diseases, metal implants, impaired sensations, anesthetic
areas, malignancy, following X-ray therapy, epileptic patients,
mentally retarded patients, patients who are unable to
communicate and fever.
Precautions
Precaution should be taken while treating patients with hearing
aids, contact lenses and electrophysiological orthoses. Contact
lenses should be removed for the treatment in the vicinity of
head neck face region. Electrophysiological orthoses and hearing
aid can be switched off or removed during the treatment. It is
also important to keep the transistorized units such as TENS
units, muscle stimulators, phones, mobiles, electronic calculators,
electronic watches, interferential therapy unit and electronic
traction devices at least 5 to 10 feet away from the short wave
diathermy machine.
Dosages of Short Wave Diathermy

In acute conditions short wave diathermy is applied for 5 to 10
minutes once or twice daily and in chronic conditions it is applied
for 20 to 30 minutes. Intensity should be chosen in such a way
Thermotherapy 81
that it produce mild comfortable and perceptible warmth. In

another words it should raise the temperature of the tissues to
safer therapeutic range, which is 40 to 45 ºC. In the past the
dosages were chosen from four levels. Level I: unnoticeable heat,
level II: slightly noticeable heat, level III: more noticeable heat
and level IV: very noticeable heat.
Advantages of Short Wave Diathermy

Heat is produced in the body tissue and not transmitted through
the skin, localization of heat can be done by careful placement
of electrodes, deep heating is possible, there is no discomfort to
the patient as high frequency current of short wave diathermy
do not stimulate sensory and motor nerves and treatment can
be controlled precisely.
PULSED SHORT WAVE DIATHERMY

In pulsed mode of short wave diathermy the output of high
frequency current commences and ceases at regular interval. In
other words, the output is applied in form of series of short
bursts. Pulsed short wave diathermy is also called as pulsed
electromagnetic energy, pulsed peak power, diapulse, etc. In
1930s pulsed short wave diathermy was invented but it became
popular after 1950. Pulsed short wave diathermy produces non-
thermal effects mainly. As a result there is no appreciable heat
developed during the treatment. Pulsed short wave diathermy
increases the cellular activity, increases reabsorption of
hematoma, reduces inflammation, reduces swelling and
increases the repair process. Various parameters of pulsed short
wave diathermy include pulse duration, pulse repetition, intensity
or pulsed peak power, mean power, etc. The treatment duration
of pulsed short wave diathermy ranges from 15 to 60 minutes
and the indications and contraindications are more or less same
as that of continuous short wave diathermy.
MICROWAVE DIATHERMY
Microwave diathermy can be defined as the therapeutic use of
the microwaves for the treatment of various diseases and
disorders. Microwave diathermy is also called as microthermy.
Microwaves are electromagnetic waves with wavelength in
between 1 cm and 1 meter. For physiotherapeutic purpose high
frequency current of 2450 MHz and wavelength 12.25 cm or
433.92 MHz and 69 cm are used. Considering the electro-
magnetic spectrum, one can very well note that the wavelength
of microwaves lies between infra red and short waves.
PRODUCTION
Principle
It is not possible to produce microwaves by mechanical means
and hence they are produced from magnetron, which is a special
type of thermionic valve.
Functional Parts
Microwave diathermy apparatus consists of following functional
parts; power supply, magnetron oscillator circuit, magnetron
oscillator, intensity control, coaxial cable and emitter. Power
supply supplies high voltage pulsed direct current and magnetron
oscillator circuit control adequate heating and cooling of
magnetron. The primary function of magnetron oscillator is to
produce high frequency current required for the production of
microwaves. Magnetron is a special type of thermionic valve
characterized by centrally placed cathode, which is surrounded
by circular type metal anode. Anode has circular cavities that
allow the production of circulating or alternating current. Coaxial
cable carries the high frequency currents from magnetron and
fed it to the antenna of the emitter. Emitter is also known as
director or applicator. Emitter consists of antenna and reflector.
Antenna is mounted in front of a metal reflector. Reflector is
Thermotherapy 83
metal plate, which directs the waves in only one direction.

Emitters are available in various sizes and shapes. Emitter can
be kept in contact with the body if there is internal spacing in it,
otherwise it should be kept at a distance of 10 to 20 cm from
the body surface to be treated. Intensity knob controls the output
of the microwave by varying the power supplied to the
magnetron (Fig. 5.2).
Power
Power
Magnetron
Magnetron
supply Oscillator
oscillator Magnetron
Magnetron Emitter
supply
Circuit
circuit Emitter
Fig. 5.2: Block diagram of microwave diathermy

Physiological and therapeutic effects of the microwave diathermy
are same as that of the short wave diathermy. But the amount
of heat production is more in muscles as compared to short
wave diathermy since the heat production by the microwaves
depends on the watery content of the tissues. The depth of
penetration of microwaves is smaller and ranges in between 3
mm to 3 cm while in case of short wave diathermy it may be up
to 6 cm.
Uses and Contraindications

Uses of the microwave diathermy are same as that of short wave
diathermy. Degenerative arthropathy, enthesopathies, chronic
pleurisy, chronic bronchitis, chronic sinusitis, chronic adenitis,
mastitis, mammary abscess, boils, carbuncles, severe vaginal
diseases, severe rectal diseases, diseases of the ear and arthritis
of small joints can be treated by microwave diathermy.
Various contraindications to microwave diathermy
applications are patients with cochlear implants, patients with
metallic endoprosthesis in the area to be treated, patients with

malignant tumors, patients with tuberculosis, patients with
thrombosis, ischemia, varicose veins, necrosis, diminished or
loss of thermal sensation, recent haemorrhage, and acute
inflammation. Microwaves should not be applied into the region
of eyes and testes.
Precautions should be taken while treating patients with an
increased temperature, osteoporotic patients, pregnant women,
patients with intrauterine contraceptives and the application in
the area of the lower abdomen during menstruation in females.
Dosages of Microwave Diathermy

Dosages of microwave diathermy are, in acute conditions 5 to
10 minutes and in chronic conditions 20 to 30 minutes with an
output, which will produce just perceptible and comfortable
warmth. It can be measured and up to 200 watts can be given
so as to raise the body tissue temperature in therapeutic range
of 40 to 45ºC.
Oudin Current
Oudin current is rarely used now days due to the recognition of
short wave diathermy by most of the physiotherapists around
the world. In general, it is monoterminal high frequency current
in the range of long wave band. It is often marketed as Heal-O-
Ray or just by the name high frequency unit. It fascinates me as
well as my patients. I may prefer this current sometimes in those
patients who do not respond to other forms of treatments. These
patients like the sparkling sound that occurs during the treatment
and the pinkish color in the glass electrode. This current is applied
through the glass vacuum electrode. In administering this current
the glass electrode is held close to the body part to be treated.
When the current is applied through the electrode it produces
sparking. This produces counter irritation and hyperemia. This
current may be considered in neuralgias, sprains, strains, myositis
Thermotherapy 85
and sluggish noninfected wounds and ulcers. One should use

this modality with caution, since the literature about the treatment
parameters is not readily available and if applied with high
intensity, high frequency and with very close proximity to the
body part it can produce electrodessication.
PARAFFIN WAX BATH THERAPY

Treatment of various body parts with melted paraffin wax, whose
temperature is maintained at 40 to 44ºC, is known as paraffin
wax bath therapy. The actual melting point of wax is 51 to
54.4ºC. If this melted wax is poured directly on the body tissue
then it may cause thermal injuries and hence to avoid this,
melting point of wax is lowered by an addition of an impurity in
form of paraffin oil. The heat transfer during paraffin wax bath
therapy occurs through conduction from the layer of solid
paraffin wax into the skin.
Paraffin Bath Unit

Parts of typical paraffin wax bath unit used in hospital setups
are container, mains, thermostat, thermostat pilot lamp, cap and
casters. Container is made-up of steel. It contains wax and
paraffin oil in 6:1 or 7:1 ratio. This ratio is used so that mixture
will stay liquid at the applied temperature. Its function is to
maintain wax in melted status. Function of mains is to switch on
or off the heating element, which is located in the casing of
paraffin wax bath unit. Power pilot’s function is to show whether
power is on or off. Thermostat pilot’s lamp indicates whether
thermostat is on or off. Thermostat keeps the temperature fixed
or static in the range, which is adjusted with knob. Cap covers
the container when it is not in use and casters allow the paraffin
wax bath container to be moved from one place to another.
Clinical Effects and Uses of Paraffin Wax Bath Therapy
Paraffin wax bath can relieve musculoskeletal pain, reduce
stiffness, increase the local temperature, increase sweating,
increase the local circulation and increase the pliability of skin.

Clinically paraffin wax bath therapy is used in the treatment of
osteoarthritis, rheumatoid arthritis, tenosynovitis, joint stiffness,
leprosy, scleroderma, Dupytren’s contracture, Sudeck’s atrophy
and various soft tissue contractures.
Contraindications
Paraffin wax bath therapy is contraindicated in presence of open
wounds, since it may enter in the wound and act as a foreign
body and delay healing. Infective conditions should not be
treated by paraffin wax bath as it may increase inflammatory
process. Allergic rashes, deep vein thrombosis, impaired
sensations and skin conditions like acute dermatitis should not
be treated with paraffin wax bath therapy.
METHODS OF APPLICATION
Dip Method
It provides mild heating. The patient should wash and dry the
part to be treated. The therapist instruct the patient to dip the
body part in the bath and then remove it until the paraffin
solidifies and a thin layer of adherent solid paraffin is formed
which covers the skin. Dipping is repeated until a thick coat is
formed. In other words at least 8 to 12 times until the wax has
formed a thick glove over the part. Once the thick glove of wax
is formed, the treated area should be wrapped first in plastic
and then over wrapped with towel. If oedema is a concern then
the area may be elevated. The effective duration of this treatment
is 10 to 15 minutes. At the end of this treatment time the glove
of solid wax is peeled off or removed by slipping a finger beneath
the glove and sliding the wax off and into the plastic sack, which
covered it during the treatment. The sack is then discarded or
the wax is emptied into the bath unit.
Thermotherapy 87
Immersion Method
This method of application provides somewhat vigorous heating.
The body part to be treated is dipped 3 to 4 times to form a thin
coat and then left immersed in paraffin for 20-30 minutes. A
thin glove of solid paraffin wax forms slows the heat conduction.
Use of the immersion method requires co-operation and
tolerance by the patient in a dependent position. Care should
be taken to ensure that the patient is in comfortable position
during the treatment. With immersion method the temperature
elevation of the body tissue is 2ºC higher than dipping method.
Brush Method
It is a less commonly used method of paraffin wax application.
In this method, 8 to 10 coats of wax are applied to the area with
a paintbrush using even and rapid strokes. The area is then
wrapped with towels for 10 to 20 minutes and after this time
paraffin wax is removed and discarded.
Bandage Method
In this method, bandage of a suitable size and mesh is soaked
in hot wax and then it is wrapped around the limb. Additional
wax then can be poured or brushed over the bandage.
Technique of Application
Explain the procedure, expose the body part to be treated,
remove the jewelry, check the sensation, check for contra-
indications, inspect the body part to be treated before, ensure
the comfortable position of the patient, check the temperature
selected on thermostat before treatment, double check or recheck
by inserting finger into the bath, use any method of application
which is convenient for you and your patient, and apply paraffin
wax, inspect the body part treated after the treatment.
Maintenance of Paraffin Wax Bath Unit

Sterilize the paraffin wax bath by heating it to 212º Fahrenheit
or as directed by the manufacturer. For reuse sterilization should
be done frequently. Drain the melted paraffin wax, filter it out
and replace it back for reuse. Change the wax at least once in
six months.
HOT PACKS
Hot pack is one of the superficial heating agents used for
thermotherapy. They are used to alleviate muscle spasm,
increase range of movement and for pain relief. However, hot
packs should not be used in an area of impaired sensation, recent
haemorrhage, open wounds and impaired circulation.

Local Temperature
Rise in local body temperature occurs following hot packs
application. It is due to the conduction of heat from hot pack to
the skin and superficial tissues. The increase of body temperature
is expected to be less than 45ºC otherwise tissue burn will occur.
This rise of temperature is proportional to the area of tissue
exposed and the temperature of the hot pack.
Circulation
Increase in tissue temperature is associated with vasodilatation.
As a result of vasodilatation local increase in the blood supply
especially in the superficial tissue is likely to occur. It may be
manifested by hyperemia. Vasodilatation may be due to release
of chemical mediators, local spinal cord reflex and cutaneous
thermoreceptor.
Pain Relief
Hot packs can be used to obtain analgesia. Pain relief following
hot pack application may occur due to decreased nerve
Thermotherapy 89
conduction velocity or elevated pain threshold. It may be due

to sedative or counter irritation effect by heat. Pain relief may
occur due to relief of muscle spasm if pain is associated with
muscle spasm.
Muscle Spasm
Hot pack can bring about the relief of muscle spasm but exact
mechanism is unknown. It may be due to decreased alpha motor
neuron firing as a result of reduced muscle spindle activity.
Connective Tissue Extensibility

Hot pack may increase the extensibility of connective tissues. It
is due to the effect of heat on the elastic tissues. This effect is
more if it is combined with the stretching.
TYPES OF HOT PACKS

Hydrocollator Packs
Hydrocollator packs provide superficial moist heat. The
commercial hot packs consist of canvas bags. These bags are
filled with silicate gel or some other hydrophilic substance. They
are stored in a thermostatically controlled water bath inside
equipment. Inside the bath it absorbs the water with its high
heat content. Hydrocollator packs are available in variety of
sizes and shapes and should be chosen on the basis of size and
contours of the body part to be treated. The temperature of
packs when applied should be in between 70 to75ºC so that it
raises the body tissue temperature to 40 to 45ºC during the
treatment period. Technique: Explain the procedure to the
patient, expose the body part to be treated and check the thermal
sensation (remember with SEE, S for sensation, E for expose
and E for explanation). Position the patient. Lift the hydrocollator
pack with scissor forceps from the hot pack machine. Wrap it in
dry terry towel; usually 6 to 8 layers of towel are used in order
to wrap the hydrocollator pack. Place the pack wrapped in towel

over the area of treatment so that it will cover the treatment
area adequately. Don’t secure it tightly so that patient can remove
it, if it becomes too hot. Ask the patient about sensation, it should
be mild and perceptible warmth and discard the patient’s feeling
‘ hotter the better ’. Continue the treatment for 20 minutes and
adjust the dosiometry by varying the thickness of the terry towel
which intern slow down the heat transfer. If patient feels too hot
then increase the toweling layer or remove the hydrocollator
pack. Advice not to lie with body weight on the hydrocollator
pack since it may squeeze the water; decrease circulation and
there by the dissipation of the heat. Advantages of hot packs
are; ease of application, it offers comfortable heat and it is
relatively inexpensive from purchase and maintenance point of
view. However, the disadvantages of hot packs are there is no
temperature control once applied to the patient. It is sometimes
awkward to secure in place on a patient. Hot packs do not retain
heat longer than 20 minutes, it is a passive form of the treatment
and do not require any active participation by the patient.
Hot Water Bag

The rubber bags containing hot water can be used in the same
fashion as like hydrocollator packs. Usually hot water bags are
advised for the home treatment.
Kenny Packs
These packs are named after Sister Kenny. Kenny pack consists
of a woolen cloth, which is steered and then surplus water content
is removed by spinning. The relatively dry pack is then applied
quickly to the skin. It is usually applied at a temperature of 60ºC.
As it contains little water, it has got small heat carrying capacity
and the temperature drops down suddenly to normal level in 5
minutes. It is a short term but vigorous heating application, which
produces a marked reflex response.
Thermotherapy 91
Chemical Hot Packs

These chemical hot packs are recently available for therapeutic
applications. The chemical hot packs are portable. These packs
are flexible container bag like structures in which by moving the
container a compartment is broken, this allows ingredient to get
mixed or come together and produce elevation of temperature
by exothermic reaction. All these packs are poorly controlled.
Ingredients are irritating or harmful when outer pack breaks and
content comes in contact with the skin. Hence this type of
application is least advantageous.
Electrical Heating Pads

Electrical heating pad is a form of superficial heating agent. It
can be advised to the patients for their home treatment. The
advantages of electrical heating pads are; they are cheaper,
flexible, patient can control the heat during the treatment through
a knob and they provide comfortable heat. However, the patient
should remain awake during the treatment with the electrical
heating pad as there is a possibility that patient may sleep during
the treatment and will get up to find the thermal burn. The
temperature elevation occurs through the conduction of the heat
from the heating pad to the body tissues where the electrical
heating pad is applied. This can be used as an adjunct to the
diathermy specially when diathermy machine goes out of order!
or for home visits.
SUMMARY
Short wave diathermy is most commonly used physiotherapeutic
modality for deep heating. Advantage of short wave diathermy
is that the heat is produced in the body tissue and not transmitted
through the skin. Pulsed short wave diathermy produces non-
thermal effects mainly. Physiological effects, therapeutic effects
and uses of the microwave diathermy are same as that of the
short wave diathermy. Precautions should be taken while treating
patients with an increased temperature, osteoporotic patients,

pregnant women, patients with intrauterine contraceptives and
female patient in the area of the lower abdomen during
menstruation. Oudin current is used rarely and when applied
through the glass electrode it produces sparking. The heat
transfer during paraffin wax bath therapy occurs through
conduction from the layer of solid paraffin wax into the skin.
Infective conditions should not be treated by paraffin wax bath
as it may increase inflammatory process. Hot pack is one of the
superficial heating agents and increases the local temperature
on its application. Electrical heating pads are cheaper, flexible
and can be used by the patient at home.
chapter six
Therapeutic Ultrasound
INTRODUCTION
We can hear some one when he is talking to us. You can also
hear melodious music from a stereo and if you like then you
can hear the beating of a drum. It’s possible for us to hear all
these things because of the sound waves, which vibrates the
matter and produces the sound. You can very well hear sound
waves but cannot see them. We human beings hear the sound
waves by our ears but there is limit for this. The limit is in form
of frequency, we can hear the sound waves with a frequency of
less than 20 KHz. The dictionary meaning of the word ultra is
beyond. Since the ultrasound waves are beyond the audible
capacity of the human ear, it justifies the name ultrasound instead
of sound. Ultrasound can be defined as a form of acoustic
vibrations occurring at a frequency that is too high to be
perceived by the human ear. For the physiotherapeutic purpose
ultrasound with a frequency in the range of 0.5 to 5 MHz is
used. Most commonly 1 MHz frequency is used all over the
world for physiotherapy purpose but in few countries even 3
MHz is commonly used. In ultrasound treatment stream of the
pressure waves are transmitted to a small volume of tissue, which
causes the molecules of the tissues to vibrate. Mechanical
pressure wave of ultrasound is applied to the tissues at a level of
intensity that is so low and at a frequency that is so rapid that
the person receiving it cannot detect the pressure itself.
Historically in 1920’s ultrasound had been used for under water
detection. However, then it was observed that extreme pressure

waves were damaging to the living tissues. This lead to the first
use of ultrasound in medicine, for the treatment of the cancer.
During 1930’s lower intensities of ultrasound were used for the
first time in physical medicine to treat soft tissue conditions with
mild heating. Ultrasonic therapy is better treatment than most
of the other electrotherapeutic treatments because of its effective
depth of penetration. Hence, ultrasound is one of the commonly
used physiotherapeutic modality.
PRODUCTION
Principle of Production
It is not possible to produce ultrasound waves by mechanical
means and hence, they are produced by the application of
rapidly alternating current to the crystal of piezoelectric
substances. For this purpose crystal of quartz, barium titnate,
lead zirconate, germanium, etc can be used. These crystals can
produce the ultrasonic waves on the basis of reverse piezoelectric
effect. In 1888 Pierrie and Currie described the piezoelectric
effect. The meaning of the word piezo is pressure. Application
of pressure, compression or deformation to the crystal produces
the electric changes in the crystal. In 1910 Langevin described
the reverse piezoelectric effect. Reverse piezoelectric effect is the
application of electricity or potential difference across the crystal
produces oscillations or deformation or pressure changes in the
crystal. From the ultrasonic point of view, the reverse piezo-
electric effect is the production of high frequency oscillations
from the crystal of piezoelectric substances by the application of
high frequency current. (Memory trick: HFO of crystal by HFC).
Functional Parts
The functional parts of the ultrasonic generator are oscillator
circuit, controlling circuit, resistance circuit, coaxial cable, crystal
and transducer. Oscillator circuit produces high frequency
Therapeutic Ultrasound 95
alternating current, resistance circuit controls the amplitude of

the ultrasound waves by controlling the amplitude of high
frequency alternating currents and controlling circuit produces
the pulsed out put. In addition to this there is a coaxial cable,
which transfer the high frequency current from the generator to
the crystal. Crystal acts as the source of ultrasound waves.
Transducer or the head serves as an applicator.
Parameters
Various controlling knobs or the parameters of ultrasound
machine are mains, timer, intensity or output, meter, space ratio,
etc. The function of mains is to switch on or off the machine,
the function of timer is to adjust the treatment time, the function
of output knob is to adjust the intensity of sound waves, the
meter helps to measure the dose, space ratio can be adjusted as
per the requirement, usually higher output and less interval is
preferred in chronic and reverse in case of acute. Hence in short,
we can summaries it as 1:1 for chronic and 1:4 for acute and so
on.
Working
When power is supplied to the circuit then oscillator circuit
produces the high frequency circuit. Pulse mode switches on
the controlling circuit and produces interrupted or pulsed out
put. The power or output is then controlled by means of the
resistance circuit.
The high frequency current produced by the generator is fed
to the crystal via coaxial cable. It is applied by means of metal
electrodes on either side of the crystal say top and bottom of it.
Application of the high frequency current causes repeated
oscillations of crystal with a high frequency and produces the
ultrasound waves. On the front side of the crystal, metal plate
or the diaphragm of transducer is located and on the backside
of it, there is air column. The air column on the backside causes
the emission of ultrasonic waves mostly from the front side or

the treatment aspect of the transducer (Fig. 6.1).
US
Oscillator Controlling Resistance

Mains circuit circuit circuit
Fig. 6.1: Block diagram of ultrasonic generator
Thermal Effects
When ultrasound waves are applied to the body tissues then
tissues absorb them. As a result of absorption of ultrasound
waves, heat is produced inside the body tissue. This heat may
be produced because of the conversion of the sonic energy into
the thermal energy. If heat dissipation equals the generation
then there is no net rise in the local temperature and the effect is
said to be non-thermal. On the other hand if heat dissipation is
less than the generation then there is net rise in the local
temperature and the effect is said to be thermal. Various thermal
effects are increased peripheral arterial blood flow, increased
tissue metabolism, increased permeability of membrane,
increased pain threshold, increased sensitivity of C-type of nerve
fibers, relief of muscle spasm, increased vascularity of skin due
to stimulation of sympathetic fibers, increased tendon
extensibility and may produce pathological fractures in bone
with excessive dosages. It is also said that ultrasound may not
have any beneficial effect on fracture healing.
The amount of the heat produced due to insonation depends
on various factors such as intensity, mode, duration of insonation,
space ratio, reflection of sound waves inside the tissues, protein
content, etc. If the intensity is higher then there is more heat
production. If the duration of insonation or ultrasound
application is higher then there is more heat production inside
the body tissues. If there is more reflection of the ultrasound

waves inside the body tissues then there is more rise in local
heat. Tissues with higher protein content absorb more ultrasound
and hence, there is more production of heat if the protein content
of the tissues is higher. The amount of the heat developed is
more in continuous mode as compared to the pulsed mode. In
case of pulsed mode it depends on space ratio and the heat
production is more if space ratio is 1:1 than when it is 1:4 or
1:7. Heat produced is likely to be better if reflection is greater as
a result of adding effect of propagation and reflected back waves.
It occurs at interfaces of periosteum and bone, which are
separated by a thin layer of air. As a result of reflection localized
overheating at periosteum level may occur and may lead to
periosteal pain or hot spots and hence during the treatment
subcutaneous bony prominences may be avoided. Heating effect
is also likely to be increased because of friction between
ultrasound head and body tissue, non-moving ultrasound head,
if ultrasound is used continuously, repeatedly without allowing
sufficient time to cool off the ultrasound machine.
Thermal effect increases vasodilatation, cell activity, blood
supply and removes waste products and there by facilitates
resolution of inflammation and promotes healing. The thermal
effect also causes increase in extensibility of fibrous tissues such
as ligaments, joint capsule and scar tissues.
Mechanical Effects
Mechanical or non-thermal effects of therapeutic ultrasound are
acoustic streaming, micromassage, standing waves and cavita-
tions.
Acoustic streaming Unidirectional flow of tissue fluids as a
result of insonation is termed as acoustic streaming. Acoustic
streaming increases permeability of cells.
Micromassage Acoustic vibrations due to insonation produce
a form of micro massage effect in the tissues.
Standing waves Stationary or standing waves pattern of

ultrasonic waves may develop if there is cancellation effect of
propagating and reflected waves. Standing waves may produce
blood cell stasis in the vessels and hence measures like moving
the ultrasound head during the treatment or using pulsed form,
etc should be taken so as to prevent the formation of standing
waves pattern in the body tissues.
Cavitations It is the formation of tiny gas bubbles in the tissues
as a result of insonation. The size of these gas bubbles is of a
micron. Cavitations may be stable or transient. In stable
cavitations gas bubbles remains intact, size of bubbles does not
change and there is no considerable pressure and temperature
change. On the contrary in case of transient cavitations there is
rapid change in the volume of bubbles. Collapsing of these
bubbles causes considerable pressure and temperature changes
and hence transient cavitations can cause gross damage to the
tissues. To prevent the occurrence of cavitations adequate
pressure with transducer should be exerted during the
application, pulsed out put can be used, only suggested levels
of insonation should be used and any sort of discomfort to the
patient should be avoided during the treatment.
Chemical Effects
Insonation enhances chemical reactions and processes occurring
at tissue level. The effect may be similar to a test tube shake in
the laboratory.
THERAPEUTIC EFFECTS
Therapeutic effects of insonation are pain relief, resolution of
inflammation and acceleration of healing.
Pain Relief
Pain can be relived by ultrasonic therapy. Insonation can be
used for the relief of acute, subacute and chronic musculoskeletal
pain. Exactly how it causes pain relief is not known. It may due
to thermal or non-thermal effects. Pain relief may occur due to
resolution of inflammation, removal of waste products or altered
permeability of cell membrane to sodium, which may alter the
electrical activity or pain threshold.
Inflammation
Insonation helps in the resolution of inflammation by increased
blood supply, white blood cells and removal of waste products.
Hence, it can be used in the treatment of inflammatory conditions
and traumatic conditions to reduce the inflammation and prevent
adhesions of soft tissues.
Effect on Healing/Repair
Healing may occur by repair or regeneration. Repair is the
replacement of damaged cells by some other cells, which are
not exactly similar in structure and function. Regeneration is the
replacement of damaged cells by the same cells, which are same
in structure and function. Human beings have lost their power
of regeneration during evolutionary process and very little
regeneration occurs in human beings. Ultrasound facilitates the
healing at all three stages of repair. During inflammatory phase
insonation increases the fragility of lysosomes. As a result there
is release of autotytic enzymes. Autotytic enzymes clear the
debris. In proliferative phase ultrasound increases the prolife-
ration of fibroblasts and myofibroblasts. Myofibroblasts are the
cells, which contain fibril like structure. In remodeling phase
ultrasound facilitates remodeling of new tissues.
Therapeutic Uses
Therapeutic ultrasound has been applied to vast range of
conditions. Few of conditions in which successful out come is
likely to occur are; bursitis, tendonitis, plantar fascitis, plantar
warts, calcaneal spur, tennis elbow, golfer’s elbow, sacroilitis,
coccydynia, low back pain, osteoarthritis, rheumatoid arthritis,
fibrous nodules, rheumatic nodules, venous ulcers, scars,
pressure sores, Dupuytren’s contracture, later stages of myositis

ossificans, phantom limb pain, frozen shoulder, temporo-
mandibular joint syndrome, Bell’s palsy, sports injuries, surgical
wounds, episiotomies, capsulitis, joint contractures, deep seated
muscle spasm, calcific tendonitis, exostosis, causalgia, Sudeck’s
atrophy, pyerione’s disease, dislocations, sprains, etc.
Contraindications
Therapeutic ultrasound is contraindicated over metal implants,
plastic implants such as high-density polyethylene, acrylic
implant and implanted cardiac pace makers. Insonation over
these implants may be harmful because of maximum absorption
of acoustic vibrations, increased heat production and interference
with the function of implants. Insonation is also contraindicated
over specialized tissues such as eyes, ears, ovaries or testes as it
may have harmful effects such as cavitations and may lead to
irreparable damage.
An area where there is presence of vascular problems such
as haemorrhage, haematoma, haemarthrosis, haemophilia,
thrombosis, thrombophlebitis, embolism, arteriosclerosis and
ischemia should not be treated with ultrasound. Insonation
should not be applied in infected area, as there is possibility of
spread of infection to the deeper level or to other patient through
cross contamination. In tuberculous lesion it may reactivate the
dormant capsular lesion. High doses of ultrasound should not
be given over anesthetic areas so as to avoid possible skin
damage because of heat. Ultrasound should not be applied to
areas that have received radiotherapy within last six months as
it may cause more devitalization of the tissues. Ultrasound
therapy over tumor/neoplasm should be avoided as it may cause
metastases. Treatment over or near the abdomen of pregnant
patient with ultrasound should be avoided because it may
produce untoward effects. Ultrasound therapy over spina bifida
is generally avoided as it may have an adverse effect on spinal
cord. Similarly, treatment over cervical ganglia or over vagus

nerve is dangerous in patients who suffer from cardiac diseases.
Dangers and Precautions

Various dangers like thermal burns, cavitations, over dose,
damage to the ultrasound machine, etc. is likely to occur during
insonation. However, these dangers can be minimized or
prevented by taking some precautions. Various precautions to
be taken while treating a patient are; check the thermal sensation
prior to the ultrasound application, use the suggested levels of
ultrasound dosages, move the ultrasound head, avoid superficial
bony prominences, avoid excess sensation of heat during the
treatment, don’t keep the ultrasound head in air when the output
is on, maintain the perfect contact in between the ultrasound
head and the body tissues, etc.
Various methods by which insonation can be applied are bath
method, bag method and through contact cream. (You can
remember them with BBC).
Contact Cream Method

This method of ultrasound application is quite commonly used.
It is also vaguely called as direct method. However, ultrasound
cannot be applied directly to the body part since there are
chances of reflections of ultrasound and uneven transmission
without couplant. Couplant is any intervening material medium
between ultrasound head and body tissue which offers perfect
contact of head to the body tissue and allow maximum
transmission of sonic waves. Various ultrasonic couplants used
are boiled or degassed water, glycerin, oils, liquid paraffin and
various ultrasonic gels commercially available for this purpose.
Commercially available ultrasonic gels are thixotrophic in nature
that is they liquefy very easily. In addition to this they are
attractive in color, less corrosive to the skin, allow perfect contact

between the ultrasonic head and the body tissues, allow
satisfactory transmission, they can be easily wiped out and
somewhat cheaper also!
In contact cream or the direct method coupling material such
as ultrasonic gel is applied to the skin and the ultrasound head
is moved over the area to be treated. This method is satisfactory
for even body surfaces. During inso-
nation with this method ultrasonic head
should be kept in perfect contact with
body tissues, head should be kept at
right angle to the body surface treated
and adequate pressure should be Fig. 6.2: Through
exerted (Fig. 6.2). contact cream
Insonation by Bath Method

It is also known as subacqeous method of application. In bath
method, insonation is applied to the body part through the water
in a tub, tray or tank. This method of application can be used
for the treatment of hand, forearm, foot and leg. In this method
ultrasound head is placed in water and moved parallel to the
body part to be treated at about 1 to 2 mm away from the skin.
Alternatively ultrasonic head can be just kept stationary in the
water container.
Bag Method of Insonation

In bag method a plastic rubber bag filled with degassed water is
placed over the body part to be treated. First couplant is smeared
on the surface of bag, skin and treatment head and then the
treatment head is moved over water bag. It is used for irregular
surface, which can’t conventionally be placed in water. Higher
output may be required due to the presence of two interfaces,
one between the ultrasonic head and bag and the other between
bag and the body part.
Testing of Ultrasound Machine

Ultrasound machine can be tested prior to its use for the
treatment purpose so as to ensure that it is working properly
and emitting the ultrasonic waves. It can be tested by various
ways.
Water Drops Method
Here few drops of water are splashed on the surface of the
treatment head and then the output is increased momentarily. It
will cause the vibration of water, which appears as if it is boiling.
Container Method
Apply the ultrasonic gel on the bottom of a suitable container
and fill it with water. Place the treatment head over the bottom
of the container. It produces ripples like appearance in the water
when output is increased.
Thenar Eminence
Apply ultrasonic gel to your left thenar eminence. Keep the
ultrasound head over this, increase the output and move the
ultrasound head slowly in a circular fashion after adjusting the
output by right hand. You may feel slight warmth, which suggest
that the ultrasound is working properly.
Dosages of Ultrasound
In acute conditions the dose should be 0.25 to 0.5 watts/cm² for
2 to 3 minutes. In chronic conditions it can be increased to 0.8
to 2 watts/cm². Use 3 MHz for superficial lesions and 1 MHz for
deep lesions. I am not aware of any strict guidelines about the
number of treatments, which should be given. But usually up to
12 treatments on everyday or alternate days can be given and
after 12 treatments insonation should be stopped for at least a
weak before once again repeating. Alternatively you can watch
the patient’s symptoms and if patient complaints of deep bone
pain then it suggest that there is overdose. In case of overdose
occasionally the patient may have general symptoms such as

fever. Following overdose, you can reduce the intensity of
application on subsequent treatments, reduce the treatment time
or stop the treatment with ultrasound.
PULSED ULTRASOUND
During the early use of this modality only continuous ultrasound
was used and the intensity was selected in such a way that it
produced the appreciable thermal change. But slowly it was
recognized that non-thermal effects can have more mechanical
effects and direct effects on the nerves and hence the use of
lower intensity and the pulsed form came into practice. In the
pulsed form of therapeutic ultrasound the output of ultrasound
commences and ceases at regular interval. The pulse duration
and the interval can be adjusted by pulse ratio. Pulse ratio is the
ratio of pulse length duration of each pulse to the interval
duration in successive pulses. Various pulse ratios commonly
used are 1:1, 1:4, 1:7 and 1:10. Usually the pulse duration is 2
millisecond but the pulse interval can be varied in the multiples
of 2 millisecond so as to get different ratios. When the pulse
ratio is 1:1 then the output of each pulse is 2 millisecond and
the interval between the pulses is also 2 millisecond, when the
pulse ratio is 1: 4 that means output is 2 millisecond but the
pulse interval is 8 millisecond. Pulse ratio is often termed as
space ratio. Alternatively the space ratio can also be expressed
in terms of duty cycle, which is the ratio of the pulse length to
the total length of the pulse plus pulse interval. Thus when we
choose the pulse ratio of 1:4 that means 2 millisecond pulse
duration and 8 millisecond pulse interval then it means the duty
cycle will be 20%. Pulsed ultrasound produces very minimal
thermal effects but it produces maximal mechanical or non-
thermal effects. Hence, pulsed output of the ultrasound is
preferred in acute conditions, bony prominences, for
phonophoresis, for mechanical effects as in case of scars and
adhesions, and in an area of the treatment where the satisfactory

movement of transducer is not possible as in case of coccydynia.
(memory trick for you is SP, BAM where S satisfactory movement
of head impossible, P for phonophoresis, B for bone, A for acute
and M for mechanical effects).
Phonophoresis
It is the transfer of drugs in ointment or gel form through the
skin under the influence of ultrasound. It is also called as
ultrasonophoresis or sonophoresis. The initial reports about this
technique appeared in 1960’s and 70’s. Phonophoresis is
believed to be an effective method of transferring the medication
into an area without having to undergo painful and sometimes
poorly placed injections. By this technique the hazard of injection
and accompanying apprehension can be avoided. Phono-
phoresis with hydrocortisone can be used in psoriasis,
scleroderma, puritis and chronic tendonitis. Phonophoresis with
iodine is recommended in scars, adhesive joint disorders, calcific
deposits, etc. Phonophoresis with lidocaine can be used for local
anesthetic effect. Phonophoresis with salicylate ointment can
be used for pain relief in various musculoskeletal conditions.
Personally I use piroxicam ointment for pain relief, which gives
satisfactory results. For phonophoresis use lower frequencies such
as 1MHz, pulsed output, higher concentration of the drug and
easily soluble drugs so that desired effect can be achieved.
Combination Therapy
In order to achieve treatment goals therapeutic ultrasound can
be applied in combination with other modality and this technique
of applying two modalities together is termed as combination
therapy. Ultrasound can be combined with surged faradic
current, TENS, interferential current and iontophoresis. The
concept of ultrasound and iontophoresis has got lot of practical
limitations. Ultrasound with surged faradic current or single
channel TENS or bipolar interferential current can be applied

by placing one electrode over the convenient area and
connecting the other electrode to the ultrasound applicator by
means of an alligator pin or through the machine if such facility
is available in the ultrasonic machine. Bearing in mind the
different treatment durations of ultrasound and TENS,
interferential current and faradic stimulation this technique may
not be very effective.
SUMMARY
Ultrasound can produce thermal or non-thermal effects. Acoustic
streaming increases the permeability of the cells. Ultrasonic
therapy can be used for pain relief. Therapeutic ultrasound
accelerates the healing and can be used in vast conditions.
Various precautions to be taken while treating a patient with
ultrasound are; check the thermal sensation prior to the
ultrasound application, use the suggested levels of ultrasound
dosages, move the ultrasound head, avoid superficial bony
prominences, avoid excess sensation of heat during the
treatment, don’t keep the ultrasound head in air when the output
is on, maintain the perfect contact in between the ultrasound
head and the body tissues, etc. Pulsed ultrasound produces very
minimal thermal effects but it produces maximal mechanical or
non-thermal effects.
chapter seven
Cryotherapy
Therapeutic use of local cold application for the treatment of

various diseases and disorders is known as cryotherapy. In past
it was often termed as hypothermy. Personally I prefer to call it
as hypothermy! Heat abstraction or cooling by cryotherapeutic
agents mostly occurs by conduction except in case of
vapocoolant spray. The magnitude of cooling depends on; area
of body surface exposed to cold, time of exposure, temperature
difference between body tissues and cooling agent, thermal
conductivity of the tissues and type of cooling agent. The physics
of cooling is based on Newton’s law of cooling.
Physiological effects of cryotherapy are reduced body
temperature, reduction in blood supply, reduction in metabolism
and behavioral changes.
Body Temperature
Cold causes fall in local body temperature. However, severe
local cooling may result in hypothermia. Hypothermia is a
condition where the core temperature is below 35ºC. It may be
a life-threatening situation.
Circulatory Effect
Cold application causes reflex vasoconstriction of cutaneous
vessels. Application of cold causes increase in sympathetic nerves
activity, smooth muscle contraction and may increase viscosity

of blood. All these changes result in reduced blood flow in the
area that is directly cooled. However, when the temperature is
reduced below 10ºC then cold induced reflex vasodilatation may
occur. Reflex vasodilatation tends to occur in a cyclical manner
and is believed to result from an axon reflex. Reflex vasodilatation
following cold application was first recognized and reported by
Lewis in 1930. The repeated cyclical vasodilatation and
vasoconstriction is known as Huntington’s reaction. Cooling
more than 10ºC causes pain. Pain impulse or afferent impulse
is carried antidromically towards skin arterioles. It leads to
liberation of H substance and there by vasodilatation. Once again
continued cooling causes vasoconstriction and these events are
repeated.
Metabolism
Cooling of tissue decreases the metabolic activity and hence
the energy and oxygen requirements of cells get reduced. This
effect is one of the most important effects of cryotherapy
especially from the acute injury point of view.
Behavioral Changes
Person receiving cold application for prolonged time may adopt
a contracted posture. Arms and legs may be drawn up to the
body by which the surface area exposed to cooling can be
minimized. It is said that contracted posture can reduce the heat
loss by up to 60%.
THERAPEUTIC EFFECTS
Pain Relief
Cold is one of the highly effective physiotherapeutic modality
in relieving pain. It is commonly used for the relief of acute pain.
It can also be used for the relief of acute exacerbation of pain
on the chronic background. Pain relief may occur due to counter
Cryotherapy 109
irritation, reduced nerve conduction, decreased inflammatory

process and relief of muscle spasm.
Muscle Spasm
Cryotherapy is effective in relieving the muscle spasm. Relief of
spasm may occur due to decreased muscle spindle activity and
secondary to the relief of pain.
Inflammation
It may bring about early resolution of inflammation by reducing
vascular or cellular component of inflammation as a result of
vasoconstriction.
Swelling
Cold application can reduce the swelling following an acute
injury. It may be due to vasoconstriction of arterioles and
reduction in extravasations of fluid into interstitial space.
Connective Tissue Extensibility

Cryotherapy increases tissue viscosity and consequently
decreases the extensibility of the connective tissue. Patient may
report an increase in stiffness after cold application and hence
thermotherapy is a better choice in the treatment of tightness,
contracture and stiffness.
Trauma
Cryotherapy is one of the very effective modality in the treatment
of acute injuries. Cryotherapy reduces pain, bleeding and
swelling. In addition to this, cryotherapy increases the survival
rate of the tissues. Death of cells following injury may occur due
to hypoxia and increased enzyme activity. Hypoxia may occur
due to physical tears of blood vessels, oedema and vascular
congestion. Since, the cryotherapy application reduces the
metabolism and enzyme activity, the survival rate of the damaged
tissues increases.
Muscle Tone
Cryotherapy can reduce the muscle tone. Hence, it is used in
the treatment of spasticity. Reduction in spasticity may occur
due to decreased activity of efferent gamma fibers.
Muscle Strength and Endurance

Muscle strength may increase with short-term application of
cryotherapy. But on long-term application muscle strength gets
reduced. However, one hour after the cessation of cooling,
muscle strength may increase. Motor endurance decreases after
cooling below 27ºC.
Agility
Agility or motor skill reduces by cold application. Thus even
though cold reduces spasticity but to teach a motor task after
cold application is somewhat difficult!
Peripheral Nerves
Cold can reduce the velocity of sensory conductivity, motor nerve
conductivity and synaptic activity if the temperature of the nerve
decreases. Cooling below 12ºC may cause paralysis of local
sensory and motor nerves.
Indications
Cryotherapy is commonly used in the treatment of acute
musculoskeletal injuries (0 to 72 hours), to reduce the acute
pain, to reduce muscle spasticity, for relief of muscle spasm, to
initiate muscle contraction, arthritis (acute onset and acute
exacerbation on chronic back ground), quadriceps lag, oedema,
swelling, ankle sprain, tennis elbow, Bell’s palsy, post surgical
pain, bed sores, etc.
Cryotherapy 111
Contraindication and Precautions

Cryotherapy is contraindicated in Raynaud’s disease, Raynaud’s
phenomenon, Burger’s disease, cryoglobulinaemia, paroxysmal
cold haemoglobinumia, open wound (after 48 hours),
regenerating peripheral nerves, vasospastic disease, impaired
sensation, cold urticaria and arteriosclerosis. Precautions should
be taken while treating a patient with hypertension and local
cryotherapy application into an area where nerves are superficial
such as medial epicondyle, axilla and head of fibula. Precautions
should also be taken while treating a patient with cardiovascular
disease. While treating a patient with hypertension, monitor the
blood pressure through out the treatment.
Vapocoolant spray, ice cube massage, cold packs, ice packs, ice
towels, cold immersion, compressive cryotherapy and chemical
cold packs can be used to apply cryotherapy.
Vapocoolant Sprays
Vapocoolant sprays are commonly used in the management of
sports injuries. The most common type of vapocoolant spray
used in physiotherapy is fluromathane. In past, ethyl chloride
vapocoolant sprays were used. But ethyl chloride is flammable,
explosive and should not be inhaled. Hence nowadays, ethyl
chloride sprays are rarely used. The spray removes the heat
from the skin underlying tissue and feels like a cool jet stream of
fluid on the skin. Spray can be applied along with stretch. The
advantage of the spray is, it can be used at home and it takes
very little time to apply the spray.
First demonstrate it to the patient by applying it on yourself.
Then you can apply it on the patient by tilting the spray bottle
upside down and aligning it at 30 ºC to the body part, hold it at
45 cms away from the body part and then apply the spray in a
parallel sweeps fashion with a speed of 10 cm per second. You
can apply the spray so as to cover the area twice or thrice. This
will cause adequate cooling of the body part. If more spray is
indicated then the body part must be re-warmed to avoid injury
to the skin.
Ice Massage
Ice massage is usually done over a small area. Ice massage is
used for pain relief in local area and facilitation of muscle
contraction. Muscle contraction can be facilitated by rapid and
brief application over the skin dermatome. Massage with ice is
simple and inexpensive. Ice cubes are easily available and hence
it is one of the easily accessible modality to therapist as well as
patient. It is usually applied over a bursa, tendon, muscle belly,
trigger point (before deep massage) and small areas of muscle
spasm. Ice massage can be taught to patients so that it can be
used at home.
Water can be frozen in paper cups to make handling of the ice
by the physiotherapist easier. The cup is peeled back as the ice
melts. As an alternative, water may be frozen in a wax or
styrofoam cup with a wooden tongue stick (ice lollipops) in the
middle so that the person applying ice will not get cold. Ice
cubes from household freeze also can be used for ice massage.
During application, a towel can be used to wipe the water
seepage from the treated area because excess water will be cold
and make the patient uncomfortable. The ice is rubbed over
the skin by using small overlapping circles. An area of 10 to 15
cm can be treated in 5 to 10 minutes. If a larger area is involved
then any other method of applying cryotherapy should be
considered. The treatment takes usually 5 to 10 minutes for the
area to have reduced sensation. Patient will usually experience
Cryotherapy 113
four distinct sensations, including intense cold, numbness,

burning, aching and then analgesia. When the patient touches
the area and finds inability to feel the touch sensation, the
treatment is completed. Ice massage produces analgesia and
continues to do so for 3 to 5 minutes after treatment. To take
maximum advantage of analgesic effect, manual therapy should
be done immediately after the ice massage.
Cold Packs
Cold packs are canvas bags containing silicate gel. Cold packs
are available in various sizes and shapes to contour the area to
be treated. These packs can be stored in a special refrigeration
unit or in a household freezer. Storage temperature should be
–5 ºC for at least two hours before use. These packs are reusable,
do not reduce the skin temperature as quickly as ice bags, the
patients who do not like the cold therapy can tolerate them,
cold packs can easily mold to the body part and they do not
open easily as ice packs.
After removal of a cold pack from refrigerator, it is applied on
top of the body part to be treated. Then check in between the
use. For hygienic reasons, a layer of towel can be placed between
the pack and the skin surface. Patient should not lie on the top
of the cold pack. Many physiotherapists apply a wet towel first
to the skin and then apply the cold pack and cover it with other
towel or sheet to insulate the area. If the towel is wet with the
room temperature or lukewarm water, the initial contact will be
more comfortable for the patient. A strap can secure the cold
pack so that the area is well supported. Cold packs are usually
applied for 20 minutes. After the removal of cold pack from the
treatment area, they should be refrozen for at least two hours
before the next use of them. For the longer use, the pack should
be replaced with another cold pack.
Ice Packs
Here a plastic bag is filled with crushed ice. It can be placed
directly on the body part or with wet towel in between patient’s
skin and ice bag. Ice pack or bag treatment time ranges from 10
to 20 minutes. They are particularly of help in the treatment of
patients who had undergone surgery. Ice packs in these patients
can reduce the swelling and decrease pain.
Ice Towels
Superficial cooling may be achieved by the use of ice towels.
Here terry towel is placed in a bucket containing flaked ice and
water then wrung out and applied to the part. It may be used
for 5 to 10 minutes for analgesia to occur. Larger area may be
covered but the towel will need to be replaced frequently as it
warms up rapidly. Treatment with ice towels can be given for up
to 20 minutes. Many physiotherapists use this method for
cryokinetics or cryostretching techniques.
Cold Immersion
Here extremity is immersed for 3 to 5 seconds in slush bath and
then it is removed from bath. Ice immersion can be effectively
used for the treatment of extremities.
Compressive Cryotherapy
Here the compressive pumps provide external pressure and
cooled water to an extremity through the sleeve. It is used to
reduce swelling in an area and to prevent loss of function. These
machines apply intermittent pressure to the body part so as to
increase the interstitial pressure and pump the fluid back into
the venous system. Pressure values used to treat upper extremity
are 40 to 60 mm Hg and for lower extremity approximately 60
to 80 mm Hg (10 mm less than diastolic blood pressure of the
patient). Usually the on and off time ratio is 3:1. Treatment time
varies and usually lasts for 10 to 15 minutes. With some larger
Cryotherapy 115
units, two limbs may be treated simultaneously. These machines

are used at sports medicine centers for the treatment of sprains,
strains contusions and for reducing oedema in acute injuries.
Patients with circulatory problems possibly will have extreme
difficulty in tolerating this treatment.
Chemical Cold Packs

These are prepacked chemical packs that become cool when
chemicals inside it are squeezed. For example, a pack with two
components, one filled with water and other with ammonium
nitrate which when squeezed mixes with other contents to
produce cooling. These packs are expensive, can be used only
once and they can be preferred when ice is not available. These
packs may cause a chemical skin burn if they open accidentally.
Chemical cold packs tend to cause poor cooling. These packs
are too small and they are mostly used for immediate
management of musculoskeletal injuries.
SUMMARY
Therapeutic use of local cold application for the treatment of
various diseases and disorders is known as cryotherapy. Cold
causes fall in local body temperature. Cold application can
reduce the pain, muscle spasm and swelling following an acute
injury. Vapocoolant spray, ice cube massage, cold packs, ice
packs, ice towels, cold immersion, compressive cryotherapy and
chemical cold packs can be used to apply cryotherapy. While
treating a patient with hypertension, monitor the blood pressure
through out the treatment.
chapter eight
Phototherapy
In this chapter, I have tried to briefly describe the photo-

therapeutic modalities such as Laser, infra-red rays and ultraviolet
rays. Since the use of ultraviolet rays is getting declined because
of the popularity of Laser, I have briefly mentioned the
production of ultraviolet rays. More details about the same can
be referred from any other relevant book.
Therapeutic Laser
Laser is an acronym for light amplification by the stimulated
emission of radiation. In very simple words the Laser is a beam
of radiation, which is used for various purposes. Lasers are
termed as magic rays since they have enormous applications in
different fields. For physiotherapeutic purpose therapeutic Laser
is used. Therapeutic Laser is also known as low intensity Laser,
soft Laser, cold Laser, and class 3A and 3B Laser.
Historical Aspects
Historically Einstein was the first person who gave an account
of stimulated emission. In 1953 Maser (Microwave amplification
by stimulated emission of radiation) was discovered. In 1955
Dr. Theodore Maiman devised a working model for the
production of Laser from Ruby crystal. In 1960 Bennet, Javan
and Herriott discovered Helium neon Laser. In 1962 White and
Ridgen produced visible red Laser with the 632.8 nm
wavelength. In 1964 Block and Zueng for the first time used
Phototherapy 117
Laser for surgery. From 1980’s onwards, therapeutic Laser is

used for physiotherapeutic applications.
Characteristics of Laser
Laser has unique characteristics, which differentiate it from other
forms of light. Various characteristic features of Laser are
monochromaticity, coherence and collimation. (You can
remember them with CMC where C stands for coherence, M for
monochromaticity and C for collimation).
Monochromaticity
Here the word mono means single and chromaticity means
colour. On its emission Laser produces single pure colour. It
produces single pure colour because it has one specific
wavelength. Laser light entering a prism would be identical on
exit because it is monochromatic. On the other hand the white
light is made-up of many different colours or wavelengths and
when it passes through a prism it produces a rainbow of colours.
Coherence
Laser rays are synchronous to each other. This property of
synchronicity is termed as coherence. Crest and trough of
individual rays matches each other. Laser rays are synchronous
to each other in space, i.e. they travel in the same direction and
this coherence is known as spatial coherence. Laser rays are
also coherent to each other in relation to time and this type of
coherence is known as temporal coherence. Analogy about the
coherence can be done with army soldiers when they are
marching in step in the same direction and wearing the same
dress.
Collimation
Collimation is also termed as non-divergence. Laser rays travel
parallel to each other rather than diverging from each other,
this property is known as collimation. Collimation does not occur

in other forms of light for example bulb and battery. In case of
bulb and battery, the rays divert since they consists of many
different wavelengths and they spread out in all directions. It is
said that the Laser rays can travel up to the moon from earth in
parallel to each other, with very negligible divergence.
Classification
Lasers can be roughly classified into two types such as cold
Laser and hot Laser. Cold Laser is also known as low intensity
Laser or therapeutic Laser. The average power of cold Laser is
less than 60mw.This power is below the power, which causes
tissue heating. Hot Laser is also known as high intensity Laser
or surgical Laser. Here the average power is above the power,
which causes tissue heating. The power of hot Laser is more
than 60mw.
Types of Laser
Various types of Lasers are Helium neon Laser, Ruby Laser,
Gallium Laser, Aluminum Laser, Carbon Laser and Diode Laser.
Out of these helium neon Laser, which has got wavelength of
632.8 nm, is commonly used in physiotherapy.
PRODUCTION OF LASER
Principle of Production
Laser is produced from the substances, which are capable of
producing Laser rays on the basis of stimulated emission of
radiation.
Functional Parts
A laser device consists of three chief components such as lasing
medium, energy source and mechanical structure. (Remember
with MEL and not MEL GIBSON)!
Phototherapy 119
Lasing medium It is a material, which is capable of producing

Laser. It may be gaseous, liquid, solid crystal or semiconductor.
Energy source An energy source is used to excite the lasing
medium. This excitation is usually electrical. It is also known as
flashgun.
Mechanical structure It is central chamber like structure, which
contains the lasing medium. It has two mirrors at either end.
Out of these two mirrors, one is for reflection of photons of light
back and across the chamber. Other mirror in addition to
reflection, serve as an exit for the out put of photons of light or
Laser (Fig. 8.1).
Energy source
Exit
Lasing medium LASER
Semi permeable mirror

Mirror
Fig. 8.1: Functional parts of therapeutic Laser device
Working
When an energy particle or the photon is applied to the atom of
lasing medium it may be absorbed or reflected back. When the
atom absorbs it then there is change in its electron configuration.
An electron may jump from low energy level to high energy
level. An atom with change in its electronic configuration is
termed as an excited atom. Atom cannot remain in an excited
status for long time and tries to seek its original or ground status.
In order to achieve its ground status atom emits back the
absorbed energy. It is emitted spontaneously and termed as
spontaneous emission. If spontaneous emission is allowed to

take place then Laser rays will not be emitted because the energy
level necessary to achieve this may not be obtained. Hence,
when the atom is in its excited state then an additional energy is
applied so that the atom emits its excess of the energy
immediately. This emission is known as stimulated emission.
Since the emitted energy is more than what is supplied it is known
as amplification. Excess of energy is emitted in form of photons
of light. When these photons are emitted they are likely to be
collected inside the mechanical chamber and when they move
from one place to another they may hit one of the mirror. When
they hit the mirror they are reflected back. Once they are reflected
back they travel further through the lasing medium and increases
the amplification process further. As a result more and more
photons are accumulated in the mechanical chamber. When
the number of photons is more than what can be accommodated
in the mechanical chamber then they are emitted out of the
semi permeable mirror or the mirror that has exit. The emitted
photons are in form of Laser. They are carried by fiber optic
cable to the probe for treatment purpose.
Effects of Laser
Pain relief: Laser has got an analgesic effect It can be used in
the treatment of acute as well as chronic musculoskeletal pain.
Exactly how it brings pain relief is not known. It may be as a
result of endorphin secretion or due to reduced serotonin level
or as per the gate control theory. Laser can be applied at trigger
point, acupuncture points or at the site of pain. Personally, I
never came across any patient who immediately felt the pain
relief with Laser but my patients always told me that they felt
pain relief after few hours. It may suggest that unlike few other
electrotherapy modalities, therapeutic Laser takes some time to
exhibit this effect. However, it may be confirmed in future through
the research. Usually 8 to 12 treatment sessions may be required
Phototherapy 121
for the satisfactory pain relief but if there is no satisfactory pain

relief then the Laser treatment can be stopped and any other
alternative may be thought for pain relief.
Tissue Healing
It is said that Laser accelerates wounds and ulcers healing. It
may be due to increased phagocytosis, facilitation of collagen
synthesis, increased wound closure and wound contracture
following irradiation with Laser. Cummings (1985) performed
experiments on rats; he treated the artificial wounds in rats with
daily Laser, alternate Laser and sham Laser. He found that there
was greater healing in those rats that were treated with alternate
day Laser application than daily or sham Laser. Cummings
experiment may suggest that therapeutic Laser can accelerate
the wounds and ulcer healing. There are various explanations
or theories to explain the therapeutic Laser’s efficiency in the
treatment of wounds and ulcers healing.
Biostimulation theory: Laser stimulates all kinds of biological
functions including biochemical, physiological and proliferative
activities. It assists in proliferation of fibroblasts, re-epithelistion
and remodeling. Laser also stimulates intraceflular components
such as mitochondria, DNA, RNA and other substances, which
are vital for the growth and repair.
Photochemical theory: Chromophores are enzymes or
membrane molecules. They are photo acceptors i.e. they absorb
different lights like Laser. When the Laser is absorbed by
chromophores they get excited and exert biostimulative effects
as above.
Indications
In physiotherapy the Laser is used mainly for pain relief and for
the acceleration of the wound healing. Therapeutic Laser is used
in enormous musculoskeletal conditions for pain relief. Various
conditions in which Laser can be used for this purpose are

rheumatoid arthritis, osteoarthritis, bursiris, pertarthritis, bicipital
tendonitis, tenosynovitis, ankle sprain, trigger finger, carpal tunnel
syndrome, tennis elbow, chronic low back pain, sports injuries,
etc. For the healing purpose it can be used in wounds, chronic
ulcers, incisions, etc.
Contraindications
Therapeutic laser is contraindicated in pregnancy especially its
application around pelvis. It should not be applied at the site of
tumors. Exposure to eyes with therapeutic Laser is contrain-
dicated as it may lead to opacity of lens. It should not be applied
in an area of haemorrhage, cardiac pace maker, thrombosis
and unclosed fontanels of children, etc. (Memorize them with
PHEN, CTC where P stands for pregnancy; H for haemorrhage,
E for eyes, N for neoplasm or tumor, C for cardiac pacemaker,
T for thrombosis and C for children).
Dosages and Frequency

Therapeutic Laser can be applied for 2 to 30 seconds. Few
manufacturers even suggest the application of Laser up to 10 to
12 minutes! So it will be wise to calculate the dosages or follow
the guidelines of the manufacturer in this aspect to get satisfactory
results. Alternatively one can apply a dose of 1 to 12 J/cm2 by
using the formula.
Power (watts) x time (sec)
________________________
Energy density =
Area (cmz)
Therapeutic Laser in pulsed or continuous mode can be
applied everyday or on alternate days for three to ten weeks.
Sites of Application
Therapeutic Laser can be applied with the point probe or cluster
probe. Various sites of application for pain relief are site of pain,
Phototherapy 123
trigger point, tender spots, acupuncture points, etc. It can be

applied by contact or non-contact technique. In contact tech-
nique Laser is applied by keeping the probe in contact with the
skin or at a distance of few millimeter from the skin. (You can
memorize these sites with SATT where S stands for site of pain,
A for acupuncture point, T for trigger point and T for tender
spots).
INFRA-RED RAYS
Infra-red rays are electromagnetic waves with wavelength of 750
to 4,00000 nm. Infra-red rays are also called as thermiogenic
rays since these rays produce heat when they are absorbed by
the body tissue.
Classification
Depending on wavelength, infra- red rays are classified as short
wave infra-red and long wave infra-red. Short wave infra-red
rays are also called as near infra-red rays. Wavelength of short
wave infra-red rays ranges in between 750 to 1500 nm. Long
wave infra-red rays are also called as far infra-red rays.
Wavelength of these rays is above 1500 nm. Infra- red rays are
also classified as, infra-red A, B and C. Infra-red A have
wavelength between 750 to l400 nm, wavelength of infra-red B
is in the range of 1400 to 3000 nm and wavelength of infra- red
C ranges between 3000 nm to l mm.
Production
Any body with high temperature than the surrounding can emit
infra-red rays and hence sun is mainly the natural source of
infra-red radiation. However, in physiotherapy practice various
types of artificial infra- red generators are used. These generators
can be divided into two types of generators; as non-luminous
and luminous.
Non-luminous Generator
Non-luminous generators are also called as low temperature
generators. These generators produce only infra- red rays and
hence they are not visible. These generators are heated by the
passage of electric current through a bare wire or carbon, held
in a suitable non-conducting material like porcelain, mounted
in the center of a parabolic reflector. Small non-luminous units
draw 50 to 300 watts of power and larger ones draw up to 1500
watts. These generators emit only infra-red rays. All non-
luminous generators emit infra-red rays in between 750 to 1500
nm. The maximum emission of the rays is around 4000 nm.
Luminous Generator
Luminous generators are also called as high temperature
generators. Luminous generators emit visible rays, ultraviolet
rays and infra-red rays and hence they are visible. These
generators are in form of incandescent bulbs. An incandescent
bulb consists of a wire filament enclosed in a glass bulb, which
may or may not contain an inert gas at a low pressure. The
filament is a coil of fine wires usually made of tungsten. This
material tolerates repeated heating and cooling. The exclusion
of air prevents the oxidation of filament, which would cause an
opaque deposit to form inside the bulb. The wattage of the bulb
may vary from 60 to 1000 watts, although the use of bulbs with
higher wattage is discouraged because of the danger of the
explosion during the treatment. Incandescent bulb is generally
mounted at the center of the parabolic reflector and the reflector
is mounted on an adjustable stand. All luminous generators emit
the electromagnetic waves with the wavelength in between 350
to 4000 nm but the maximum emission of the rays is around
l000 nm. Accessories such as localizers, filters to filter out ultra
violet rays and visible rays were used commonly in the past.
However, nowaday only one accessory in form of variable
Phototherapy 125
resistance may be used so as to control the intensity of infra-

red rays (Fig. 8.2).
Power
Fig. 8.2: Luminous generator
Depth of Penetration
Maximum effective penetration of infra-red rays is 3 centimeter,
however it may vary from 0.1 millimeter to few centimeter. It is
said that infra- red rays from non-luminous generators have less
depth of penetration as compared to that of luminous generators.
Laws Regulating the Absorption of Radiations

Various laws regulating the absorption of radiations including
infra-red rays are Grothus law, law of inverse square, cosine
law, Beer-Lambert law, Kirchhoff’s law, Wien’s law, Stefan
Boltzman law and Arndt-Schulz principle.
Grothus law: It is also known as Grothus-Drapper law. It states
that the rays must be absorbed to produce the effect and the
effect will produce at that point at which the rays are absorbed.
I always explain this law to my students with very simple analogy.
I say you will pass the exam provided you will study and you
will pass those subjects which you will study. In another words
to pass you should study but by studying the electrotherapy
you will pass in electrotherapy and not in any other subject.
Although its not a perfect analogy, but it helps me to explain the
law to my students.
Law of inverse square Law of inverse square explains the

effect of distance on the intensity of infra-red rays. It states that
the intensity of a beam of rays from a point source is inversely
proportional to the square of the distance from the source.
Cosine law It is also known as Lambert’s cosine law. Cosine
law explains the effect of angle at which the rays strike. It states
that the proportion of rays absorbed varies as per the cosine of
the angle between incident and normal. Thus larger the angle
at which the rays strike to the body surface, lesser will be the
absorption and vice versa. If the rays strike at 90° to the body
part then angle between the incident and normal or
perpendicular will be zero and the cosine of 0° is maximum that
is 1. Thus there will be maximum absorption if the rays will
strike the body part at 90° as per this law. Hence, we always try
to apply the infra-red rays in such a way that they strike at the
90° angles to the body part to be treated.
Beer-Lambert law Degree of absorption depends on the
wavelengths of radiation and nature of absorbing materials.
Kirchhoff’s law It states that good radiators are good absorbers.
Wien’s law This law states that the wavelength of maximal
emission is inversely proportional to the absolute temperature
of the source so that hotter the source shorter is the wavelength
of emitted rays.
Stefan-Boltzman law Stefan Boltzman law states that the
output of the infra-red lamp will depend on the temperature of
the element and its radiating area.
Arndt-Schulz principle This principle states three things.
Addition of a sub threshold quantity of energy wifl not cause a
demonstrable change; addition of threshold and above quantity
of energy will stimulate the absorbing tissue to normal function
and if too great a quantity of energy is absorbed then added
energy will prevent normal function or destroy tissue.
Phototherapy 127
Physiological Effects
When infra- red rays are applied to the body, they are absorbed
by it. As a result of absorption of infra-red rays the
electromagnetic energy is converted into the thermal energy
and thus heat is produced. The principle physiological effect of
the infra- red rays on the body is the heat production. Other
physiological effects occur as a result of heat production. Various
physiological effects of infra- red rays are local rise in temperature,
increased activity of sweat glands, increased metabolism,
vasodilatation, relaxation of muscle tissue. On extensive or the
general treatment of entire body there is general rise in body
temperature and fall in blood pressure.
Therapeutic Effects
Different therapeutic effects of infra- red rays are relief of pain,
muscle relaxation and increased blood supply. The analgesic
effect of infra- red rays is not well understood. Mild heating with
infra- red rays may cause pain relief due to sedation. But the
strong heating may cause irritation and relieve the pain by
counter irritation. Pain relief may occur due to relaxation of
muscle spasm. Infra- red rays can relive the muscle spasm due
to decreased firing of gamma spindles within the muscle. Pain
relief may also occur due to removal of pain substance as a
result of increased blood supply and vasodilatation if pain is
associated with the accumulation of waste products.
Uses
Infra- red rays are commonly used in the treatment of subacute
and chronic inflammatory conditions in areas, which are
accessible to exposure. Various forms of arthritis such as
osteoarthritis and rheumatoid arthritis where joints are painful
and the pressure by other modality like hot packs, etc on it must
be avoided then infra- red rays can be a treatment of choice.
Skin conditions such as furunculitis, folliculitis, etc can be treated

with infra- red rays. Infra- red rays can be used as a preliminary
modality before stretching exercises. It can also be used in the
treatment of Bell’s palsy for the relief of pain at the root of ear.
Infra- red rays application in Bell’s palsy may also be of a value
since it may produce perspiration which will reduce the skin
resistance and facilitate the electrical stimulation of facial muscles.
Muscle spasm of traumatic and nontraumatic orthopedic origin
also can be very well treated with infra-red rays.
Contraindications
Various contraindications to local heating are fever, pelvic region
in pregnancy, over malignant area, impaired sensations,
anesthetic area, advanced cardiac disease, eczema, dermatitis,
impaired circulation, noninflammatory oedema, altered
consciousness, haemorrhagic conditions, varicose veins, patients
who are in extremes of age and following X-ray therapy.
Dosages on Infra-Red Rays

For acute cases irradiation with infra- red rays can be given for
10 to 15 minutes daily for 1 to 3 times as per the requirement.
For chronic cases up to 30 minutes once on daily or on alternate
days can be given. The infra- red generator is arranged in such
a position so that it is opposite to the center of the area to be
treated and the rays strike at right angles. Irradiation can be
applied at a distance of 50 to 75 cm. During irradiation of the
face cover the face, eyes and hair. Eyes should be protected by
moist cotton packs otherwise opacities of lens may occur.
Hazards of Infra-Red Irradiation

Although not very common but few hazards or dangers due to
infra- red irradiation may occur. They are burns, electric shock,
edema, overdose, faintness, headache, injury to eyes permanent
pigmentation, blisters, etc. These dangers can be prevented by
Phototherapy 129
number of precautions such as regularly checking the infra- red

generator for electrical safety.
ULTRAVIOLET RAYS
Ultraviolet rays are invisible rays with wavelengths between 10
to 400 nm.Ultraviolet rays are of three types such as ultraviolet
A, B and C. Although ultraviolet rays are emitted by sun, but for
physiotherapeutic treatment purpose ultraviolet generators
produce them. Most of these generators produce ultraviolet rays
from mercury. Various generators such as high pressure mercury
vapor lamp, low pressure mercury vapor lamp, fluorescent tubes,
Kromayer lamp, PUVA box, theraktin tunnel, etc. can be used
for physiotherapeutic applications.
Physiological Effects of Ultraviolet Rays

Ultraviolet rays can produce localized and generalized
physiological effects. Various physiological effects of ultraviolet
rays are erythema reaction, thickening of the epidermis, desqua-
mation, pigmentation, esophylactic effect, antibiotic effect,
vitamin D formation and general tonic effect.
Erythema Reaction
Absorption of ultraviolet rays produces erythema reaction
characterized by redness of the skin. This erythema is produced
mainly because of ultraviolet rays with wavelengths in between
250 to 297 nm. The severity of erythema depends on the intensity
of chemical reaction produced by ultraviolet rays. Intensity of
reaction is higher if the duration of exposure is higher and the
distance between the ultraviolet ray source and the body tissue is
lesser. If the intensity of irradiation with ultraviolet rays is less
then it may not produce visible red colour of the skin. Erythema
occurrence is mediated through the chemical changes. These
chemical changes are likely to occur due to release of H substance
as a result of irradiation. Release of H substance produces triple
response. Triple response is characterized by dilatatation of

capillaries, dilatation of arteries and exudation. These changes
are similar to inflammation and hence erythema can be termed
as inflammatory reaction. Erythema reaction occurs after 12 hours
of irradiation. Depending upon severity of chemical reaction and
cessation time, erythema is divided into four degrees.
First degree erythema (E1) It is characterized by slight
reddening of the skin with no irritation or soreness. It subsides
in 24 hours.
Second degree erythema (E2) It is characterized by more
reddening of the skin with slight irritation. It subsides in two or
three days.
Third degree erythema (E3) There is obvious reddening of
the skin, which is hot, sore and edematous. The reaction lasts
for about a week.
Fourth degree erythema (E4) Here all the third degree
erythema changes are present but in addition to this there is
blister formation.
Thickening of the Epidermis

Ultraviolet rays causes damage to the superficial cells. It is
followed by increased production of these cells, which tend to
cause the thickening of the epidermis.
Desquamation
It is the casting off dead cells from the surface of the body.
Ultraviolet rays causes damage to the cells, these damaged cells
are casted off and the process by which the dead cells are casted
off is known as peeling.
Pigmentation
Ultraviolet rays may cause conversion of the amino acid tyrosine
into the pigment melanin. Extent of pigmentation varies as per
Phototherapy 131
the individual; it is more in those with dark skin than with fair
skin.
Esophylactic Effect
It is the increased body’s resistance to infection as a result of
ultraviolet rays action on reticuloendothelial system. Some
retiucloendothelial cells are situated in the superficial tissues.
Ultraviolet rays can affect superficially situated reticuloendothelial
cells and reduce the irritability threshold of these cells, so that
antibodies are produced more readily in response to bacteria
and their toxins.
Bactericidal Effect
Short ultraviolet rays can destroy bacteria and other micro-
organisms commonly found in wounds. Fourth degree erythema
(E4) dose can effectively destroy all such organisms found in
wounds.
Vitamin D Formation
Ultraviolet rays may cause conversion of 7 dehydrocholesterol
into vitamin D. 7- DHC is present in sebum and hence this
reaction may occur at the surface of the skin or in superficial
layers of the skin.
General Tonic Effect

General tonic effect such as improved appetite, improved sleep
and reduced irritability may occur due to ultraviolet rays
irradiation. However there is no evidence for this.
THERAPEUTIC EFFECTS OF ULTRAVIOLET RAYS

Various therapeutic effects of ultraviolet rays are counterirritation,
increased blood supply, destruction of bacteria, tissue destruction
and desquamation.
Counterirritation
Ultraviolet irradiation may cause irritation of superficial sensory
nerve endings and hence may relieve the pain through
counterirritation. Usually a third degree erythema dose is
required for this purpose.
Increased Blood Supply

Ultraviolet rays increase the blood supply to the skin as a result
of erythema reaction. It can be used in the treatment of certain
conditions such as psoriasis, acne, alopecia and chilblains.
Destruction of Bacteria
Ultraviolet rays can destroy bacteria. Hence, ultraviolet
irradiation can be used in the treatment of superficial bacterial
infections such as infected wounds, adenitis and acne.
Tissue Destruction
Ultraviolet rays damages and destroy the superficial cells. It may
be applied to sluggish wounds for this purpose.
Desquamation
This casting off reaction of ultraviolet rays is of value in the
treatment of acne.
INDICATIONS AND CONTRAINDICATIONS

Ultraviolet rays are used in the treatment of psoriasis, acne,
bedsores, alopecia, chilblains, sluggish wounds, adenitis, infected
wounds and marasmus. However, ultraviolet ray irradiation is
contraindicated in presence of fever, acute eczema, irradiation
into thoracic region in presence of pulmonary tuberculosis,
following X-ray therapy, hypersensitive individuals, systemic
lupus erythematosus, photoallergy and skin grafts.
Phototherapy 133
HAZARDS AND PRECAUTIONS

Hazards of ultraviolet irradiation are conjunctivitis, overdose,
electric shock, burns and chilling sensation. Avoiding the
exposure of eyes by using dark glasses or glasses made-up of
Chances Crooke A glass and using shades around the lamp
with the help of clothe can prevent it. Over dose can be prevented
by carrying out test dosages on patient before application. Test
dosage can be carried out so as to find out time duration of
irradiation at a particular distance to produce El reaction. Once
we know die El reaction then one can calculate the time period
required at the same distance or any other distance by
calculations like E2 is 2.5 times El, E3 is 5 times El and E4 is 10
times El. The dose can also be calculated at any other distance
by using the following formula;
Old dose X New distance2
New dose = _____________________
Old distance2
Electric shock can be prevented by regular checkups for
leakage of current and proper earthing. Burns may occur if hot
part of the lamp was touched. Asking the patient not to touch
any part of the ultraviolet generator can prevent electric shock.
Chill may occur if total body irradiation is carried out and when
the treatment room is too cold. Maintaining the adequate room
temperature and simultaneous irradiation of patient with infra-
red rays can prevent it
PUVA AND IONOZONE THERAPY

It is a treatment technique used for the treatment of various
diseases in which ultraviolet rays are applied after giving psolaren
tablet or after applying psolaren ointment. It is commonly called
by its acronym PUVA (psolaren and ultravioletA). PUVA therapy
is used for the treatment of leucoderma, eczema, psoriasis,
uriticaria pigmentosa and cutaneous T cell lymphoma. Ionozone
therapy is a treatment technique characterized by the use of
ultraviolet rays, ionized water and ozone obtained from the

passage of steam over mercury vapor lamp. For this purpose,
special apparatus called ionozone therapy machine is used.
Ionozone therapy is used for relief of pain, increase in superficial
blood flow, increase in metabolic processes, increase in oxidation
processes and bactericidal effect. Stitch abscess, open wounds,
varicose ulcers, diabetic ulcers, pressure sores and acne can be
effectively treated by ionozone therapy. In the treatment of these
conditions ionozone therapy can be applied for 10 to 30 minutes
at 30 to 50 cm distance from the nozzle of the ionozone therapy
apparatus.
SUMMARY
Laser is an acronym for light amplification by the stimulated
emission of radiation. Therapeutic Laser is mainly used for pain
relief and acceleration of healing. Therapeutic Laser can be
applied with the point probe or cluster probe. Infra-red rays are
also called as thermiogenic rays. Various laws regulating the
absorption of radiations including the infra-red rays are Grothus
law, law of inverse square, Cosine law, Beer-Lambert law,
Kirchhoff’s law, Wien’s law, Stefan Boltzrnan law and Arndt-
Schulz principle. Various therapeutic effects of infrared rays are
relief of pain, muscle relaxation and increased blood supply.
Ultraviolet rays are of three types such as ultraviolet A, B and C.
Absorption of ultraviolet rays produces erythema reaction
characterized by redness of the skin. Ultraviolet rays may increase
vitamin D formation and exert abiotic effect.
chapter nine
Safety Precautions
in Electrotherapy
INTRODUCTION
In past there were accidental reports of electrocution during
diagnostic and routine treatment with machines that works on
electricity. Although there is not a single reliable and official
statistic report available in our country, it seems sensible that an
extra caution must be taken, whenever electrical safety codes
and their implementation are as not strictly enforced as it is in
more advanced countries.
I would like to share one of my experiences pertaining to the
leakage of the current. This patient was a pretty married woman
who had wrist pain. To alleviate her wrist pain I started treating
her with an electrically operated and programmed instrument,
which could offer TENS. I used to put the electrodes first then
switch on the mains, set the parameters and increase the intensity.
But when the treatment was over this machine would reduce
the intensity to zero automatically and hence I tried to lift the
electrodes and then switched off the machine. To my surprise
when I touched her forearm I got shock like sensation. This
happened successively for three days of treatment and then I
shared this information to my colleagues who kept laughing at
this. I decided to check whether there was leakage of current
with the tester and to my surprise the tester was glowing in both
the out put terminals of this machine where electrodes were to
be connected. Then we called electrician who found that there
was real leakage due to heavy raining and some fault in voltage
stabilizer. Then I concluded that compared to my patient I was

very sensitive to the leakage of current. Nowadays, I don’t really
get surprised with this thing but I call the electrician immediately
without fail.
Physiotherapist working in a hospital or clinical set-up
frequently uses modalities, which are electrically operated.
Therefore, there is a great need for physiotherapist to be aware
of the potential electrical hazards to patients as well as therapist.
In 1998 I presented a paper based on questionnaire research,
in Indian Association of Physiotherapists conference at
Thiruvanathapuram (36th IAP conference, 25th Jan 1998) on
Implication of Informed Consent in Electrotherapy. The
outcome of this study was that all the respondents (100%) felt
that we should take an informed consent from patients prior to
the use of electrotherapy modalities. 73.34% respondents felt
that it would protect physiotherapists from malpractice as well
as accidental hazards, 20% felt that it would protect
physiotherapists from only accidental hazards while, 6.66% felt
that it would protect physiotherapists from only malpractice!
Since this study included only 30 physiotherapists and response
rate was 50%, a major study in this aspect in future may give us
better insight.
CAUSES AND TYPES OF HAZARDS

Various causes of electrical hazards are worn out power cords,
broken plugs, faulty lamp sockets, incorrectly wired outlets,
leakage of current, defect in circuit, absence of earthing, defective
electrical receptacles or sockets, breakage of power cord, etc.
Types of hazards due to the use of electrotherapeutic modalities
ate electric shock, electrocution, thermal burns, electrochemical
bums, scalds, etc. Physiological effects of shock can vary with
the magnitude of the current. With 0.1 milliamperes the shock
is imperceptible, with 1 to 15 milliamperes it produces tingling
sensations and muscle contractions, with 15 to 100 milliamperes
Safety Precautions in Electrotherapy 137
it produces painful electrical shock, with 100 to 200 milliamperes

it can produce cardiac or respiratory arrest and with more than
200 milliamperes it produces instant tissue burning and
destruction.
Safety Precautions
There are many more safety precautions and it may be difficult
to remember them. Hence, I have divided these precautions
into three areas such as equipment purchase, earthing and
voltage stabilizer, maintenance and safety precautions to be taken
by physiotherapist.
Equipments purchase: Do not buy the cheapest equipments
since they me be the most expensive to operate. Read the
instruction manual before operating. Check the unit at the time
of delivery and if there is any defect then exchange the unit. Ask
for performance and safety check as a condition of sale.
Earthing and Stabilizer

There should be proper earthing connected to all the
electrotherapy equipments working on electricity. Ground fault
interrupter circuit should be used. You should have either separate
or central voltage stabilizer for your clinic or department so as to
avoid voltage surge and thereby discomfort to the patient while
receiving electrical stimulation, absurd performance by the
equipment and damage to equipments. I have witnessed one
situation where traction machine (with microprocessor circuit)
pulled one of the patient’s neck with maximal weight than what it
was assigned to do due to voltage surge. Switches should break
the live wire. Fuses should be on live wire so that if a large current
passes then the fuse blows and stop the current flow.
Maintenance
Try to have a maintenance contract with the manufacturers for
yearly services after the warranty period. Routine maintenance
check-up should be performed on all electrical equipments.

Yearly maintenance check-up by biomedical engineer should
be done. Dated inspection sticker should be affixed to all electrical
units.
Physiotherapist: Physiotherapist should not use the electrical
equipments near objects or environment that draw the current
post sign notifying usage of equipment that interfere with
pacemakers and hearing aids. Inspect the skin after every
treatment. Unplug units that are not in use. Familiarize yourself
with problems of electrical hazards. Physiotherapist who doesn’t
have sufficient knowledge and experience on electrical matters
should not attempt to personally repair equipment failures
however minor it is. Call expert like your hospital electrician or
biomedical engineer to check the equipment for breakage.
Equipment with questionable performance is noted, labelled
and turned off and disconnected immediately from patient.
Avoid use of extension cords. Never use the cheater adopters
allowing three pronged plugs to be used in two prong receptacles.
Use of under grounded electrical equipments must be avoided.
Disconnect the instrument form the wall socket by pulling the
connector and not the cable. Avoid spilling of water or normal
saline during electrical stimulation over the stimulator. Use
surgical rubber gloves when handling ultrasound for under water
use. Use the tester to check for leakage of current. Attend
seminars and lectures dealing with electrical safety. Keep update
information about new instruments. Whenever you buy new
equipment then read the instruction manual or get the training
before operating it frequently check the integrity of plug cords,
electrical stimulation leads for fraying or disruption. Report the
loose gripping connections between plug and receptacles and
get it repaired. Do not permit your patient to touch the apparatus
during the treatment. Take special care when you administer
the treatment through bath, as there is always possibility of easy
earth connections. Bath must be of an insulating material and
leaking bath tray or tub or tank should not be used.
Safety Precautions in Electrotherapy 139
SUMMARY
Various causes of electrical hazards are worn out power cords,
broken plugs, faulty lamp sockets, incorrectly wired outlets,
leakage of current, defect in circuit, absence of earthing, defective
electrical receptacles or sockets, breakage of power cord, etc.
With 0.1 mA the shock is imperceptible, with 1 to 15 mA it
produces tingling sensations and muscle contractions, with 15
to 100 mA it produces painful electrical shock, with 100 to 200
mA, it can produce cardiac or respiratory arrest and with more
than 200 mA it produces instant tissue burning and destruction.
There should be proper earthing connected to all the
electrotherapy equipments working on electricity. Routine
maintenance check-up should be performed on all electrical
equipments.
chapter ten
Clinical Decision
Making in Electrotherapy
INTRODUCTION
One can decide about which modality should be chosen in a
particular instance but the real art lies not in selecting the modality
but selecting it so that it fetch positive outcome. Several
modalities are available and each one for them has ability to
reduce amount of discomfort that a patient may be experiencing.
There is overlapping of clinical effects and results of these
modalities. The questions like what should I choose, when should
I choose, how should I choose, should I follow the same sequence
again and so on arises during clinical situations. Here are some
personal comments that may help you in clinical decision-
making. But remember that whatever you think is right for your
patient and you try to follow the same. Hence it’s totally upto
you whether to follow my suggestions or not.
Suggestions for Clinical Decision Making

I take into consideration my previous experience of similar
patient, previous experience of patient if he has taken the
physiotherapy treatment, irritability of the patient, underlying
pathology, contraindications, medical condition of the patient,
special request by the referring clinician, patient’s comfort,
treatment time, area to be treated, depth of penetration,
equipment availability, reliability of the equipment, familiarity
with equipment, proved outcome, professional suggestions and
patient’s response.
Clinical Decision Making in Electrotherapy 141
Physiotherapist’s Previous Experience

Most of the physiotherapists decide about the electrotherapeutic
modalities on the basis of their experience with similar kind of
case. If their previous patient had responded to a modality then
they prefer the same one for their next patient with similar clinical
problem.
Patient’s previous experience Patient’s previous experience
with modality also can be taken into consideration while making
a clinical decision about the modality that is to be selected. If
your patient had beneficial effect with a particular modality then
use that modality. On the other hand if your patient had adverse
effect or no response with that modality then try to avoid the
use of same modality.
Irritability If the condition is highly irritable then electro-
analgesic modalities (such as TENS, interferential, etc) and cold
therapy can be preferred.
Underlying pathology If underlying pathology is very acute then
cryotherapy and electro analgesic-modalities can be preferred,
in subacute superficial heating modalities and in chronic cases
deep heating modalities can be preferred. I always tell my
students to note the local temperature. I suggest them to choose
cold if the area to be treated is hot (increased local temperature)
because of underlying pathology and if the local temperature is
not increased then choose the hot!
Contraindications Rule out the possibility of the
contraindications for the modality you have decided to use. If
it’s contraindicated then think of any other modality that is not
contraindicated for that patient. For instance you decided to
use short wave diathermy but you came to know that your
patient has got metal implant in the area of treatment then you
can choose a modality like infrared or hot pack rather than short
wave diathermy.
Medical condition of patient Clinical decision-making should

also be done on the basis of underlying medical/ surgical
condition of the patient. For instance if the patient is referred to
you for pain management but the underlying cause of the pain
is tumor then many of the electrotherapeutic modalities are
contraindicated. In this case you may think about local
application of TENS rather than those modalities that are
contraindicated.
Special request Sometimes the clinical decision-making about
the use of electrotherapy modality is done on the basis of special
request by referring clinician.
Comfort of the patient If a patient feels comfortable with a
modality then try to use the same. Few patients doesn’t like
current treatment and are scared of the same then try to choose
any other modality that won’t cause electrical stimulation of
sensory nerves and thereby discomfort to your patient.
Treatment time If you have very less treatment time available
for the treatment of your patient as in case of acute sports injuries
then choose an electrotherapy modality which requires less
treatment time. For instance, vapocoolant spray and laser can
be preferred in sports injuries.
Area to be treated If area to be treated is very small then
focal treatment such as therapeutic ultrasound can be preferred.
If it is larger then other modality like short wave diathermy can
be used.
Depth of penetration Modality selection can be done on the
basis of depth of penetration. For instance if you have a patient
with periostitis then choose therapeutic ultrasound which has
highest depth of penetration of all the modalities.
Equipment availability Clinical decision-making can also be
done on the basis of equipment availability. For instance you
Clinical Decision Making in Electrotherapy 143
wanted to use long wave diathermy but if it is not available in

your clinic or hospital then you should think of any other
modality that can have similar effect.
Reliability of equipment You should choose that equipment
which gives you a reliable performance.
Familiarity You should not use equipment unless you don’t
get familiarized with its controls and parameters settings.
Proved outcome If the treatment outcome is well proved and
clinically established then you should try to prefer that modality.
For example therapeutic ultrasound is proved better in the
treatment of calcific bursitis and plantar fascitis, etc. then try to
use the same in these conditions.
Professional suggestions Always follow the professional
suggestions and guidelines for the use of therapeutic modalities
while treating various clinical conditions.
Patient’s response If your patient responds positively to the
modality you have chosen then continue the use of it otherwise
think whether you should alter the dosiometry or you should
prefer other modality.
SUMMARY
Physiotherapist’s previous experience of similar patient, previous
experience of patient if he has taken the physiotherapy treatment,
irritability of the patient, underlying pathology, contraindications,
medical condition of the patient, special request by the referring
clinician, patient’s comfort, treatment time, area to be treated,
depth of penetration, equipment availability, reliability of the
equipment familiarity with equipment, proved outcome,
professional suggestions and patient’s response can be taken
into consideration while making clinical decisions.
chapter eleven
Biofeedback
INTRODUCTION
Since 1960’s biofeedback has got recognized as a clinical tool in
clinical medicine, behavioral medicine, physiotherapy and
rehabilitation medicine. Information regarding history of
biofeedback is not readily available to physiotherapists and it
appears to be not widely described. Various references suggests
that the systematic study of biofeedback started in 1960’s with
attempts to train voluntary control of autonomic function such as
heart rate and blood pressure. Although significant improvement
may occur in different conditions, how far the biofeedback devices
are effective should be verified by repeated researches in this field.
In general, biofeedback can be defined as the process of furnishing
an individual with information about body functioning so as to
get some voluntary control over it. This information regarding
body functioning can be given to the individual via visual or
auditory signal through a suitable instrument. In order to
understand the biofeedback, please refer the Figure 11.1.
Biofeedback device
Body function Information about
body functioning in
form of signal
Favorable change via

unknown pathways Reception
Conscious control
Fig. 11.1: Schematic diagram of biofeedback

Biofeedback 145
Types of Biofeedback
Just a brief outline of these biofeedback devices is given here
and the reader is requested to refer any comprehensive book
on this subject for more details. Various forms of biofeedback
devices are as follows.
Myoelectric Feedback
This is also known EMG biofeedback EMG biofeedback is
commonly used in physiotherapy. A set of surface electrodes is
placed on the skin over chosen muscle or muscle group to detect
electrical signals associated with muscle contraction. These
signals are amplified and translated into simple auditory and
visual signals that are very easy to understand This auditory or
visual information concerning the state of muscle tension or
relaxation is provided to the patient via auditory or visual display.
Auditory display is in form of clicks or buzzing sound and visual
display is inform of movement of meter needle or glowing of
the lights or computer display rather than oscilloscope trace. As
this display bears an approximate relationship to the magnitude
of the muscle contraction causing it, re-education of the muscles
is possible. In other words, it is possible to get the desired
response from muscle with this device by increasing or decreasing
the activity of these muscles. EMG biofeedback is commonly
used in the treatment of recovering peripheral nerve injuries,
writer’s cramp, blepharospasm, training specific muscle activity
after tendon or muscle transplant and dystonic conditions. It is
also used to improve shoulder control, to re-educate dorsiflexion
of foot and to reduce spasticity of plantar flexors in hemiplegia.
Biofeedback devices can also be used in the treatment of
spasticity in cerebral palsy and multiple sclerosis.
Postural Biofeedback
Scoliosis biofeedback device is a modified orthotic device that
is beneficial in the treatment of scoliosis. Whenever the scoliotic
wearer leans against a thoracic pad of this device he receives

the auditory signals which encourages him to straighten the
spine. Inclination monitor is helpful in postural control. Inclination
monitor device can be worn any where on the trunk and senses
a tilt from vertical head position trainer device can be used in
cerebral palsy children with delayed head control. The tremor
monitor device measures the hand steadiness and is used to
improve hand control.
Feedback Goniometers
These devices monitor the joint angles. Elbow angle monitor is
used to increase range of motion of elbow joint. Knee angle
monitor is useful in prevention of hyperextension at knee. Ankle
angle monitors can be used in the treatment of foot drop during
swing phase of the gait. Hip rotation monitor device measures
internal and external rotation of the foot with respect to the
pelvis and may be useful in correction of gait deviations such as
excessive internal or external rotation of hip.
Pressure or Force Biofeedback

These devices monitors the pressure or force. The limb load
monitor consists of a shoe insole with pressure sensor, which
senses the amount of the weight applied to it. It is used to
encourage the patients like hemiplegics to put more weight on
affected leg while standing or walking. Prosthetic grip strength
monitor is applied to myoelectric upper limb prosthesis for
strengthening of the grip.
Orofacial Control Devices

Orofacial control devices can be used in the treatment of orofacial
problems in cerebral palsy children. Jaw closure monitor is
helpful in drooling problem. Wet chin alarm device detect “the
build up of saliva and gives auditory signals to wearer so as to
Biofeedback 147
control it. Palatograph detects the position of tongue on the

roof of mouth.
Toilet training devices: Toilet training biofeedback can improve
the toilet activities. The enuresis alarm detects the presence of
the urine and sound on alarm. It works by detecting changes in
electrode conductance when moisture is present between
electrodes. It is useful in the treatment of bed-wetting.
Perineometer is used in re-education of pelvic floor muscles in
case of incontinence. It works by measuring the pressure or
electrical activity of pelvic floor muscles through vaginal or rectal
pressure probes or electrodes.
Stress related devices: These biofeedback devices minimize
the stress by increasing relaxation. EMG biofeedback device can
be used in the treatment of tension headache. For this, relaxation
of the occipitofrontalis muscle and posterior neck muscles is
taught, since it is believed that the cause of this type of headache
is tension in these muscles. The galvanic skin response monitor
detects the changes in conductance of hand caused by the
activity of sweat glands. Since the skin conductance is associated
with arousal, patient can learn to reduce arousal to achieve whole
body relaxation. It may be valuable in reducing spasm in cerebral
palsy in addition to inducing relaxation in normal individuals.
For epileptic patients a biofeedback device that detects the special
rhythm in EEG can be used to reduce the frequency of epileptic
fits.
Cardiovascular Biofeedback
In patients with hypertension, blood pressure can be monitored
and displayed to the patient who gradually learns some voluntary
control over it. Biofeedback can also be used in the treatment
of cardiac arrhythmias. Here the heart rate is monitored and
displayed to the patient who can learn some voluntary control
over it. In Raynaud’s disease the temperature of finger is
monitored and patient attempts to increase the temperature

voluntarily.
Treatment Duration
There are no specific criteria for the duration of the treatment
with biofeedback devices. However, favorable results are likely
to occur with the use of the biofeedback devices for 10 to 30
minutes per day.
Advantages and Disadvantages

Advantages
Biofeedback provides corrective information to the patient
immediately. Patient gets involved actively in his own treatment
Biofeedback may not require sophisticated understanding of the
skill by patients. Biofeedback devices can be used during on
going activities. It may save physiotherapist’s time.
Disadvantages
Biofeedback treat symptoms and not the underlying cause of
symptoms. Biofeedback training or treatment is uneconomical
as all of these devices are not available commercially at all the
places. Biofeedback devices are unacceptable to patients who
won’t like to put wires and electronic boxes over their body.
Sometimes physiotherapists may need special training for the
use of biofeedback. Biofeedback could be just a form of training
rather than treatment.
SUMMARY
Biofeedback is the process of furnishing an individual with
information about body functioning so as to get some voluntary
control over it. This information regarding body functioning can
be given to the individual via visual or auditory signal through a
suitable instrument. Various forms of biofeedback include
Biofeedback 149
myoelectric feedback, postural biofeedback, feedback

goniometers, pressure or force biofeedback, orofacial control
devices, toilet training devices, stress related devices,
cardiovascular biofeedback, etc. These biofeedback devices
provide corrective information to the patient immediately. There
are no specific criteria for the duration of the treatment with
biofeedback devices. Biofeedback devices may be unacceptable
to patients who won’t like to put wires and electronic boxes over
their body.
Appendix 151
Appendix
LOCATION OF MOTOR POINTS

You can use these guidelines to find out the motor points during
therapeutic stimulation purpose. These guidelines may work in
few individuals. I suggest you to try with these guidelines just
three times and if you don’t get the motor point then you can
search at any other location by trial and error method.
Face
Frontalis About halfway between hairline and center of
eyebrow.
Corrugator Above the outer third of the superciliary arch.
Orbicularis oculi Just below and lateral to outer angle of eye.
Procerus On side of nose just below inner angle of eye.
Nasalis Just above ala of nose.
Orbicularis oris Upper point can be located at about halfway
between angle of mouth and tip of nose and the lower point
approximately in the same position below mouth.
Risodus About one finger’s breadth lateral to the angle of
mouth.
Buccinator About two fingers width lateral to the angle of
mouth.
Mentalis Midline near prominence of chin.
Forearm and Hand
Abductor pollicis brews Over the thenar eminence about an

inch from the wrist approximately at the center of the thenar
prominence.
Flexor pollicis brevis Upper border of thenar eminence.
Opponens pollicis Thenar eminence near wrist, press the
electrode in the thenar eminence since it’s a deeply situated
muscle.
Adductor pollicis In the web between thumb and index finger
equally accessible on dorsal or palmar aspects.
Abductor digiti minimi About a finger breadth distal to wrist
on ulnar border.
Flexor digiti minimi To the radial side of point for opponens
digiti minimi.
Opponens digiti minimi About halfway between web of the
little finger and the wrist, press the electrode since it’s a deeply
situated muscle.
Lumbricals About three fingers breadth proximal to each
interdigital web. There is one point for each one of four muscles.
Palmar interossei About one finger breadth proximal to
interdigital webs on palmar aspect. There is one point for each
of these muscles. Very small electrode should be used
Dorsal interossei About one or two fingers breadth proximal
to finger webs on dorsal aspect. There is one point for each
muscle. Press the electrode.
Pronator teres About an inch below elbow and an inch from
midline on ulnar side.
Appendix 153
Flexor carpi radialis About 1/3rd down from the elbow to the
ulnar side of the midline.
Flexor digitorum superficfalis Middle and lower third of
forearm on ulnar side. Four points can be located on a diagonal
line from medial condyle of elbow to middle of wrist.
Palmaris longus Just inside to the point of flexor carpi ulnaris.
Flexor carpi ulnaris About three finger’s breadth below elbow
on extreme ulnar border.
Flexor pollicis longus About two inches above wrist near
radial border.
Flexor digitorum profundus About three fingers’ breadth
below elbow crease just to ulnar side of midline. Less accessible
than superficialis.
Pronator quadratus At about three fingers width proximal to
wrist crease press the electrode about medial to midline.
Brachioradialis At about three fingers width from elbow crease
with forearm in midprone position.
Extensor carpi radialis longus Below and to the radial side
of olecranon.
Extensor carpi radialis brevis A few inches below the point
for longus.
Extensor digitorum On a line from radial side of the elbow to
the middle of the wrist; three points in the middle third of this
line.
Extensor digiti minimi Dorsal mid forearm at ulnar side.
Extensor carpi ulnaris About three inches below olecranon
and on ulnar side of midline.
Anconeus About two inches above olecranon process.
Supinator Difficult to find but can be tried on the dosrsum of

the hand at two fingers distal to elbow crease at midline.
Abductor pollicis longus Near radial border about halfway
between elbow and wrist.
Extensor pollicis longus About three fourths of the way down
from the elbow on ulnar side. Sometimes difficult to find.
Extensor pollicis brevis In middle at about two-thirds down
from elbow.
Extensor indicis About halfway between elbow and wrist just
ulnar to midline.
Leg and Foot Muscles
Tibialis anterior About a hand’s breadth below lower angle

of patella and one finger lateral to tibial crest.
Extensor digitorum longus About one finger below
prominence of fibular head and slightly towards midline.
Extensor digitorum brevis On the dorsum of foot about two
fingers below angle formed by leg and foot. There are two motor
points for this muscle.
Extensor hallucis longus About three fingers above ankle at
about midline.
Gastroenemius Medial point at about eight fingers below
popliteal crease near medial border of calf. Lateral point at
about five inches below popliteal crease near lateral border of
calf.
Soleus About two-thirds the way down from knee, on point
about three fingers each side of midline.
Flexor hallucis longus About three fingers behind and above
lateral malleolus.
Appendix 155
Flexor digitorum longus In fossa behind medial malleolus,

about three fingers above and medial to achillis tendon.
Tibialis posterior About two thirds down from the knee medial
to soleus against the tibia.
Peroneus longus Just below head of fibula.
Peroneus brevis About a hand’s breadth above and lateral
to external malleolus.
Abductor hallucis Medial border of foot arch, about two fingers
below medial malleolus.
Flexor digitorum brevis Just forward to center of sole.
Flexor hallucis brevis About three fingers from middle of base
of great toe in sole.
Abductor digiti minimi In front of heel near lateral border.
Physiotherapy for Peripheral Nerve Injuries

The outline of physiotherapy treatment following peripheral nerve
injury is described here. It consists of electrical stimulation,
passive movements, splints, counseling and reassurance (You
can memorize with CRESP where C stands for counseling, R
for reassurance, E for electrical stimulation, S for splint and P
for passive movements).
Electrical stimulation Electrical stimulation is given to the
paralyzed muscles so as to maintain nutrition of muscles and
prevent the disuse atrophy, degeneration and fibrosis. Selection
of the current can be done on the basis of faradic interrupted
direct current test.
Passive movements Passive movements should be given to
the affected joints so as to maintain the range of motion and
there by prevention of overstretching of paralyzed muscles,
tightness and contracture of intact antagonist muscles.
Splints/orthoses Splints or orthoses should be advised so as

to preserve the function and avoid overstretching of affected
muscles by antagonist.
Counseling Counseling of the patient should be done. It may
involve instructions about prevention of injury to desensitized
parts.
Reassurance Reassure that the loss of function and sensation
could be temporary and will return within few weeks to few
months.
Classification of Nerve Injuries

Peripheral nerve injuries mainly occur due to pressure, trauma
and exposure to cold. (Memorize with CPT its not abbreviation
for chest physiotherapy but here C for cold, P for pressure and
T for trauma). These peripheral nerve injuries can be classified
so as to get an idea about their nature of injury, severity,
prognosis and treatment planning. There are various
classifications of peripheral nerve injuries such as Sheddon’s
classification, Sunderlands classification and Spencer’s
classification.
Sheddon’s classification As per Sheddon’s classification
peripheral nerve injuries can be classified as neuropraxia,
axonotmesis and neurotmesis.
Neuropraxia Is a type of peripheral nerve injury characterized
by transient physiological conduction block without any
significant pathological changes. For example neuropraxic lesion
of the facial nerve in Bell’s palsy. Neuropraxia causes transient
ischemia at the point of nerve injury, which leads to degeneration
of myelin sheath and hence physiological conduction block
occurs at the site of nerve injury. However, there is no loss of
axonal continuity, there is no Wallerian degeneration. Nerve
deficit is completely reversible.
Appendix 157
Axonotmesis It is a type of nerve injury characterized by

intrathecal rupture of axons or nerve fibers. For example the
radial nerve injury associated with fracture of the shaft of
humerus. Pathologically there is rupture of the nerve fibers but
the myelin sheath remains intact. Axon undergoes the Wallerian
degeneration in its distal cut end and upto the first node of
Ranvier proximally. There is complete loss of nerve conduction
distal to the injury.
Neurotmesis It is a type of peripheral nerve injury
characterized by rupture of both nerve sheath as well as nerve
fiber. Neruotmesis may be partial or complete. In partial
neurotmesis only the portion of nerve is cut. In complete
neurotmesis nerve is divided across its whole thickness. Example
of this nerve injury can be, complete ulnar nerve cut as a result of
glass cut injury. Pathological changes in form of Wallerian
degeneration occur in distal part of the cut end of the nerve and
up to the first node of Ranvier proximally. Disruption of the
Schwan cells and endoneurimal connective tissue also occurs.
There is complete loss of conduction distal to the site of nerve
injury.
Sunderland’s classification Peripheral nerve injuries are
classified as first degree, second degree, third degree, fourth
degree and fifth degree injuries. First and second degree injuries
are similar to neuropraxia and axonotmesis respectively.
Neurotmesis type of injuries comprise third, fourth and fifth
degree injuries. In third degree injury there is interruption of
nerve fibers. In fourth degree there is connective tissue damage
in addition to interruption of nerve fibers. In fifth degree there is
severance of nerve in addition to above changes.
Schaumburg, Spencer and Thomas classification This
classification classifies the peripheral nerve injuries in to class
one, class two and class three types of injuries. Class one is
same as that of neuropraxia, class two is similar to axonotmesis
and class three is like neurotmesis.
Glossary 159
Glossary
Acne An inflammatory disease of the skin with the formation

of an eruption of papules or pustules.
Acute pain A short sharp cutting pain. It is usually associated
with acute inflammation.
Accommodation Adaptation by the sensory receptors to
various stimuli over an extended period of time.
Acupuncture Treatment of human ailments by inserting fine
needles in to the acupuncture points.
Adhesion Fibrous band that holds together tissues that are
normally separated.
Adenitis Inflammation of a gland.
Alternating current Current that periodically changes its
polarity or direction of flow.
Alopecia Baldness, absence of hair from skin areas where it is
normally present.
Amplitude The intensity of current flow as indicated by. the
height of the waveforms from baseline.
Analgesia Absence of pain or loss of sensibility of pain.
Anesthesia Partial or complete loss of sensations with or
without loss of consciousness as a result of disease, injury or
administration of an anesthetic agent usually by an injection or

inhalation.
Anode Positively charged electrode.
Bursitis Inflammation of a bursa especially located between
bony prominences and muscle tendon.
Cathode Negatively charged electrode.
Cavitation The vibrational effect on gas bubbles by an
ultrasound beam.
Circuit The path of current from the generating source through
the various components back to the generating source.
Coaxial cable Heavy, well insulated electrical wire where
central thick wire component is surrounded by a cylindrical
mesh of thin wire.
Collimation The process of making parallel
Connective tissue Tissue that supports and connects other
tissues and tissue parts.
Contraindications Special circumstances or symptoms that
renders the use of a remedy or procedure inadvisable.
Cryotherapy Therapeutic use of cold modality.
Diathermy Therapeutic use of high frequency current to
generate the deep heat in the body tissue.
Direct current An electric current in which there is continuous
flow in one direction.
Edema Localized or generalized excessive collection of tissue
fluid
Erythema Redness of the skin caused by capillary dilation.
Exostosis Bony outgrowth that arises from the surface of a
bone.
Glossary 161
Fibroblast Any cell from which connective tissue is developed.

Fibrosis Formation of fibrous tissue in the repair process
following injury.
Frequency Number of occurrence of any event per unit time.
Gate control theory Assumption which states that painful
impulses can be prevented from reaching towards the higher
levels of central nervous system by stimulation of large sensory
nerve fibers.
Hemarthrosis Blood effusion into a cavity of a joint.
Haematoma An area of swelling containing clotted blood,
which is confined to an organ, tissue or space and caused by a
break in blood vessel.
Haemorrhage Tissue reaction to injury.
Hertz A unit of frequency equal to one cycle per second.
Insulator Substance or the body that interrupt the transmission
of electricity to surrounding object by conduction.
Indication The reason to prescribe a remedy or procedure or
modality.
Ion A positively or negatively charged particle.
Laser Acronym for the light amplification of stimulated
emission of radiation. A beam of power can also be termed a
Laser.
Marasmus Form of protein energy malnutrition predominantly
due to severe caloric deficit.
Melanin A group of dark brown or black pigments that occur
naturally in the eye, skin, hair and other tissues.
Modulation Alteration in the parameters of current to prevent
accommodation.
Phagocyte A cell that consumes foreign material and debris.

Photokeratitis Inflammation of the eyes caused by exposure
to ultraviolet rays.
Phonophoresis Transfer of drug molecules into the tissue by
the use of ultrasound.
Piezoelectric effect Generation of electrical change across the
crystal of piezoelectric substance on application of pressure or
compression.
Photon A packet or quantum of light energy.
Plica Thickened synovial fold.
Psoralen Photosensitive drug. Methaoxypsoralen, trimethyl-
psoralen and other chemicals of similar make-up.
Pulsed ultrasound Method of administering ultrasound in
which the emission of the sound waves is intermittent.
Radiation Process by which energy is propagated through the
space or emission of energy in all directions from a common
center.
Reverse piezoelectric effect Deformation or oscillations of
crystal of piezoelectric substance on application of electricity.
Spasm An involuntary of contraction of muscle that is
protective in nature. It can occur in visceral and skeletal muscles.
Spasticity Increased tone of muscles due to upper motor
neuron lesion.
Sprain An injury of ligament, which is less than complete.
Stimulated emission When a photon interacts with an atom
already in a high energy state and decay of the atomic energy
occurs, releasing two photons.
Strain An injury of muscle, which is less than complete.
Glossary 163
Substantia gelatinosa Gray matter of the spinal cord

surrounding the central canal.
Tendonitis Inflammation of a tendon of muscle.
Thermotherapy The use of the heat in the treatment of diseases
and disorders.
Transducer A device that changes energy from one form to
another.
Trigger point Any localized area of body that when stimulated
by pressure causes a sudden pain in a specific area.
Ultrasound Inaudible sound waves with a frequency in the
range of 20,000 to 10 billion.
Vasoconstricrion Decrease in the lumen of vessels.
Vasodilation Increase in the lumen of vessels.
Viscocity Relative position of fluid particles due to attraction
of molecules to each other.
Wavelength The distance between the beginning and end of
a single wave cycle.
References and Suggested Reading 165
References and
Suggested Reading
1. Behrens Barbara J, Michlovitz Susan L: Physical Agents, Theory and

Practice for the Physical Therapist Assistant, FA Davis company,
Philadelphia, 1996.
2. Bonica JJ: The Management of Pain, vol. II Lea, Febiger, Malvem PA,
1990 and I.
3. Dolphin S, Walker M: Healing Accelerated by Ionozone Therapy,
Physiotherapy, 1979, 65:81-82.
4. Foster Angela, Palastanga Nigel: Clayton’s Electrotherapy; Theory and
Practice, AITBS Publishers, New Delhi, 2000, 9th ed.
5. Kahn J: Principles and Practice of Electrotherapy, Churchill Livingstone,
New York, 1994, 3rd ed.
6. Khandpur RS: Handbook of Biomedical Instrumentation, Tata McGraw-
Hill Publishing Company Ltd., New Delhi, 1987.
7. Kitchen Shcila, Bazin Sarah: Clayton’s Electrotherapy, 10th ed, PRSIM
Indian edition.
8. Kovacs R: Electrotherapy and Light Therapy, Lea and Febiger,
Philadelphia, 1949.
9. Krusen FH, Kotke FJ, Euwood PM: Handbook of Physical Medicine
and Rehabilitation, WB Saunders Company, Philadelphia, 1971.
10. Lehman GF, De Lateur BJ: Therapeutic Heat and Cold, Williams and
Wilkins, Baltimore, 1982, 3rd ed.
11. Licht S: Electrodiagnosis and Electromyography, Elizabeth Licht, New
Haven, 1971, 3rd ed.
12. Low J, Reed Ann: Electrotherapy Explained: Principles and Practice,
Butterworth Heinemann, London, 1990.
13. Michloeitz SL: Thermal Agents in Rehabilitation, FA Davis, Philadelphia,
1990.
14. Kuprian W: Physical Therapy for Sports, WB Saunders Company,
Philadelphia, 1995, 2nd ed.
15. Prentice WE: Therapeutic Modalities in Sports Medicine, Times mirror
Mosby College publishing, St. Louis, 1990.
16. Robinson AJ, Madder LS: Clinical Electrophysiology, Williams and

Wilkins, Baltimore, 2nd ed, 1994.
17. Savage B: Interferential Therapy, Faber and Faber, Bostan, 1984.
18. Wadswor th H, Chanmugan APP: Electrophysical Agents in
Physiotherapy, Marrickvifle, NSW, Australia, Science Press, 1980.
19. Walsh DM, McAdams ET; TENS: Clinical Applications and Related
Theory, Churchill Livingstone, New York, 1997.
20. Wolf SC: Electrotherapy, Churchill Livingstone, New York, 1981.
Index 167
Index
A D
Ammeter 74 Denervated muscle 25, 32
Amplifier 64 Dermo-ohmometry 59
Analgesia 36 Diadynamic current 49
Arndt-Schulz principle 126 Diagnostic electrotherapy 51
Axonotmesis 157 chronaxie 52
rheobase 51
B Dip method 86
Beat frequency 42 Direct current 13
Biofeedback 144 Dosiometry 41, 46
Bizarre high frequency discharge 70
Blood supply 77
E
C
Electrical heating pads 91
Cardiovascular biofeedback 147 Electricity 11
Central evoked potentials 71 Electrodes 45, 75
Chemical cold packs 115 Electrodiagnostic tests 57
Chemical hot packs 91 Electrolysis 17
Cold packs 113 Electromyography 61
Combination therapy 105
Electrotherapy 1, 135, 140
Compressive cryotherapy 114
biofeedback 3
Contact cream method 101
Cosine law 126 clinical decision making 140
Cryotherapy 107 electrodiagnosis 3
Currents high frequency currents 3
basis of amperage 4 low frequency currents 2
basis of biophysical effects 4 medium frequency currents 2
basis of direction 4 phototherapy 3
basis of frequency 4 safety precautions 135
basis of voltage 4 Endorphin theory 36
Erythema reaction 129 K

Kenny packs 90
F
Faradic current 21 L
Faradic IDC test 57
Labile electrodes 46
G Laser 120
Location of motor points 151
Galvanic current 48
Galvanic tetanus ratio 59 M
Galvanism 16
anodal 17 Microamperage electrical nerve
cathodal 17 stimulation (MENS) 49
medical 16 Microwave diathermy 82
surgical 17 Motor nerve neurapraxia 27
Gate control theory 37
Motor nerve stimulation 15, 31
Goniometers 146
Motor point stimulation 28
Motor unit potentials 66
H Muscle contraction 25
Hot packs 88 Muscle nerve stimulating currents 13
Hot water bag 90
Hydrocollator packs 89 N
I Nerve conduction velocity 70

Nerve distribution test 58
Ice massage 112 Neurotization time 58
Immersion method 87 Neurotmesis 157
Inflammation 79
Infra-red rays 123
Interferential current 41 O
Interrupted direct current 30 Orofacial control devices 146
Iontophoresis 9, 17 Oudin current 84
contraindications 21
dangers 21
effectiveness 18 P
method of application 19
Pain relief 78
uses of 20
Paraffin wax bath therapy 85
Parameters 95
J Peripheral nerve injuries 155
Joint stiffness 78 Phonophoresis 105
Phototherapy 116
Physiotherapist 138
Index 169
Polar formula 60 T
Polarity 14
Pulsed ultrasound 104 Therapeutic ultrasound 93
Puva and ionozone therapy 133 Thermotherapy 73
Tissue damage 77
S Tissue healing 121
Sensory nerve stimulation 15, 31 Transcutaneous electrical nerve
Short wave diathermy 73, 80 stimulation (TENS) 33
advantages 81 Trauma 109
dosages of 80
Sinusoidal current 48 U
Stimulation of motor nerves 15
Stimulation of sensory nerves 15 Ultraviolet rays 129
Strength duration curves 52
characteristics 53 W
procedure 52
variations of 55 Vacuum electrode 45
Sunderland’s classification 157 Vapocoolant sprays 111

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Basics of

© 2003, Subhash Khatri

First Edition: 2003

Publishing Director: RK Yadav

Typeset at JPBMP typesetting unit

Day today we come across various physical forces such as

Electrotherapeutic modalities. I have tried to write the chapters

printing. The author hereby thankfully acknowledges all of this

1. What is Electrotherapy? ................................... 1

DEFINITION AND AREAS OF STUDY

Low Frequency Medium Frequency High Frequency

Phototherapy Electrodiagnosis Biofeedback

Fig. 1.1: Areas of study in electrotherapy

High frequency currents High frequency currents are

Well, you must have got wondered to see a chapter on history

Richard Lovett in England treated many persons with static

Muscle Nerve Stimulation

Boulogne who in 1855 described its application for electrical

High Frequency Currents

through, etc. In 1842 American physicist Joseph Henry observed

Medical Use of Electricity

As I mentioned in the second chapter, muscle nerve stimulating

Fig. 3.1: Schematic representation of direct current

Fig. 3.2: Salt water experiment

Stimulation of Sensory Nerves

Stimulation of Motor Nerves

Effect on Body Proteins

believed that Stephen Leduc discovered it in 1903. Iontophoresis

can be made to travel through

Polarity of Solution Ion utilized

CONTRAINDICATIONS AND DANGERS

Original Faradic Current

aradic Type Current

Mains Power Supply Modulating circuit

Fig. 3.9: Block diagram of muscle stimulator circuit

INTERRUPTION AND SURGING

Fig. 3.11: Interrupted faradic current

Surged faradic current is a modification of faradic current

Fig. 3.12: Surged faradic current

Stimulation of Sensory Nerves

vasodilatation of superficial blood vessel leading to reddening

Stimulation of Motor Nerves

Effect on Denervated Muscle

Effect of Muscle Contraction

metabolism increases demand for oxygen and foodstuffs and

New Muscle Action

Motor Nerve Neurapraxia

USES OF FARADIC CURRENT

surgery, after knee surgeries, rheumatoid arthritis, tendon

Motor Point Stimulation

Nerve Conduction Method

Faradism Under Pressure

Faradism to Pelvic Floor Muscles

Fig. 3.13: Interrupted direct current

Physiological and Therapeutic Effects

Sensory Nerve Stimulation

Motor Nerve Stimulation

accelerate the rate of regeneration following peripheral nerve

Fig. 3.14: Brisk and sluggish contraction