Mastronarde, Introduction To Attic Greek, UCP 1993

Introduction to
Attic Greek
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Attica in the Classical Period

Introduction to
Attic Greek
Donald J. Mastronarde
UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA PRESS
BERKELEY LOS ANGELES LONDON

Contents
Preface vii
Introduction: The Ancient Greek Languaxe and Attic Greek I
UNIT ONE: The Alp/whet; Pronunciation 6

UNIT TWO: Accentuation 16
UNIT THREE: Nouns: The O-Declension 22
UNIT FOUR: Nouns: The A-Declension I 30
UNIT FIVE: Nouns: The A-Declension II 34
UNIT SIX: The Article; Prepositions I 38
UNIT SEVEN: Vowel-Declension Adjectives; Attrihution and
Predication 45
UNIT EIGHT: .Q- Verbs: Present Active Indicative 54
UNIT NINE: Infinitive; Adjectives with Two Endings 63
UNIT TEN: Present Indicative of clj.</; Some Uses of the Genitive
and Dative 70
UNIT ELEVEN: !.2- Verbs: Present Middle/Passive Indicative 77
UNIT TWELVE: Adverbs; Conjunctions; Prepositions II; Relative
Pronoun 83
UNIT THIRTEEN: Contract Verhs in -/w; Demonstratives 93
UNIT FOURTEEN: Consonant-Declension Nouns I 99
UNIT FIFTEEN: Consonant-Declension Nouns II; Interroxative
Pronoun 106
UNIT SIXTEEN: !.2- Verhs: Imperfect Indicative 113
UNIT SEVENTEEN: Indefinite Uses of the Accusative 120
Tlf;
UNIT EIGHTEEN: .Q- Verhs: Future Active and Middle Indicative 128
UNIT NINETEEN: .Q- Verbs: Aorist Active and Middle Indicative 137
UNIT TWENTY: Tense and Aspect; Indirect Discourse 145
UNIT TWENTY -ONE: Consonant-Declension Nouns 111; Pronoun
aUTOS' 154
v
VI Contents
UNIT TWENTY -TWO: Consonant-Declension Adjectives; Personal

Pronouns 161
UNIT TWENTY-THREE: MI-Verbs: Present System 169
UNIT TWENTY-FOUR: MI- Verbs: Athematic Aorists 176
UNIT TWENTY-FIVE: Adjectives with Variant Stems; Numerals; Reflexive
and Reciprocal Pronouns; Result Constructions 182
UNIT TWENTY -SIX: Participles: Formation and Declension 191
UNIT TWENTY-SEVEN: Uses of the Participle 1 199
UNIT TWENTY -EIGHT: Uses of the Participle 1/; %a 207
UNIT TWENTY-NINE: Contract Verbs in -aw and -ow;
Further Uses
of the Genitive and Dative 215
UNIT THIRTY: Comparison of Adjectives and Adverbs 226
UNIT THIRTY -ONE: The Subjunctive 234
UNIT THIRTY -TWO: The Optative 243
UNIT THIRTY -THREE: Optative of Contract Verbs; Indirect Discourse
with OTt; Indirect Questions and Indirect lnterro?,atil'e 251
UNIT THIRTY -FOUR: Simple, General, and Future Conditions 259
UNIT THIRTY -FIVE: Aorist Passive and Future Passive 267
UNIT THIRTY -SIX: Contrary-to-Fact Conditions; Indicative with av;
Correlatives 273
UNIT THIRTY -SEVEN: Perfect System 280
UNIT THIRTY -EIGHT: Object Clauses with Verbs of Effort; Subordinate
Clauses in Indirect Discourse; Attraction 292
UNIT THIRTY -NINE: Temporal Clauses with fwr and the Like; 7Tp/V;
Assimilation of Mood 300
UNIT FORTY: Imperative Mood 308
UNIT FORTY -ONE: Pluperfect and Future Perfect; Irregular Perfects 318
UNIT FORTY -TWO: Contract- Vowel Declension; Attic Declension; Verbal
Adjectives in -Tor and -TEor 327
APPENDIX ONE: Table of Contractions 337

APPENDIX TWO: Verb List 338
APPENDIX THREE: Paradigms 349
Greek-English Glossar.\' 382
English-Greek Glossary 403
Index 415
Preface
There is no one best way to teach elementary Greek or to learn it. Any
successful course will depend on a complex interaction among the classroom
teacher, the textbook, and the students, with their varying learning-styles and
differing degrees of dedication to a challenging project. The present book was
inspired by frustration with a standard textbook and began several years ago as
a typewritten manual prepared as part of an Undergraduate Instruction
Improvement Project at the University of California, Berkeley. In my teaching
I have worked with students of all levels and been keenly aware of the gaps
and deficiencies with which many students arrive at advanced undergraduate
and graduate courses. In writing this book, it was my desire to provide to the
mature college student a reliable and relatively complete presentation of
ancient Attic Greek. With a foundation comprising sufficient coverage of
morphology and syntax, a substantial body of the central vocabulary
(especially of verbs and their principal parts), and preliminary exposure to the
reading of authentic connected passages, the student should be well prepared
to face the transition to reading a continuous text with commentary and
dictionary.
This book is adaptable to several formats of instruction. It is tailored
primarily for a one-year college course in beginning Greek, in which the text-
book may be covered in somewhat less than the full year and the remainder of
the year may be devoted to reading some Xenophon or simple Plato or other
straightforward Attic prose. Concomitant reading of a separate Greek text may
indeed be assigned (time permitting) for Units 34 and beyond. I have myself
normally taught from this book in more intensive courses, such as a two-quar-
ter sequence covering the same material as a full-year (three-quarter) course,
or (with more pressure and no time for reading from another book) in a one-
semester version (counting at Berkeley as a double course). With very highly
motivated students, the book should work well also at colleges where it is the
custom to cover all or most of the textbook in a single semester-long course. I
have not taught from it in a "workshop" setting (i.e., all of elementary Greek
in six weeks) and do not claim that it is suited to that.
vii
Vlll Preface
It should be emphasized that I have not aimed to make the units equal and
that I do not think equal time should be spent on all units. I recommend a
brisker pace through the first 10 or 11 units, which are relatively short, and in
a two-semester course I would aim to complete either 24 or 22 units in the first
semester. For the longer units, it is possible, with planning, to divide the
material over several classes: one may, for instance, save some of the exercises
of the previous unit (e.g., the reading selection in the later units) to be assigned
while the students are studying the first half of the next unit, or one may at any
time profitably give an assignment for vocabulary review or principal part
memorization. If a class is pressed for time toward the end of the course, it is
possible to move from Unit 35 to Unit 37 and Units 40-41 and advise the
students to use the remaining units for reference when they begin reading
Greek texts in their next course. In some courses there will not be time to
assign and correct all the exercises, and the instructor should make a selection
suitable to the goals of the particular class. There are other classes that want as
many exercises as possible, and it is for these that I have expanded the
exercises in this revision. I have striven to provide both a gradual buildup of
knowledge and an alternation of material, emphasizing, for instance, now
nouns and now verbs, now morphology and now syntax. I have tried to put as
many fundamental features as possible as early as possible, but there have
inevitably been compromises: not everything can come early.
My presentation is based on the belief that college students who are
trying to learn Greek deserve full exposure to the morphology and grammar
that they will encounter in real texts and full explanations of what they are
asked to learn. To expect the student to learn such things as if by osmosis from
annotated readings or to postpone a large portion of the more sophisticated
concepts and constructions does not, in most cases, serve the long-range needs
of the student. I believe that at least some students will find the conceptual or
historical understanding of a linguistic phenomenon to be an aid to the chore
of memorization which is unavoidable in beginning to master ancient Greek,
and that the availability of such explanations need not be any obstacle to the
other students. On the other hand, I have tried to indicate clearly what the
student must learn as a necessary minimum, and the lengthier historical and
grammatical explanations are intended for the students' information rather
than memorization. I retain (and explain) many traditional terms (which the
student will encounter anyway in commentaries and reference works), since
provided that the book and the instructor lay emphasis on the true nature of
each phenomenon the traditional terminology will be harmless. It is, of course,
up to each instructor to gauge the abilities and level of motivation of his or her
class, and to decide accordingly such questions as how far and when to press
Preface IX
for accuracy in the use of accents, for which verbs the class must have the
principal parts firmly committed to memory, how much of the vocabulary the
students will be responsible for on a test, or how much emphasis to put on
English-to-Greek exercises as compared to Greek-to-English.
The exercises are keyed to the grammar and vocabulary for which the
student has been prepared by the units completed. Especially in the first half of
the book I have tended to avoid introducing new words or constructions in a
reading exercise, so that a student who has truly mastered the material to date
should be well equipped to do the reading with a minimum of annotation or
reference to the glossary. For this reason I refrain from introducing "genuine
Greek" in the early units; but once the students' knowledge has been built to a
certain point, many of the sentences are taken from Attic prose texts or
patterned on sentences in such texts. In the later units, I emphasize reading
from actual texts rather than made-up readings with untypically simple
sentence-structure and artificially limited vocabulary. To ensure that the
student begins with a sound grasp of what is prosaic or colloquial as opposed
to poetic or recondite, I have avoided almost entirely poetic passages in the
exercises. The vocabulary is intended to familiarize the student with a fairly
large sample of basic and frequently occurring words, memorization of which
will facilitate reading of all kinds of Greek as the student progresses.
Because this book treats concepts of language and grammar so thor-
oughly, there is not room in it for the cultural and anecdotal material that an
experienced teacher of Greek brings to the classroom situation as an enrich-
ment. It is my hope that instructors who use this book will provide such en-
richment and that, even before the class reaches the reading selections in the
later units, some items of vocabulary and sentences of the exercises may serve
to inspire impromptu digressions on history, literature, mythology, society, or
culture.
For the improvements made to this book over the years and for the
encouragement to seek wider distribution I am grateful to a number of col-
leagues, graduate student instructors, and students in my own and others'
classes. Many of the most user-friendly features of this book are due to their
kind suggestions. I myself am responsible for all final decisions about inclu-
sion and exclusion and ordering of material. Every user of the book will no
doubt wish that this or that detail were handled differently or sooner or later,
but I hope that there will be enough advantages to outweigh such irritations.
Finally, I would like to acknowledge here the meticulous care shown by
my copy editor, Paul Psoinos, and the help provided by Mary Lamprech and
other members of the staff of the University of California Press.
Introduction: The Ancient Greek
Language and Attic Greek
l. Greek is an Indo-European tongue. Since the early nineteenth century

linguists have demonstrated the existence of and studied a large family of
European and Asian languages, ancient and modem, which are closely related
to one another and not similarly related to languages outside the group. It is
assumed that the kinship among Indo-European languages reflects a prehis-
toric kinship among the speakers of these tongues. A few of the language
groups classified as Indo-European are Indic (Old Indic = Sanskrit), Slavic,
Italic (including Latin), Germanic, and Greek. English, with its Germanic
ancestry and admixture of Latinate elements via French, is also an Indo-
European tongue.
2. Before about 2000 B.C.E. the inhabitants of the Balkan peninsula and
the Aegean islands were probably non-Indo-European-speaking peoples.
Among them were the Minoans on Crete, who had a script (as yet undeciph-
ered) now known as Linear A; the Eteocypriots on Cyprus; and Pelasgians,
Leleges, Tyrseni, and Carians on the mainland, the islands, and the coast of
Asia Minor.
The Greek language inherited some words from these earlier inhabitants
of the lands which became the Greek world. Many place names are thought to
be non-Indo-European survivals: for example, those containing either -nth- (or
its equivalent -nd- in the Ionic dialect) or -ss- (or its equivalent -tt- in the Attic
dialect), such as Korinthos, Zakynthos, Aspendos, Pamassos, Halikamassos,
Hymettos; and those with a nasal ending, such as Athenai, Mykenai, Kalymna.
Some personal names may also be survivals: for example, masculine names in
-eus such as that of the hero Achilleus (Achilles) or feminine names in -0 such
as that of the poetess Sappho. A few basic items also seem to have names sur-
viving from the pre-Greek period: for example, plinthos (brick), kolossos
(statue), thalassa (sea).
2 INTRODUCTION
---~-- - - - -- - - -------
3. Greek-speaking peoples migrated into the "Greek world" as we know

it in two waves. An "Achaean" migration (from the north or east) took place
between 2000 and 1500 B.C.E. (perhaps ca. 1900 B.C.E.). Mycenean
civilization, which flourished from 1600 to 1200 or 1100, was one part of the
"Achaean" culture. The Myceneans used an adaptation of Minoan Linear A in
their written documents (clays tablets have survived); this script, called Linear
B, was deciphered in 1952, revealing a Greek tongue (the earliest form known
to us). The use of Linear B was probably limited to official documents and
inventories and was apparently practiced only by a specially trained class of
scribes within the palace societies of the time. Knowledge of Linear B seems
to have died out ca. 1100 B.C.E., after the collapse of Mycenean civilization.
The end of Mycenean civilization is somehow related to volcanic eruption and
earthquakes and the influx of a new wave of Greek-speaking peoples (the
"Dorians") ca. 1100. The exact details and chronology of the collapse are,
however, variously reconstructed. The Greeks themselves remembered the
Mycenean Age as an age of heroes and great warriors and associated its end
with famous wars at Thebes and at Troy and with a "Dorian invasion."
4. Scholars have deduced that early Greek (ca. 1500 B.C.E.) had several
characteristics not found in classical Greek in general or the Ionic-Attic dialect
family in particular. "Open vowels," that is, those occurring together without
an intervening consonant, were retained rather than contracted, as in many
dialects of classical Greek. Etymologically original long vowel a still
maintained itself in all contexts, whereas later a change of this vowel was
characteristic of some dialects. The w-sound (vau or digamma) and the h-
sound were still present, whereas most classical dialects had lost the wand
some had lost the h as well. Semi vocalic i (like English consonantal y in you or
beyond) was still used after consonants, whereas in the later dialects other
sounds developed from such combinations. There was not yet an aorist passive
system based on the theta-suffix used in classical Greek, and there were more
irregularities in declension of nouns.
Greek distinguished itself from other Indo-European tongues in several
important ways. It had a tonal rather than a stress accent, and this provided for
a better survival of inflectional endings than in some other languages. Initial
Indo-European s developed into h in Greek, while initial semivocalic i became
either h or Greek zeta. Of the original eight Indo-European cases for nouns,
three (ablative, instrumental, locative) were lost in the development of clas-
sical Greek, and their uses were absorbed by other cases.
The Ancient Greek Language and Attic Greek 3
5. The classical period of the ancient Greek language extends from ca.
750 to ca. 350 B.C.E. Its beginning is marked by the spread of the Greek
alphabet, the first surviving traces of which are from the second half of the
eighth century B.C.E. Its end is marked by the dying out of many classical
dialects and the development of a new common dialect (see §7 below). For the
classical period numerous dialects can be documented thanks to the evidence
of inscriptions, graffiti, and literary remains. The dialects often differed widely
in spelling, accentuation, pronunciation, vocabulary, and even syntax, but their
speakers still recognized each other as fellow Greek speakers.
The dialects of this period are shown on the map on the next page. There
are three major dialect groups. The Ionic-Attic group includes the regions
labeled 1-4. Regions 5-10 comprise the "Achaean" group (5-7 North
Achaean; 8-10 South Achaean). These two groups are believed to correspond
to the pre-Dorian layer of migrations. The third major group, Doric-NW
Greek, corresponds to the Dorian migration and includes the regions labeled
11-23 (11-17 Doric; 18-19 NW Greek; 20-23 other). Not shown on the map
are the Greek-speaking regions in Sicily, southern Italy, northern Africa, and
the Black Sea region, colonized during the classical period.
6. The Attic dialect was that spoken by the natives of Attika, the penin-
sula jutting from the southeastern part of the mainland above the Pelopon-
nesos. The major city and political center of Attika was Athens. The Greek
taught in this book is basically Attic Greek of the fifth and fourth centuries
B.C.E. It is the most convenient form of ancient Greek to master first.
Knowledge of Attic makes accessible to the student both Attic drama and a
vast amount of historical, oratorical, and philosophical prose. Once Attic is
mastered, it is relatively simple to learn the variations to be found in the
dialects of Homeric poetry, choral lyrics, Ionic prose, and pastoral poetry. It is
even easier to move from Attic to the later Greek of the New Testament.
Attic shares with Ionic several features which distinguish Ionic-Attic
from other dialects and shows other features which distinguish it in turn from
Ionic. One of the most notable features (which you will find important already
in Unit 4) is the development of original long vowel a: this sound has become
a long e-vowel (eta) in all positions in Ionic and in all positions except after e,
i, or r in Attic. Certain sequences of long vowel and short vowel in word
endings have undergone an exchange of quantities (metathesis), that is, long-
short has become short-long. The w-sound has disappeared in both Ionic and
Attic; but in Ionic when vau has disappeared after I, n, or r, a short vowel in
the preceding syllable has become long (compensatory lengthening), whereas
Greek Dialects in the Classical Period
: (Mainland Greece and Aegean Area)
.'
l. East Ionic 13. Argive/Aeginetan
2. Central Ionic 14. Corinthian
3. West Ionic 15. Megarean
4. Allic 16. Cretan
5. Aeolic 17. Theran/Melian
( 6
:(:: .....;:
6.
7.
Thessalian
Boeotian
18.
19.
Rhodian/Carpathian
dialect of other Dorian islands
8. Arcadian 20. Epirote/Acamanian/Aetolian
~
<> 9. Cyprian 21. Locrian and Phocian
10. Pamphylian 22. Achaean
.0 ~~ : ..... \\
I l. Laconian (north coast of Peloponnesos)
12. Messenian 23. Elean
0"""0
\1 if
,,/uc::;;?: <:::)
G 621;V !i't
10
\J\) ~<Q,o~
., dO <;).,V'Q) '\)
17 ~ 6
17
I\r
The Ancient Greek Language and Attic Greek 5
in Attic such a short vowel is unchanged (e.g., Attic koros, but Ionic kouros
from original korwos). Ionic-Attic dialects add an optional n (nu ephelkus-
tikon) to certain inflectional endings when the following word begins with a
vowel (this is done to prevent "hiatus," the pronunciation of two vowels
without intervening consonant). As opposed to other dialects, Ionic and Attic
have the infinitive ending -nai (instead of -menai), ei for "if" (instead of ai),
and the modal particle an (instead of ke). As opposed to Ionic, Attic has -u-
instead of -ss- and -rr- instead of -rs-, continues to use the dual number (rather
than the plural) to refer to pairs of things, and in general preserves more
irregular forms.
7. Because of the military, commercial, and intellectual prominence of

Athens in the second half of the fifth century B.C.E., the use of Attic became
more widespread. As it was used by more and more people outside of Attika, it
lost some of its most peculiarly Attic features except among native Athenians.
By the end of the fourth century, a new, "common" dialect had emerged: the
Koine. This was the language that spread to Asia and Egypt with Alexander
the Great and then underwent further modifications. From the mid-fourth
century on, spoken Greek begins a long and gradual process of change
affecting pronunciation, accentuation, vocabulary, and syntax, with the Koine
eventually suppressing the old dialects. These changes in the language are also
evident in nonliterary works written in Greek of the time, such as private
letters, contracts, and writings without high cultural aspirations, including the
Greek New Testament. But educated writers tried for centuries to stay as close
as possible to classical Attic Greek, creating a split between the living spoken
language and the artificial (mainly written) language of a cultural elite, a split
which manifested itself even in modem times. For an excellent brief discus-
sion of the development of Koine and later changes in the Greek language, see
Robert Browning, Medieval and Modern Greek (London 1969).
UNIT ONE
The Alphabet; Pronunciation
I. The Alphabet. In the late ninth or early eighth century B.C.E. the
Greeks borrowed a group of 22 letter symbols from the Phoenicians.' They
reinterpreted symbols for sounds not present in Greek to serve as symbols for
the vowel sounds (Phoenician, like other Semitic tongues, represented only
consonants in writing). The earliest Greek alphabets included the letters vau V
or F), koppa (9), and san (an alternative to sigma that looked much like our
capital M and followed n in some alphabets). At this stage, the symbol H
stood for the h-sound, and the letters xi, phi, chi, psi, and omega were not yet
invented. The inherited forms (with san ignored) were originally arranged as
follows:
ABr~EFZHeIKAMNOn9P~TY
In the early period there were many local variations in letter forms and
even in correspondence of Jetter to sound, especially among the symbols added
in some dialects to represent double consonants. For instance, X = ks in the
west, whence it passed into the Latin and the modern "Roman" alphabet as x,
whereas in the east (including Attic and Koine) X = kh (chi). The Attic
alphabet before about 450 lacked omega, xi, and psi and still used H for the h-
sound. The Ionians, however, had generally lost the h-sound and used the
symbol H instead for a long open e-vowel; their alphabet had added omega (to
represent a long open a-vowel) and the double-consonant symbols. From
about 450 some of the Ionic letters were used sporadically in Athens, more
often by private citizens than by the public secretaries who provided texts (of
laws and decrees) for stonemasons to carve as inscriptions. In 403, the Athen-
ian government officially made the transition to the Ionian alphabet (although
use of the old system continued sporadically until about 350). During the
I. The date of the origin of the Greek alphabet is still debated. Some experts in alphabetic
writing assign an earlier date, mainly on the basis of similarity of a few letter forms to Semitic
forms known in the tenth or eleventh century. But the evidence on the Greek side favors the date
given here.
6
The Alphabet; Pronunciation 7
fourth century the 24-letter Ionian/New Attic alphabet won acceptance

throughout most of the Greek world and became the standard in Koine.
The ancient Greeks used only what we call capital letters (although after
the fourth century there were more and less formal or cursive ways of writing
them):
ABr~EZH0IKAMNZOnpLTY~X~Q
The lowercase letter forms of present-day Greek type-fonts are more or less
closely derived from cursive letter forms of handwritten Greek used in the
Middle Ages and Renaissance:
a f3 yo E CYJ eLK A. jJ. v to 7r P (J" T V cp X'" w
Lowercase handwritten forms of some letters may differ slightly from those of
the Greek font of this book. The instructor will demonstrate the handwritten
forms for the class.
2. Classification of Sounds. [NOTE: the technical terminology intro-
duced here is provided for the sake of explanation only and is not to be memo-
rized by the student. The essential thing to learn is the recommended pronun-
ciation, but some of the concepts in this section will turn out to be helpful in
understanding features of morphology and word formation.]
The number of syllables in an utterance generally corresponds to the
number of high points in a diagram of sonority or acoustic power. Sounds
characteristically occurring at high points in the diagram are vowels. Those
that occur at low points are consonants. A sound which can occur in both
positions is a semivowel.
Vowels are classified in two important ways. (I) They are termed frOllt,
central, or back according to the areas of the tongue and palate involved in
pronunciation. (2) They are termed close, mid, or open according to the degree
of raising of the tongue, which determines the size of the passage through
which air must pass during pronunciation of the sound. In addition, the quality
of a vowel can be altered by lip rounding or by nasali-::.ation (the velum or soft
palate is not raised, with the result that the nasal passages are open when the
vowel is pronounced).
A diphthong is the coalescence of two vowel sounds within a single
syllable. The speaker begins by articulating the first vowel. which is normally
relatively more open, and glides into the articulation of the second vowel.
which is normally relatively more close.
Vowels have length or quantity, long or short corresponding more or less
to a greater or a lesser duration of pronunciation. Note that the vowels a, L, and
v may be long or short, while E and 0 are short and YJ and ware long.
8 UNIT ONE
The relations of the vowel sounds of classical Attic can be conveniently

displayed on a vowel diagram:
front central back

<
i v au
ffi
close
EL
E
a
mid
\y open
Consonants are classified in three important ways. First, according to

whether or not the vocal cords draw together and vibrate, they are termed
voiced or voiceless. To understand this distinction, pronounce b, then p, either
with your ears closed or with a finger on your throat: you should hear or feel a
vibration when the voiced consonant b is uttered, but not when the voiceless p
is pronounced.
Secondly, according to the position or organ of articulation, consonants
are described as follows:
labial or bilabial lips

labio-dental upper teeth and lower lip
dental tongue-tip and upper teeth
alveolar tongue-tip and upper gums
palatal mid-tongue and hard palate
velar back-tongue and soft palate
Thirdly, consonants are classified according to the manner in which air is

released during pronunciation. When there is a complete closure of the speech
organs, the sound is called a stop; when the stop is released suddenly, the con-
sonant is termed a plosive (p, b, t, d, k, g). The nine classical Greek plosives
may be arranged in a table as follows:
a.\pirated
voiced voiceless (voiceless)
labial !3 7r 1>
velar y K
X
dental 0 T e
When there is no complete closure of the speech organs, the sound is a
continuant. One type of continuant is the nasal, pronounced with tongue or
lips closed but air escaping through the nose (m, n). A second type of
continuant is the liquid (a term taken over from the Latin grammarians, who
thus translated the Greek grammarians' term hugros, which was probably in
origin a metrical term): for example, I, a lateral continuant (air escapes on one
side of the tongue); r, an alveolar continuant. If the air passage is so narrow as
to create an audible effect, the continuant is termed a fricative (only s in
classical Greek). The aspirate (h-sound) is also a continuant.
For further details on reconstructing the pronunciation of classical Attic,
W. Sidney Allen, Vox Graeca: A Guide to the Pronunciation of Classical
Greek (3rd ed., Cambridge 1987), is highly recommended.
3. Recommended Pronunciations
alpha
ii like the first a in English aha (or the first a in Italian arnare); a
short open central vowel
like the second a in English aha (or the second a in Italian arnare);
a long open central vowel
like the vowel in English high; a diphthong
generally pronounced by present-day students exactly like a plain
long alpha; a so-called "long diphthong."1 The practice of writ-
ing a small iota under the vowel ("iota SUbscript") was deve-
loped in the Middle Ages and has been followed in most printed
texts, though you will also eventually meet texts with the iota
written after the long vowel ("iota adscript"), which was the
classical practice.
av like the vowel in English how; a diphthong
I. The tenn "long diphthong" is slightly misleading: all diphthongs are nonnally long vowels.
but the three "long diphthongs" q TI ~ are formed from the combination of a long vowel and
iota. In classical times these were true diphthongs (long alpha gliding into iota. eta gliding into
iota, omega gliding into iota), but between the fourth and second centuries B.C.E. the iota
weakened to a mere glide (like a consonantal ,v-sound) and then was not pronounced at all.
Hence the modem pronunciation.
10 UNIT ONE
bela
~ like English b; a voiced labial plosive
f?amma
y like hard I? in go; a voiced velar plosive, except before y. K. X, and
perhaps p.., where it is a velar nasal, like n in ink or nl? in song
delta
o like French d (similar to English d, but English d tends to have a
slight aspiration absent in the Greek); a voiced dental plosive
epsilon'
E like e in English pet; a short front mid vowel
like the vowel of German Beet (similar to the vowel in English
eight); a digraph (two-letter symbol) representing a single sound
(monophthong); a long front close-mid vowel 2
EV a diphthong pronounced by combining E with lui (= (0) in one
syllable (cf. the vowel in Englishfeud)
::.eta
(" like Izd] in English wisdom; a monograph (single symbol) re-
presenting a double-consonant group. From about 350 B.C.E. on,
e came to be pronounced as a single fricative, Izl as in English
do;.e or rose, and you will often hear it pronounced that way.
like the e in French tere; a long open vowel (similar to EL, but 1) is
more open and more central)
generally pronounced nowadays exactly like plain 1), though this is
a postclassical practice; a "long diphthong" (see above on Cf)
1JV a diphthong very similar in sound to tV, made up of 1) gliding into
[u] (= (0); very hard for English speakers to distinguish from EV,
and the Greeks themselves lost the distinction of sound in the
fourth century B.C.E.
theta
e pronounced by most people today like fricative til in English thin;
but pronounced in classical Attic like the t in English top, an
I. The classical Greeks called this letter Ei.; the Byzantines used the name E' 'VItAOV = "plain e"
to distinguish E from the letter pair aL. which in postclassical times became identical in
pronunciation to E.
2. In earlier Attic H represented a real diphthong (the sound of E gliding into the sound of L).
but the sound became single during classical times. The long vowel eventually represented by H
also occurred in some words as a result of contraction or compensatory lengthening. In the
former places H is (historically) a genuine diphthong. while in the latter it is traditionally
referred to as a "spurious" diphthong. This distinction will turn out to be significant in U29 and
elsewhere.
3. In western Greek alphabets and in early Attic, the letter H was heta. the h-sound. See § I
above.
The Alphabet; Pronunciation II
aspirated voiceless dental plosive (i.e., an aspirated tau). The th-

pronunciation arose in the Roman Imperial period (even earlier
in some dialects) and is recommended in this course because it
avoids confusion between T and efor English speakers.
iota
L like i in French vite; a short close front vowel, unrounded (the
sound in English bit is similar, but more open)
L like i in French vive; a long close front vowel, unrounded
kappa
K like English k (but completely unaspirated); a voiceless velar
plosive. In the preposition EK kappa is assimilated in pronun-
ciation to the following consonant: aspirated to [ekh I before 0 or
o.
cp, or voiced to reg] before /3. or A..
lambda
A like a clear I in French or like English I before vowels; a liquid
mu
J1. like English m; a bilabial nasal
nu
v like n in English net; a dental nasal. Nu is often assimilated to the
following consonant in compounds or in phrases pronounced as
a unit: it is assimilated to the following consonant before A.. j1.
p. (J"; labialized to j1 before labial plosives /3. n. cp; converted to
the velar nasal y before velar plosives K. y. X.
xi
t like English x in/ox; a double consonant [ksl
omicron I
a like 0 in German Gott; a short back mid vowel
aL like the vowel in English boy or coin, a diphthong
av like 00 in English pool or ou in French rouge,a digraph represent-
ing (during most of the classical period) a long close back vowel
[uj2
pi
like French p or non-initial p in English (that is, totally unaspirat-
ed); a bilabial voiceless plosive
rho
p rolled r as in Italian or Scottish; a trilled alveolar liquid
I. Originally called by the Greeks au; but the Byzantines called it 0 /.!lKPOV = "little 0" when
omega, W /lEya = "big 0," was no longer distinct from it in pronunciation.
2. As was the case with H (see above), in earlier Attic av represented a real diphthong (Ioul. the
sound of a gliding into the originally back sound of v), but the sound became single during
classical times. The long vowel eventually represented by av also occurred in some words as a
result of contraction or compensatory lengthening. In the former places av is (historically) a
genuine diphthong, while in the latter it is traditionally referred to as a "spurious" diphthong.
12 UNIT ONE
sigma
(T, S'. C like the English soft s in mouse; a voiceless fricative lsI. except
before the voiced consonants /3. y. o.fJ.. when it is a voiced fri-
cative [z]. like the s in English muse. In most printed books.
following an orthographic convention of late Byzantine times.
sigma appears as (J" at the beginning of a word or within it, but as
S' at the end of a word. In some books you will also see the older
letter form ( (lunate sigma) printed in all positions.
tau
T like French t or non-initial English t (totally unaspirated), a voice-
less dental plosive
upsilon'
v like short French u or German ii, pronounced like the /I in French
lune; a short close front rounded vowel; in earlier Attic, a close
back rounded vowellu], the value it retained in diphthongs
like long French u or German ii, pronounced like the /I in French
ruse; a long close front rounded vowel
a diphthong combining the rounded vowel 10] with semivocalic i =
Iy]. The full pronunciation was [Oy] or [Oyyl. but in classical
times the iota was weakened to a glide between vowels and
sometimes omitted in spelling.2
phi
cp pronounced by most people today as fricativej(as in Englishjoot),
but in classical times equivalent to an aspirated pi, like p in
English pot, an aspirated voiceless bilabial plosive. Phi became
fricative in postclassical times, and the j-pronunciation is recom-
mended in this course because it avoids confusion between 7f
and cf> for English speakers.
chi
x pronounced like the c of English cat or like eh in Scottish loch; an
aspirated voiceless velar plosive (aspirated kappa)
psi
'it like ps in English lapse; a monograph representing a double
consonant Ipsl
omega
w like aw in English saw; a long open central-back vowel (but you
will also hear it pronounced iike English long 0 in xo)
I. The ancient Greeks called the letter v, but by Byzantine times it shared the same
v
pronunciation with OL and was given the name ,/nhov = "plain 1/'" to distinguish it from
"diphthong" OL-
2. Pronunciation like English we is sometimes heard, but is not correct.
a "long diphthong," generally pronounced nowadays exactly like

plain w, though this is a postclassical practice (see above on q.)
Breathing Signs
aspirate or rough breathing: a sign placed over an initial vowel or
initial rho to indicate an initial h-sound. The sign derives from
the use of the left half of H to indicate [h] after H had been con-
verted to a vowel symbol.
smooth breathing: a sign placed over an initial vowel to indicate
the absence of aspiration
4. Punctuation and Capitali~ation. The Greek comma (,) and period (.)
are the same as are used in English. The Greek semicolon or colon is a single
dot raised above the line ('). The Greek question mark looks like the English
semicolon (;).
The Athenians of classical times used only capital letters and rarely punc-
tuated; often they left no space between words. Punctuation was gradually in-
troduced in books in postclassical times, but was consistently applied only in
Byzantine and modem times. In printed editions of Greek, punctuation is used
throughout, and lowercase letters are used except for the first letter of proper
names or proper adjectives and sometimes for the first letter of a section, para-
graph, or quoted speech.
5. Elision and Crasis. A short vowel at the end of a word (especially of

certain relatively weak words, such as particles, adverbs, and prepositions) is
usually eliminated (elided) before a following word beginning with a vowel.
Elision is marked by an apostrophe C), a symbol invented in postclassical
times but applied consistently only in Byzantine and modern times. For
example:
aAAa WCPE A?juw - > aAA' WCPE A?juw
napa VfJ.WV - > nap' VfJ.WV
If the following word begins with a vowel that has rough breathing, then an
unaspirated unvoiced plosive (n, T. K) at the end of the elided word is changed
to the corresponding aspirated plosive (cp. e. X):
vno VfJ.WV - > vcp' VfJ.WV
Similar elisions and spelling changes occur in compound words fonned with
prepositional prefixes: I
I. But the final iota of 7T€pi is never elided.

14 UNIT ONE
7Tapa- + ayw - > 7Tapuyw

KaTa- + ZaTYJ!J.L - > Ka8i(JTYJ!J.L
In other cases a final vowel is not elided but undergoes contraction or
crasis ("mixing") with a following vowel: this occurs, for instance, with the
prefix 7TpO- and with the article. The symbol called coronis ("crown"),
identical to the smooth breathing sign (,), is usually placed over the vowel
formed by contraction:
7TpOEOO(Jav - > 7TpOVOO(Jav
TO f.AaTTOV - > TOVAaTTOV
But when the first vowel in crasis is a form of the article with a rough breath-
ing, the resulting vowel has a rough breathing rather than a coronis:
6 alJTo) - > aiJTo)
6 av8pW7To) - > Q.V8PW7TO)
Finally, when the second vowel in crasis has a rough breathing, the aspiration
is transferred to any unaspirated consonant of the preceding syllable and the
coronis replaces the rough breathing:
Kd 6 7TOVO) - > xw 7TOVO)
TO. i!J.una - > 8ai!J.una
6. Some Typographic Conventions. The following information is for

later reference. Not all of the phenomena described here will be seen in this
book, but students will meet them in reading Greek texts.
a. Diacritical marks (accents, breathings, coronis) belonging to a diph-
thong or vowel digraph are conventionally printed over the second of the
two vowels: alJTo). ofJTo). 7TE'ipa. YJVPO!J.EV.
b. When such a word is capitalized, only the first vowel of the diphthong
is capitalized, and the diacritical marks remain on the second vowel: for
example, alno) - > AlJTo)
c. When an initial single vowel is capitalized, its diacritical marks are
printed before it: aV8pW7To) - > " Av8pw7To).
d. When a "long dipthong" is capitalized, the main vowel is printed as a
capital, lowercase iota is printed beside it, and diacritical marks are
placed before the capital: q.oYJ) -->" ALOYJ).
e. When two adjacent vowels that could form a diphthong are pro-
nounced as separate, the second vowel has a mark of separation
(diaeresis: two dots) printed over it: for example, ypat. f30t (two
syllables, not one).
WHAT TO STUDY
1. Learn to write the Greek alphabet, especially the lowercase fonns.
2. Learn to recite the Greek alphabet.
3. Practice pronunciation by reading aloud the vocabulary words found in
Units 3, 4, etc. It is recommended that you give a slight stress to the
accented syllable. You may also want to begin memorizing the meanings
of the words in Units 3 and 4.
UNIT TWO
Accentuation
1. Ancient Greek had a tonal accent or pitch accent, not a stress accent
such as is found in Latin, English, and many European languages, including
Modern Greek. The accent of a word or phrase consisted in a raising of the
pitch of the voice at the accented syllable. The classical Greeks used no accent
marks: they needed none since the language was their native tongue, and the
tradition of writing and reading books was relatively young and the format not
very "user-friendly." The practice of marking accents was initiated by literary
scholars in Alexandria ca. 200 B.C.E. Accent marking was needed to help in
the correct pronunciation of unfamiliar words in the great poetry of the past, to
eliminate ambiguities which would be present in an unaccented text, to help in
dealing with divergences between dialects, and perhaps to facilitate the
teaching of Greek to foreigners. Accents were at first sporadically used and
were especially applied to prevent ambiguities.
2. Gradually the Koine of the Hellenistic and Roman periods underwent

a change in accentuation along with many other linguistic changes. By 400
C.E. a stress accent had fully supplanted the pitch accent. Subsequently, accent
marking became even more necessary for dealing with the great literature of
the past. In the ninth century C.E. Byzantine scholars modified the accent-
marking system, producing the conventions we now follow.
3. Although scholars can deduce how the tonal accent worked on single
words and short phrases that were treated as an accentual unit, there is no way
to discover how the accents sounded in longer utterances, and it is therefore
idle (as well as very difficult) for the beginner to attempt a tonal rendering of
Greek accents. One approach to pronunciation by a modern student of the lan-
guage is to ignore the accent; but for mnemonic purposes it is more practical
and helpful to give a slight stress to the accented syllable (this practice will
also be useful if you later learn Modern Greek). In writing and reading, how-
ever, accents should be used and attended to: although some accents are not of
16
Accentuation 17
crucial importance for understanding, there are also many which prevent ambi-
guities, and the accents do mirror important facts about the ancient language.
The beginner should not be worried if the rules for accentuation given
here seem complicated and difficult to master. It takes time and practical
application before a beginner starts to feel comfortable with accents; but it
does not help to ignore them entirely at the beginning and try to repair the
omission at a later stage. In learning accents, there should be a happy medium
between insouciance and an obsession which detracts from the learning of
other elements of the language.
Read this section carefully now, then tackle the succeeding units one by
one, observing and learning the accentuation of various nouns and verbs.
Review this unit after a few weeks and periodically thereafter until it makes
sense to you.
4. Contonation and Mora. The apparently complex "rules" of Greek ac-

centuation can be understood in terms of a single general principle involving
the concepts of contonation and mora. Contonation is the combination of the
rise of pitch generally thought of as the accent with the necessary return or fall
to standard pitch which follows it. In the case of an acute accent, the con-
tonation includes both the syllable on which the accent is written (and on
which the pitch rises) and the entire following syllable (on which the pitch
falls), if any, whether it counts as long or short. In the case of the circumflex
accent, the contonation occurs on the one syllable on which the accent is
written, for there are both a rise in pitch and a return to standard pitch on that
syllable. A mora is the (theoretically assigned) "standard" length of a short
vowel (ii, E, t, 0, v, and final aL and OL in most cases). A long vowel (a, EL, Y],
t, OV, w, D) or a diphthong (except final aL and OL in most cases) occupies
(theoretically) a time span equivalent to two morae.
The general principle of Greek accentuation is that the contonation may
be followed by no more than one mora before the end of the word (or phrase
pronounced as one word unit). This principle is in many respects similar to
rules in other languages (e.g., Latin) which constrain the position of accent
according to the nature of the final syllables of a word. In Greek this principle
limits the position of the acute and circumflex accents (see §6-9 below) and
requires the addition of an extra accent in some phrases consisting of word +
enclitic (see §12 below).
5. Only the last three syllables of a word may be accented. These syl-
lables are traditionally referred to by terms derived from Latin: ultima = "the
last syllable" (abbreviated in this book as U); penult ="almost last, second-to-
18 UNIT TWO
last syllable" (abbreviated here as P); and antepenult = "before the penult,
third-to-Iast syllable" (abbreviated here as A). In what follows, the phrase
"long ultima" ("long penult," etc.) will mean "ultima (penult, etc.) containing
a long vowel or diphthong."
6. The acute accent (') represents a simple rise in pitch over a short or
long vowel. It may appear on A, P, or U.
The circumflex accent ( ~, also" or - ) represents a rise of pitch over the
first mora of a long vowel followed by a return to standard pitch over the
second mora. It cannot appear over a short vowel (a short vowel is too short to
allow time for both rise and fall). It may appear on P or U (never on A).
The grave accent (') occurs only on U. What it represented in terms of
pitch in classical pronunciation is uncertain. In a connected utterance, the
grave replaces an acute accent over U of a word not followed by punctuation
(or an enclitic).
7. The ultima, if short and accented, has an acute when a word is written
in isolation or occurs immediately before a pause (or an enclitic). In a
connected context, a short accented ultima has the grave instead.
If long and accented, U may have a circumflex (whether in isolation or
not) or an acute (in isolation or before punctuation [or encliticl; otherwise a
grave is substituted). In this case the type of accent must be learned for each
word or particular form.
8. The penult, if short and accented, has the acute. If long and accented,
then P has the acute if U is long, the circumflex if U is short.
9. The antepenult may be accented only if U is short and may receive

only the acute.
10. Examples of Accentuation

aya8oS' short U accented with acute, in isolation
(no mora follows the contonation on U)
aya8oS' Q.V8pW7TOS' short U accented with grave in connected phrase
long U accented with acute, in isolation
long U accented with grave in connected phrase
aya80v long U accented with circumflex, regardless of
position (no mora follows the contonation on U)
Accentuation 19
AOy0S'. AOYOV short accented p. acute regardless of quantity of U

(no mora follows the contonation on P + U)
owpov long accented P, short U, circumflex
(one mora follows the contonation on P)
oWPOV long accented P, long U, acute
(no mora follows the contonation on P + U)
aVepW7TOS' accented A, short U, acute
(one mora follows the contonation on A + P)
11. Proclitics. Certain monosyllabic words normally lack their own ac-
cent and attach themselves in pronunciation to the following word to form a
single word unit. These words are called proclitics (because they are consid-
ered to "lean forward" on the following word for their accent). Proclitics are
normally written without an accent and do not affect the accentuation of the
following word. In Attic the common proclitics (to be learned in later units)
are the negative adverb OV, the conjunctions EL ("if") and wS' ("as"), the
prepositions EiS', EV, EK, and the nominative singular and plural masculine and
feminine forms of the article (6, ~, oi, at). (A proclitic receives an acute
accent when it is followed by an enclitic: see below.)
12. Enclitics. Certain words (mostly monosyllabic, a few disyllabic)

normally lack their own accent and attach themselves in pronunciation to the
preceding word to form a single word unit. These words are called enclitics
(because they are considered to "lean upon" the previous word for their
accent). In Attic the common enclitics (to be learned in later units) are the
indefinite pronouns, indefinite adjectives, and indefinite adverbs, most present
indicative forms of the irregular verbs ELjJ..i ("to be") and cpy/jJ..i ("to say"),
certain particles, and certain unstressed forms of the personal pronouns.
Enclitics sometimes affect the accent of the preceding word.
a. A word accented on U keeps its circumflex or acute (the acute is not
changed to a grave, because it is no longer felt to be on the final syllable
of its word unit).
Ex. ayaeoS' HS'. ayae0 I~
b. A word accented with an acute on P is unchanged in accent before a
monosyllabic or disyllabic enclitic. But a disyllabic enclitic following
such a word receives on its second syllable either an acute (in isolation or
before punctuation) or a grave (in a connected context): that is, the word
unit receives a second accent if more than one mora follows the
contonation.
Ex. AOyOS' H2.. AOY'P Hvi. AOY'P HVt KaA0
20 UNIT TWO
-. ---------- -- --- - - - - --- - - - - -
c. A word accented with a circumflex on P or with an acute on A

receives an extra accent on U. Again, this means that the word unit
receives a second accent if more than one mora follows the contonation.
Ex. owpov .[t, av8pw7Too; Ho;
d. A proclitic followed by an enclitic receives an acute accent.
'I' " ,
Ex. H "[15, OVK ~L([L
13. For the student's information, the following terms, often used in
traditional Greek grammars and in commentaries, are defined here, though
they are not used in this book:
oxytone: a word with acute on U
paroxytone: a word with acute on P
proparoxytone: a word with acute on A
perispomenon: a word with circumflex on U
propenspomenon: a word with circumflex on P
WHAT TO STUDY AND DO

I. Read this unit carefully more than once. Return to review it every now and
then during the course. (Further aids to accentuation will be given in later
units.)
2. Continue to practice the alphabet.
3. Practice pronunciation by reading aloud the vocabulary words found in
Units 3, 4, etc. It is probably best to give a slight stress to the accented
syllable. You may also want to begin memorizing the meanings of the
words in Units 3 and 4.
4. Do the exercises of this unit.
EXERCISES
1. For each of the following, identify the type of accent and the syllable on
which it occurs, and give the length of U. Optional: tell which rule(s) given in
*6 -9 or * I 1-12 the example illustrates.
Ex. av8pw7ToL: acute accent on A (antepenult); U is short
(recall that final - OL counts as short)
Optional part: §9 (acute accent on A only when U is short)
I. aVEJ.i.ov 4. ayopuo; 7. 7TE~pa Ho;
2. 'frr,cpoo; 5. apx~v 8. 7TOAEJ.i.Oo; 7TOV
3. ,/njcpoL'> 6. H}D7 9. 8avaToo;

Accentuation 21
10. 7fOTajJ.o) 12. E7fEjJ.7fE 14. 000)

11. 7fOTajJ.o) paev) 13. "'vX~ aeavaTo) 15. njJ.aL)
II. For each of the following, place the correct accent (acute, circumflex, or
grave) on the indicated syllable.
Ex. 7fEjJ.7fELP: 7fEjJ.7fEL
(U long, so accented P must have acute)
1. owpa P 5. YAwTTav P 9. 7fWOELq. P
2. aVepW7fE A 6. YAWTTll) P 10. aVEjJ.0) A
3. AajJ.f3avE ~ P 7. AOYOV P 11. ayaeov U
4. f3ovAHa~ A 8. AOYOV) P 12. KaAov (U) owpov
UNIT THREE
Nouns: The O-Declension

-~--~---------------------
PRELIMINARIES'
A. The Parts of Speech. The words of a language are commonly classi-

fied, according to their function in a sentence, into categories called parts of
speech. This categorization was developed in classical times in Greece (though
similar classifications were developed, independently and contemporaneously,
by Indian grammarians for Sanskrit), formalized by the Stoics in postclassical
times, and passed via the Romans into modern linguistics.
The generally recognized parts of speech are noun, pronoun, adjective,
article, verb, adverb, preposition, and conjunction. In Greek grammar certain
connective and logical adverbs and conjunctions are also referred to as par-
ticles. The parts of speech will be individually introduced in the appropriate
units.
B. Noun. A noun [Greek ovop.a, Latin nomen, both = "name"] is that

part of speech which names or refers to a person, place, or thing. In the most
obvious instances, the person, place, or thing is concrete and can be pointed
out. But other nouns are used to "name" or refer to a quality or an action,
something intangible or abstract:
Ex. intelligent: intelligence

to select: selection
to move: movement
I. The section called "Preliminaries" to be found at the beginning of some units is designed to
provide the student with a review of (or introduction to) some basic terminology and concepts of
grammar. It is impractical to study ancient Greek, a language rich in inflectional forms and
permitting a highly variable word order, without an understanding of these concepts. References
to other languages are given both for the purpose of comparison to benefit students who may
have studied other languages and in order to demonstrate that English inflection and grammar
are anomalous in their simplicity and that the richness and complexity of Greek are paralleled in
many other languages.
22
Nouns: The O-Declension 23
A proper noun is the name of an individual creature, place, or thing (e.g., Julia
Child, Newfoundland) and is capitalized in English and many other lan-
guages (also in printed Greek by modern convention). A common noun is a
generic term that can be applied to many individuals (e.g., chef, island).
In Greek and many other languages, nouns have gender. In many lan-
guages gender is reflected in the form of the noun (e.g., Italian ~io, Spanish t(o
= "uncle" vs. Italian ~ia, Spanish t(a ="aunt") and in the form of its modifiers.
The gender of nouns in English is usually not related to the form (but cf. actor
vs. actress), and grammatical gender is significant only when a noun serves as
antecedent to a singular pronoun (such as she, him, it): nouns referring to
female creatures have feminine pronouns associated with them, those referring
to male creatures have masculine, and all others have neuter (unless there is
some personification). In Greek, however, every noun has grammatical gen-
der: things may be referred to by masculine, feminine, or neuter nouns, and
some neuter nouns refer to male or female creatures. The gender of a Greek
noun must thus be learned and memorized when the noun itself is first learned.
Nouns are inflected in many languages, including Greek. Inflection is the
modification of the form of a word (in its suffix or stem or both) to indicate
which of a fixed set of variables is being employed. The inflection of a noun,
pronoun, or adjective is called declension. For a noun the variables are number
and case.
In most languages nouns have singular and plural number to distinguish
between a reference to one person or thing and a reference to more than one.
In English most plurals are formed by adding s, but there are also irregular
formations: day, dan; woman, women. Greek nouns have singular, dual, and
plural numbers. The dual is used to refer to a pair of persons or things. In
many dialects use of the dual died out before the classical period, but Attic
preserved the dual, especially for natural pairs (like "hands" or "eyes") or
inseparable pairs (like "the Itwo] goddesses" for Demeter and Kore). Even in
Attic the plural is often used to refer to two persons or things, and an author
may switch between dual and plural with no distinction in meaning in the
same sentence or passage. The dual is so rare in proportion to the singular and
plural that beginners are usually not required to learn it. Since students will
soon meet the dual if they continue beyond this book, the dual forms are
presented in paradigms in this book, always in parentheses, for information
and reference. But dual forms are not used in the exercises.
In many languages, including Greek, nouns also are characterized by
variation in case. Case identifies the grammatical function of the noun in its
sentence or phrase. Nouns in Modern English show only vestiges of case
declension: there are two cases in both singular and plural, an all-purpose form
24 UNIT THREE
----------------------
and a possessive fonn (e.g., doctor, doctor's, doctors, doctors '; man, man's,
men, men's). In classical Attic there are five cases (Greek 7fTJ)(TU I) , Latin
casus = "failings [from a standard], modifications of ending"), which indicate
functions such as subject, object, indirect object, or possession. The Greek
cases are presented in detail in §2 of this unit. Since there are five cases and
three numbers in Greek, each noun theoretically can be inflected into 15
fonns; but in fact some fonns serve more than one case, and most nouns have
9 endings to learn (or II if one includes the dual).
Another tenn often used to refer to nouns is substantive. Substantive is a
more general tenn. It includes nouns, pronouns, verbal nouns, and any other
noun-equivalent (e.g., the ugly, the beautiful; the why and the wherefore).
I. Greek nouns are in general inflected according to three systems or

declensions. Two of these are vowel declensions: the o-declension and the a-
declension. The third declension is called the consonant declension, though
this is in fact a grouping of various vowel and consonant declensions.
Inflection is based on a noun stem, to which is added a series of case endings'
to indicate each of the five cases in singUlar, dual, and plural. The stem of a
Greek noun is always accurately obtained by removing the ending from the
genitive singular fonn.
2. The five cases (see above) in Attic Greek are:

nominative: the subjective case, used for the subject of a finite verb and
for predicate nouns after a finite fonn of the copula (this construction
will be learned in Units 5 and II). Abbreviated nom. or n.
genitive: the case used to indicate possession, source, origin, and many
other relations (many of the uses will be learned in Units IO and 29). A
catch-all English translation for the genitive is a prepositional phrase
with of Abbreviated gen. or g.
dative: the case used for the indirect object (whence its name, from its
frequent use with the verb to give) and for a variety of other relations
(many of these will be learned in Units IO and 29). A catch-all English
translation for the dative is a prepositional phrase with to or for.
Abbreviated dat. or d.
accusative: the case used for the direct object, the internal object, and a
few other relations (these will be learned in Unit 17). Abbreviated acc.
or a.
I. Sometimes these really consist of a combination of final stem-vowel and case ending.
vocative: the case used to address someone or call a person by name. For
all types of Greek nouns the vocative plural is identical to the
nominative plural. Abbreviated voc. or v.
3. Nouns whose stems end in -0 belong to the o-declension (also called

the "second" declension). Every case ending (except the voc. sing. of mas-
culine and feminine nouns and the nom. acc. voc. pl. of neuter nouns) contains
an o-sound (0. w. ov. Ot. or '{J)'
4. There are two groups of o-declension nouns.
a. Masculine and feminine nouns with nominative in -OS'. (Genders are

often abbreviated masc., fern., neut. [or m., f., n.].) The vast majority of nouns
in this group are masc., but names in - OS' of countries, cities, islands, trees,
plants, and plant products are fern., as are a few isolated words such as OODS' =
"road" and vO(J'oS' = "sickness."
Ex. "human
"road" (/) "word" (m.) being" (m.) endings
sing. nom. oooS' r..oyoS' o.V$pW7TOS' -OS'
gen. oooi) r..oyov Q.v$pOJ7TOV -ov

dat. 000 r..oycp Q.v$pOJ7Tcp -cp
ace. ooov r..oyov o.V$pW7TOV -ov
voc. oOE I\OyE o.V$pW7TE -E
(dual n. a. v. oow r..oyw Q.V$pW7TW) ( -w)

(g. d. OOOl.V I\oyow Q.V$pW7TOW) (-ow)
plur. n. v. 0001. l\oYOt o.V$pW7TOt -Ot
gen. oowv I\oywv Q.v$pOJ7TWV -wv
dat. 000l.S' r..oYOtS' Q.V$pW7TOtS' -OtS'
acc. ooovS' l\oyovS' Q.V$pW7TOVS' -OVS'
b. Neuter nouns with nominative in -ov. The paradigm is shown at the

top of the next page. Three facts which apply to all neuter forms (o-declension
nouns, consonant-declension nouns, and adjectival forms) should be noted: (I)
the genitive and dative endings of all numbers are identical with those of masc.
nouns of the same type; (2) the nom., acc., and voc. of each number have a
single form; (3) the nom. acc. voc. plural ending is always -a.
5. Accentuation. The accentuation of all nouns and adjectives is per-

sistent: that is, the same syllable tends to be accented in all forms except when
the changing length of the ultima forces the contonation to move, either by the
change of a circumflex on P to an acute or by the displacement of the acute
26 UNIT THREE
NEUTER NOUNS IN -{)v
Ex. "work" (n.) "gift" (n.) endings
sing. nom. EPYOV owpov -ov

gen. "
EPYOV owpov -ov
dat. "
EPY<r oWP<r -<r
acc. EPYOV owpov -ov
voc. "
EPYOV owpov -ov
(dual n. a. v. EPYW owpw) (-w)
(g. d. EPYOW owpow) ( -ow)
plur. n. v. "
Epya owpa -a.
gen. EPYWV owpwv -wv
dat. "
EpyOt> OWPDL> -Ot>
acc. "
Epya owpa -a
closer to the end of the word (from A to P). For example, the accent of
o.v8pw7r0') is persistent on A, except when U is long, forcing accentuation on P
instead of A. Remember that final -{)l in the nom. pI. masc. counts as short for
the purposes of accentuation, hence o.V8PW7f"Ol (but in the dat. pI. Ol in -Ol') is
not final, hence CW8pW7f"Ol,). The accent of owpov is persistent on P, but
changes from circumflex to acute (still on P) whenever the ultima is long.
Since the accent is persistent, you should learn the position and type of accent
of the nominative when you first learn a noun.
Special rule for accentuation of o-declension nouns: any noun of the 0-
declension with an accented ultima (acute on U in nom. sing.) has the
circumflex on U in the gen. and dat. of all numbers (e.g., 606') above).
6. Identification of Noun Forms. When you learn a noun, you need to

learn the nom. sing. form (including the accent), the gen. sing. form, the gen-
der, and the English meaning.
Ex. o.YYEAO,), aYYEAov, m., "messenger"
When you are asked to identify a noun form, first specify the variables (case
and number) and then give the "dictionary" information about the noun,
namely, the nom. sing., gen. sing. (in full, or just the ending), and gender, and
add one definition if the English meaning is requested.
Ex. identify VO(]"Ol,) and give one meaning
answer: dat. pI. of vo(]"o,), vo(]"ov, f., sickness
or dat. pI. of vo(]"o,), ~V, f., sickness

1. Learn the patterns of the two types of o-declension nouns.
2. Learn the vocabulary of this unit.
ADVICE ABOUT VOCABULARY AND EXERCISES

People differ in the ease with which they memorize and in the manner in
which they do so most effectively. Some people have excellent visual memory
and need only to look at paradigms and vocabulary repeatedly and carefully;
others do better by repeatedly pronouncing and hearing the items to be
memorized; others may find that writing out inflections and words helps
memorization. Use whatever techniques suit you, and drill yourself (or
collaborate with a fellow student), because in a college course there will never
be time for enough in-class drill. The vocabulary is typed in separate columns
to facilitate drill. A published set of ancient Greek flash cards is available I
(there is a large degree of overlap between the words in the set and those
assigned in this book). Or you may make your own drill cards: cut small index
cards in half, write a Greek word on one side, the definition on the other. For
inflections, make yourself set the paradigm aside after a while and try to write
it out from memory. No matter what techniques you use, reciting and reading
your Greek out loud are strongly recommended.
The exercises are designed to help the student put into use the voca-
bulary, inflections, and grammatical rules learned so far. Doing the exercises,
however, is no substitute for the task of basic memorization which is necessary
in the beginning stages of any language. There are several ways to com-
plement the exercises given in the units if you need more practice:
1. Repeat the exercises after an interval (avoid writing the answers in the
book).
2. Write paradigms.
3. Do an exercise in reverse, working back from the corrected answers.
4. Vary the given exercises by altering the instructions according to a fixed
pattern (e.g., interchange singular and plural, active and middle/passive;
transpose the case of a noun or the tense of a verb).
5. Apply a sequence of instructions to the words listed in the vocabulary (e.g.,
proceed through a list of nouns giving gen. pI. of the first, acc. sing. of the
second, dat. pI. of the third, etc.).
I. Vis-Ed Classical Greek Vocabularr Cards (Visual Education Assn .. Springfield, Ohio), often
available in college bookstores.
28 UNIT THREE
VOCABULARY
In the vocabulary lists, English words derived from a Greek word (or
from a closely related root) are given in square brackets after the definitions.
The words in brackets are not definitions, but they may help you learn Greek
vocabulary by association, and in any case will provide some enrichment of
your English vocabulary, or occasionally amusement.
o-declension: masculine nouns

aYYEAo,>, aYYEAov, m. messenger, herald [angel]
" 'I ,
aVEJJ.0'>, aVEJJ.0V, m. wind [anemometer]
av8pw7ro,>, av8pw7rov, m. human being, man (occasionally fern. = "woman")
[anthropology]
/31.0'>, /31.0V, m. life, manner of living, livelihood [biology]
~AW'>, Y,AI.OV, m. sun [helium]
8avaTo,>, 8avaTOv, m. death [euthanasia]
8E<J<;, 8wu, m.l god, divinity (occasionally fern. = "goddess")
[theology]
L7r7rO<>, L7r7rOV, m. horse (also fern. = "mare") [hippopotamus]
AOY0'>, AOYOV, m. word, speech, tale, story; reckoning, account,
proportion; reason, rationality [philology]
V0JJ.0'>, v0JJ.0v, m. custom; law [economic]
7rOAEJJ.0'>, 7rOAEJJ.0V, m. war [polemic]
o-declension: feminine nouns

VO(To,>, VO(TOV, f. sickness, disease
000'>, ooof;,
f. road, path, way; journey [odometer, method]
"'f7cjJo,>, ",ricjJov, f. small stone, pebble (used in reckoning, in games, in
voting); vote [psephologist]
o-declension: neuter nouns

PLPAI.OV, /3Lj3AI.OV, n. book [bibliophile]
owpov, owpov, n. gift [Eudora]
"
f.pyOV, "
f.pyOV, n. work, action, deed [erg, energy]
JJ.ETpOV, JJ.ETpOV, n. measure, size, distance; moderate amount,
proportion [meter)
7raLOI.OV, 7raLOI.OV, n. child [pediatrics]
I. In classical Greek no vocative singular fonn is found; in postclassical Greek both 8Hl> and
8EE are used as vocative.
EXERCISES
I. Identify the following noun fonns and give at least one meaning.
Ex. "
Epya: nom. (or acc.) pI. of EPYOV. EPYOV, n., "work"
, ,
1. 1]AWV 9. vop..ov 17. vOO"ov,> 25. 7fOAEp..<.p
2. 7fOAEp..OL 10. aYYEAOL'> "
18. aVEp..E 26. 8WL
,
3. j3Lj3ALOL'> I I, p..ETpa 19. AOYOV 27. f3LOV
4. 7faLOLOV 12. owpa "
20. EpyOL'> 28. aYYEAoL
5. eEr{> 13. f3iwv 21. owpov 29. 7faLOLa
,
6. VOO"OL 14. GOWV 22. f3Lf3ALOV 30. 8avuTwv
,
7. 'Ini<p<.p 15. "L7f7fOV 23. GOOL'> 31. p..ETpOV
8. 8avuTov,> 16. av8pw7f<.p 24. ti]<pOL 32. AOYOV'>
II. Give the requested fonn of the Greek noun and indicate its gender.
Ex. gen. pI. of wind: aVEp..wv, m.
1. nom. pI. of stone, vote 15. gen. pI. of word
2. gen. sing. of war 16. acc. pI. of messenger
3. acc. pI. of child 17. voc. sing. of life
4. nom. sing. of sickness 18. acc. sing. of law
5. acc. sing. of measure 19. nom. sing. of story
6. nom. pI. of child 20. gen. sing. of work
7. acc. sing. of gift 21. dat. pI. of gift
8. nom. sing. of sun 22. voc. pI. of law
9. voc. pI. of god 23. nom. pI. of wind
10. dat. sing. of death 24. gen. sing. of horse
11. dat. pI. of deed 25. acc. pI. of measure
12. gen. pI. of man 26. dat. pI. of messenger
13. dat. pI. of horse 27. dat. sing. of child
14. dat. sing. of road
III. In the following list, the first of each pair of fonns is the nominative
singular of an o-declension noun. Following the principle of persistent
accentuation, place the correct accent on the second fonn in each pair.
Ex. KLVOVVO'> KWOVVOV
answer: KWOVVOV
(length of U forces accent to move from A to P)
,
I. 7fAOVTO,> 7fAOVTOV 6. 7fOTap..o'> 7forap..<.p
, ,
2. xpovo,> XPOVOL'> 7. TP07fO'> TP07fWV
,
3. O"TpaTYJY°'> O"TpaTYJYE 8. AL8o'> AL80L
4. oLoaO"KaAo'> oLoaO"KaAov 9. O"TUOWV O"TaOLa
' , ,
5. O"TpaT07fEOOV O"TpaT07fEOoL'> 10. VW'> VLWV
UNIT FOUR
Nouns: The A-Declension I
1. Nouns whose stems end in alpha belong to the a-declension (or alpha-
declension), also known as the "first" declension. The alpha-vowel appears in
some form in almost all the cases of the dual and plural: a, ii, a~, or q.. In the
singular, however, because of the vowel shift from long alpha to eta in the
Ionic-Attic dialects (see Introd. §6), long alpha has been replaced by eta in the
Attic case endings except after E, ~, or p.
2. The nouns of the a-declension may be divided into three groups, each
of which has two subgroups because of the alpha-eta vowel shift. The three
groups differ in declension only in the singular. The dual and plural of all a-
declension nouns have the same endings. The first group consists of the long-
vowel feminine nouns: in these the vowel of the nom., acc., and voc. sing. is
long.
a. Alpha subgroup: when the noun stem ends in E, ~, or p, the vowel

alpha appears throughout the singular and in most of the plural.
Ex. "goddess" (f) "education" (l) "land" (l) endings
sing. nom. eECI. 7TaLOEl.a xwpa -a

gen. eEQ.'> 7TaLOEl.a~ xwpa~ -a~
dat. eEq. 7TaLOEI.q. xwpq. -q.

acc. eE(W 7TaLOEl.aV xwpav -av
voc. eEa 7TaLOEl.a xwpa -a
(dual n. a. v. eEa 7TaLOEl.a xwpa) ( -a)
(g. d. eWtV 7TaLOEl.aW xwpaw) (-aw)
plur. n. v. ewl. 7TatOEtat xwpaL -at
gen. eEWV 7TatOELWV xwpwv -wv
dat. eWt~ 7TaLOEl.aL~ xwpaL~ -at~
acc. eEa~ 7TatOEl.a~ xwpa~ -a~
30
Nouns: The A-Declension I 31
b. Eta subgroup: when the noun stem ends in any other letter, eta appears
in the singular endings, but alpha in most of the plural.
Ex. "opinion" (/) "flight" (/) endings
,
sing. nom. yvwJJ:T] cpvy~ -YJ
,
gen. yvwJJ.YJ' cpvyr" -YJ'
,
dat. yvwJJ.T/ cpvyg -T/
,
acc. yvwJJ.YJv cpvy~v -YJv
voc. yvwJJ.YJ cpvy~ -YJ
,
(dual n. a. v. yvwJJ.a cpvya) (-a)
,
(g. d. yvwJJ.aw cpvya/:v) (-aw)
plur. n. v. yvwJJ.at cpvyai -at
gen. yvwJJ.wv cpvywv -wv
,
dat. yvwJJ.at, cpvya/:, -at,
,
acc. yvwJJ.a, cpvya, -a,
3. Accentuation. There are two special rules for all nouns of the a-
declension. (1) All a-declension nouns have a circumflex accent on the omega
of the gen. pI. (the form was originally -awv and has been contracted to -wv).
(2) Any noun of the a-declension with an accented ultima (acute on U in the
nom. sing.) has the circumflex on U in the genitive and dative of all numbers
(examples: eEa. qwy1j).
4. The long alpha which appears in the acc. pI. has not shifted to eta in
the second subgroup because the long alpha there is not original, but rather a
product of compensatory lengthening which took place when v was dropped
from the original ending -av~. (The long alpha in the n. v. a. dual is a relatively
recent analogical formation based on the o-declension and so did not undergo
the vowel shift.)
5. Note the general similarities of case formation in the 0- and a-
declensions:
a. Nominative plural has iota-diphthong, counted as short: -Ot. -at.
b. Genitive plural has -wv.
c. Dative singular has a long stem-vowel with iota subscript: -~. -q.. -Tl'
d. Dative plural has iota-diphthong with sigma: -Ol~. -al~.
e. Accusative singular has stem vowel plus nu: -ov. -fw. -YJV.
f. Accusative plural is derived from stem vowel plus v~: -ov~ -> -OV~.
-av~ -> -a~.
g. If accented on U, these nouns have circumflex in genitive and dative
of all numbers.
32 UNIT FOUR
1. Learn the patterns of the long-vowel feminine a-declension nouns.

VOCABULARY
a-declension: long-vowel feminine nouns in a
ayopa., ayopo.<;, f. assembly, place of assembly; marketplace
[agoraphobia]
07]}.I.OKpaTia, 07]}.I.OKpaTia<;, f. democracy
7]}.I.Epa, 7]}.I.Epa<;, f. day [ephemeral]
eEa, eEo.<;, f. goddess
evpa, evpa<;, f. [v II door; (freq. pI.) double, folding doors
7fmoEia. 7TaLoEia<;, f. education, training, culture [propaedeutic 1
(J'Tpana. (J'Tpano.<;, f. army [strategy]
o"V}.l.cpopa., O"V}.I.cpopo.<;, f. event, happening, circumstance; unlucky event,
misfortune
cpLAia, cpLAia<;, f. friendship [bibliophily]
xwpa. xwpa<;, f. land, country; space, room, place [chorology]
a-declension: long-vowel feminine nouns in 1'/

apET~. apETi}<;, f. excellence; valor; virtue [aretalogy]
apx~. apxi}<;, f. beginning; rule, office; realm, province
[monarchy]
faculty of judgment; opinion, decision. verdict
[gnomic]
OiK7]. OiK7]<;, f. justice, right; lawsuit; punishment (levied in a suit)
[syndic]
7]Oov~. 7]oovi}<;, f. pleasure [hedonist]
ViK7]. ViK7]<;, f. [ L I victory [epinician]
o"K7]V~. O"K7]vi}<;, f. tent, booth; stage building; stage [scene]
TL}.I.~. n}.l.i}<;, f. honor; esteem; price [timocratic]
cpvy~. cpvyi}<;, f. running away. flight; exile
cpwv~. cpwvi}<;, f. sound; voice [phonetic]
"'iJX~. "'vxi}<;, f. breath of life; life; soul [psyche]
I. The long or short quantity of a, t, v is sometimes indicated in the vocabulary, especially

when the quantity must be known for correct accentuation (e.g., in this case, nom. pI. 8vpat, not
8vpat). In general an unmarked vowel may be assumed to be short (e.g., OLK7] has short L). Long
vowels in endings are marked only in the paradigm. The student need not use long marks when
writing Greek.
Nouns: The A-Declension I 33
EXERCISES
I. Give the requested fonn of the Greek noun and indicate its gender.
1. acc. sing. of friendship 16. dat. sing. of voice
2. nom. pI. of pleasure 17. acc. pI. of day
3. gen. sing. of education 18. nom. sing. of child
4. gen. pI. of flight 19. acc. sing. of justice
5. gen. sing. of honor 20. nom. pI. of day
6. ace. pI. of opinion 21. gen. sing. of road
7. gen. pI. of war 22. voc. sing. of soul
8. dat. pI. of justice 23. dat. pI. of pleasure
9. acc. pI. of tent 24. gen. sing. of anny
10. nom. pI. of door 25. voc. pI. of goddess
11. voc. pI. of messenger 26. acc. sing. of honor
12. dat. sing. of sickness 27. nom. pI. of word
13. voc. sing. of man 28. dat. sing. of victory
14. dat. pI. of road 29. acc. pI. of wind
15. gen. pI. of opinion 30. gen. pI. of door
II. Identify the following noun fonns and give at least one meaning.
' ,
1. tvxfl 9. apxr/V 17. aYYEAE 25. tvXryv
, ' ~
2. (TTpaTLaV 10. $EQS 18. ayopwv 26. apETr,<;
,
3. VtKT/ 11. oWPOt<; 19. $EOV 27. i]oovai
4. ayopal.<; 12. 7TatOEiq. 20. (J"KT/V1]<; 28. apx~v
5. TLjJ.wv 13. AOYOV<; 21. cpwvfl 29. TLjJ.at
' , ' ,
6. apETa<; 14. /3t/3Aia 22. oiKat 30. T/jJ.Epat<;
7. (J"l)jJ.cpopai 15. TLjJ.fl 23. cpvyas
,
8. $vpa<; 16. (J"vjJ.cpopal.<; 24. VtKat<;
III. In the following list, the first of each pair of fonns is the nominative sin-
gular of an a-declension noun. Following the principle of persistent accen-
tuation and the special rules applying to such nouns, place the correct accent
on the second fonn in each pair.
,
1. ' ,avaYKT/ avaYKT/v 6. (J"ocpia (J"ocpwv
,
2. jJ.aXT/ jJ.axat <; 7. 7TAT/Yry 7TAT/yat
3. E7Tt$vjJ.ia E7Tt$VjJ.tq. 8. EAEv$Epia EAEV$EPW<;
' , , ,
4. ELPT/vT/ EtPT/VWV 9. i](J"vXia T/(J"vXtq.
' , ,
5. EVXT/ EVXT/<; 10. KEcpaAry KEcpak{7
UNIT FIVE
Nouns: The A-Declension II
I. The second group of a-declension nouns consists of short-vowel fem-

inine nouns: in these the alpha in the nom., acc., and voc. sing. is short. The
gen. and dat. sing. vary between long alpha and eta depending on the final
letter of the stem. The dual and plural have alpha throughout (except gen. pI.
-wv) and have the same endings as the long-vowel feminines learned in Unit 4.
a. Alpha subgroup: stems ending in E, L, or p

Ex. "trial,
"health" (f) attempt" (/) endings
sing. nom. vyLHa 7TE'ipa -a

,
gen. VyLEWS' 7THpaS' -as'
' , ,
dat. vymq. 7THPq. -q.
ace. VyLEwv 7TE'ipav -av
, ,
v()e. VyLEW 7TEtpa -a
(dual II.a. v. VyLEw 7TELpa) ( -a)
(g. d. VyLEWW 7TELpaw) (-aw)
plur. n. v. VyLEWL 7TEtpaL -aL
gen. UyLHwV 7THpWV -wv
,
dat. VyLEWLS' 7THpaLS' -aLS'
,
ace. VyLEWS' 7THpaS' -as'
b. Eta subgroup: stems ending in any other letter

Ex. "sea" (/) "tongue" (f) elldings
- - - - - - - - -- - - - -
sing. nom. eaAaTTa YAwTTa -a

gen. eaAaTT1)S' yAWTT1)S' -1)S'
dat. eaAaTTTI YAWTTTI -TI
acc. eaAaTTav YAwTTav -av
voc. eaAaTTa YAwTTa -a
34
Nouns: The A-Declension II 35
"sea" (f) "tongue" (/) endings
(dual n. a. v. 8aAO.TTa YAwTTa) ( -a.)

(g. d. 8aAaTTaw YAwTTaw) (-aw)
plur. n. v. 8aAaTTaL YAwTTaL -aL

gen. 8aAaTTwv YAWTTWV -WV
dat. 8aAaTTaL, YAwTTaL, -aL,
ace. 8aAaTTa, YAwTTa, -as
Note that the accentuation of the nom. sing. usually indicates a short-alpha
noun: acute on A or circumflex on long P is possible only with the short alpha
in U.
2. The third group of a-declension nouns consists of masculine nouns.

These nouns have nominative singular in -os or -Tl'i>, and the gen. sing. ending
is -OV, borrowed from the o-declension. The dual and plural endings are the
same as for all other a-declension nouns.
a. Alpha subgroup: stems ending in E, L, or p. The sing. endings other

than nom. and gen. ~re like those of long-alpha feminines. Many proper names
belong to this subgroup, but few common nouns.
b. Eta subgroup: stems ending in any other letter. The eta appears in
nom. dat. acc. sing., but the voc. has -a.
Ex. (a) "young endings (b) "soldier" "judge " endings
man" (m.) (a) (m.) (m.) (b)
,
sing. nom. VEaVLa, -as (npanwT71' KpLT71' -71'
,
gen. VEavwv -ov CTTpanwTov KpLTOV -ov
,
dat. VEaVLq. -q. CTTpanwT!1 KpLTfi -!1
,
acc. VEaVLaV -av CTTpanwT71v KpLT71V -71V
, ,
voc. VEaVLa -a. CTTpanwTa KpLTa -a
(dual n. a. v. VEaVLa) ( -a.) (CTTpanWTa KpLTa) (-a)
(g. d. VEaVLaw) (-aw) «(J"TpanwTaw KpLTaI.V) (-aw)
, ,
plur. n. v. VEaVLaL -aL (npanWTaL KpLTaL -aL
gen. vEavLwv -wv CTTpanwTwv KpLTWV -wv
, ,
dat. VEaVLaL, -aL, CTTpanwTaL, KpLTal., -aL,
, ,
acc. VEaVLa, -a, CTTpanwTa, KpLTa, -a,
3. Note that the rules for accentuation mentioned in U4.3 apply to all a-
declension nouns.
36 UNIT FIVE
l. Learn the patterns of the short-vowel feminine and the masculine a-declen-
SIon nouns.
VOCABULARY
a-declension: short-vowel feminine nouns in a
U..\ r/8ELa. U..\ 1)8E La<;, f. truth; truthfulness [Alethea]
y{cpvpa. yEcpvpa<;, f. bridge
JlOLpa. JlOLpa<;, f. portion, lot; destiny, fate [Moira]
7l'ELpa. 7l'ELpa<;, f. attempt, trial [empirical]
vyLELa. vYLELa<;, f. health, soundness [hygiene)
a-declension: short-vowel feminine nouns in TJ

y..\WTTa. y..\WTT1)<;, f. tongue; language [isogloss, glottalJl
oo~a. OO~1)<;, f. opinion; reputation [orthodoxy)
8a...\aTTa. 8aA6.TT1)<;, f. sea [thalassocracy]
Tpa.7l'E(a. Tpa7l'{(1)<;, f. table; money changer's table, "bank" [trapeze]
a-declension: masculine noun in a

VEQ.vLa<;. VEaVLOV, m. young man [neologism (from base-root neo-)]
a-declension: masculine nouns in TJ

OEIT7l'OT1)<;. OEIT7l'OTOV, m. 2 master, lord; absolute ruler [despot)
OLKaITTr/<;. OLKaITTOV, m. juryman, judge (in court)
KpLTr/<;. KpLTOV, m. judge (in a contest), umpire [critic]
, ,
vaVT1)<;. vaVTOV, m. sailor [nautical)
07l'..\LT1)<;. 07l'..\LTOV, m. I i: I heavy-armed soldier, hoplite
7l'OL 1)Tr/<;. 7l'OL 1)TOV, m. maker, poet
7l'O..\LT1)<;. 7l'O..\LTOV, m. [i: I citizen [politics]
ITTpanwT1)<;. ITTpanWTov, m. soldier
I. Ionic and Koine have -(J"(J"- where Attic has -TT- (cf. Introd. §6), and in dictionaries such
words are usually listed under the -(]"(J"- fonn (yAw(J"(J"a. 8aAa(J"(J"a).
2. The voc. sing. is accented O€(J"7rOTa.
Nouns: The A-Declension II 37
EXERCISES
I. Give the requested fonn of the Greek noun and indicate its gender.
I. dat. pI. of citizen 16. acc. sing. of law
2. gen. pI. of table 17. nom. pI. of land
3. acc. sing. of truth 18. nom. pI. of book
4. nom. pI. of fate 19. voc. sing. of hoplite
5. gen. sing. of juror 20. nom. pI. of goddess
6. acc. pI. of umpire 21. gen. sing. of bridge
7. nom. sing. of young man 22. voc. pI. of master
8. dat. sing. of reputation 23. dat. pI. of table
9. voc. sing. of poet 24. gen. sing. of health
10. acc. sing. of sailor 25. voc. sing. of truth
II. acc. pI. of lawsuit 26. acc. sing. of young man
12. gen. pI. of wind 27. nom. pI. of poet
13. dat. pI. of faculty of judgment 28. dat. sing. of citizen
14. dat. sing. of health 29. acc. pI. of soldier
15. gen. sing. of sailor 30. gen. pI. of tongue
II. Identify the following noun fonns and give at least one meaning.
1. em"ALTy/')
, I
9. <pwvfl 17. 7TO"ALTa 25. va-lJTat
2. vyuwv 10. oo~a') 18. Vytf:Lq. 26. r,oovwv
3. 8a"AuTT~ II. yE<pVpq. 19. }1oipar; 27. 8a"AuTTa')
I
4. (TTpanwTa') 12. 7TO"ALTat 20. oHT7T(STa') 28. VO(TOV
06~y/')
I I
5. xwpat') 13. OErT7TOTOV 21. 29. xwpat')

6. y"AwTTwV 14. vavTwv 22. y"AwTTat') 30. KptTOV
7. 7Tf.Lpat 15. <pvyaL 23. 07T"ALTy/V 31. a"AY/8dq.
8. aPXIJ') 16. (TTpanWTat 24. 7TELpav 32. IJ.OtpwV
UNIT SIX
The Article; Prepositions I
PRELIMINARIES
A. Articles. An article (Latin articulus, Greek ap8pov = "joint, connect-

ing word") is a small modifier placed before a noun or a noun phrase to limit.
individualize, or give definiteness or indefiniteness to the application of the
noun. English, like many modern languages, has both a definite article (the)
and an indefinite article (a, an), and the English articles are not declined. In
other languages the article is declined in number and gender to agree with the
number and gender of the noun it accompanies (e.g., French la femme, Italian
il tempo, Spanish Los An!?eles), and in Greek, as in German, the article also is
inflected in the cases in agreement with its noun. Greek has no indefinite
article, and its definite article is used in ways (e.g., with abstract nouns and in
a generic sense) that are paralleled in other languages but not in English.
B. Prepositions. A preposition (Greek npo8uTL', Latin praepositio = "a

word placed in front") is that part of speech which expresses a relation be-
tween a noun or pronoun (the object of the preposition) and some other word,
with either adverbial or adjectival force. English has several dozen preposi-
tions, such as in, oj, at, he/ow, up, through. Prepositions are in origin adverbs
and are found in English and Greek (and other languages) also as adverbs
more or less closely attached to the verb. Compare the following:
He went down the ladder. (preposition)

He knocked the door down. (adverb)
The word group consisting of the preposition and the noun or pronoun it
governs is called a prepositional phrase. The object of a preposition is in a
case other than the nominative (or "straight" case), that is, in an "oblique"
case. Such case usage is evident in Greek as well as, for instance, German and
Latin. English, like other languages, no longer distinguishes the objective case
of nouns; but in formal English a pronoun that is the object of a preposition
must be in the objective case: to me, from whom, with us, hefore them.
38
The Article; Prepositions I 39
1. The definite article (the) in Attic has masculine, feminine, and neuter
fonus whose endings are basically those of the 0- and a-declensions. The stem
of the article varies between T- (found in almost all fonus) and the h-sound,
written as a rough breathing (found in the masc. and fern. nom. sing. and pl.).
mase. fern. neut.
sing. nom. a 1] TO
gen. TOV Tfj, TOV
dat. T0 T~ T'I-l
, , ,
ace. TOV T1]V TO
(dual n. a. TW TW TW)
(g. d. TOl.V TOl.V TOl.v)
plural nom. at at
. Ta
gen. TWV T(;JV TWV
dat. Tal., Tal., Tal.,
,
ace. TaU, Ta, Ta
There is no vocative fonu of the article. The masc. and fern. nom. sing. and pI.
fonus are treated as proclitics (U2.11): they have no accent of their own.'
Differentiated feminine dual forms in alpha (TCi, Ta(;v) also existed in the
fourth century B.C.E. and perhaps earlier.
2. Concord. (Concord will be discussed more fully in U7.) The article

agrees with its noun in gender, number, and case. It does not necessarily agree
with its noun in ending. Examples: TryV yvw}J-T]V, T0 i\oyer, but also TOV,
vavTa" Ta(;,ooo(;,.
3. Some Uses of the Article
a. The Greek article may individualize or make definite the noun it mod-
ifies, just as the English article the does. This is the particular article. In Greek
the particular article is often used with proper names.
,
Ex.
.
nat T]TT],
,
a nat T]TT],
poet, a poet
the poet
o~oi\wv Solon
I. This difference in treatment of the nom. case of the article is actually a postclassical graphic
convention designed to distinguish the masc. and fern. nom. of the article from the same forms
of the relative pronoun (which look the same but are accented). In fact, all cases of the definite
article. when used as straightforward article, were probably proclitic within their word groups.
40 UNIT SIX
b. The Greek article, in the context of a sentence, often has the force of
an English possessive adjective (my, our, your, his, her, its, their). The proper
English translation is obvious from the context (normally the subject of the
sentence is the possessor).
Ex. a (TTpanWT17r; TOV L7T7TOV aYEL.
The soldier is leading his horse.
c. Abstract nouns and abstract substantives are often accompanied by the
definite article in Greek, a use found in other languages, but not in English (cf.
French la beaute, German die SchOnheit, English beauty).
Ex. ~ vyiELa health
~ clA1j8EW truthfulness
TO KaAov beauty, the beautiful
d. Substantives that refer to an entire class and make a general statement
usually are accompanied by the definite article in Greek. The generic article is
found in other languages as well, but rarely in English except with proper
names (cf. Italian l'uomo, Spanish la mujer).
Ex. a av8pw7Tor; man, mankind,
or oi aVepW7TOL men in general
Note that in English a noun with the indefinite article a(n) sometimes refers to
a class and is equivalent to the generic definite article in Greek: contrast (inde-
finite) A poet visited out class with (generic) A poet ought to speak piously of
the gods.
4. The nom. sing. forms of the article are often used in Greek dictionaries
and vocabulary lists instead of the abbreviations m., f., and n. to indicate the
gender of a noun: for instance, aOOr;, aoou, ~ is the same as aOOr;, aoou, f.
5. Some Prepositions. Greek prepositions were in origin adverbs which

were optionally added to a sentence to reinforce a grammatical relationship
already conveyed by the case of a noun. By classical times, the use of these
words became standard in spoken Greek and prose, while verse sometimes still
reflected the older custom of letting the case of a noun act on its own. The
words themselves acquired a fixed position in front of the noun they rein-
forced.
Greek prepositions govern one or more of the three "oblique" cases (gen.,
dat., acc.). When a preposition can govern more than one case, there is usually
a clear distinction in meaning conveyed by the difference. In general, the geni-
tive with a preposition often conveys motion away from; the dative often con-
veys static position; the accusative often conveys motion toward. The follow-
ing definitions are only rough indications of some of the most common uses of
the various prepositions. The finer distinctions of usage can be perceived only
after some experience in reading Greek. Note that the prepositions EK. EV. and
Ei~ are proclitics (U2.11).
a7TO + gen. away from, from

EK + gen. (E~ before vowels) out of, forth from
EV + dat. in, within, on, at, among
Ei~ or E~ + acc. into, to, toward
(J"VV + dat. together with, with

j1.ETa + gen. among, with
j1.ETa + acc. into the middle of; in pursuit of; after
OLa + gen. through (of space or time); through, by
(of agent or means)
by aid of, by reason of, on account of
E7TL + gen. upon; in the time of

E7TL + dat. upon, over; next to; in addition to
E7TL + acc. onto, up to, toward; against
7Tapa + gen. from the side of, from (usually with a
person as object)
7Tapa + dat. by the side of, at the house of
7Tapa + acc. to the side of; beside; past, beyond
7TPO~ + gen. from, proceeding from
7TPO~ + dat. near, beside; in addition to
7TPO~ + acc. to, toward; against; in respect to,
regarding
6. Examples of Usage of These Prepositions

a7To T'iJ~ yEcpvpa~ (movement or distance) away from the
bridge
a7TO T'iJ~ (J"K'lJVf]~ (movement) away from (the vicinity) of
the tent
a7To TaVT'IJ~ Tf]~ ~j1.Epa~ from this day (onward)
(movement) out from (the inside oj) the

tent
EK Tf]~ eaAaTT'IJ~ out of the sea
E~ apxf]~1 from the beginning
I. The article is omitted in this phrase because it is an old expression, predating the develop-
ment of the article.
42 UNIT SIX
, ,
EK TOVTWV as a result of or after these things
EV TV xwpq in (within) the land

EV TV <TKy/VV in (within) the tent
EV TOL) 8EOL) among the gods
EV KEpKVpq at Corcyra
EV OlX[1 in justice =justly
" ,
H) Ty/V <TKy/Vy/V into the tent
EL) T~V 8aAaTTav into or toward the sea
EL) 7TaLOEiav with respect to training
<TVV TOL) <TTpaTY/yoL) with the generals

, ,
<TVV 7T'OV'f1 with toil
<TVV OiK!1, with justice = justly
(in the midst of and so) among, with the

umpires
jJ.ETU TOV 7T'aLoiov with the child
jJ.ETU cj>8ovov with envy = enviously
jJ.ETU TOV) 67T' AiTa) (movement) in pursuit of or after the
hoplites
jJ.ETU TOV 7T'OAEjJ.ov (temporal) after the war
jJ.ETU TaVTa (temporal) after these things
(movement) through the land; (location)

throughout the land
OLU TOVTOV TOV xpovov throughout this period of time
OLU f3iov throughout life
OL' ayyEAwv through or by means of messengers
OLU YAwTTy/) by means of the tongue
OLU TOV) 8wv) by aid of or thanks to the gods
OLU TOV cj>of3ov because of or by reason offear
OLU T~V ootav because of the reputation
OLU T~V VO<TOV because of or on account of the sickness
E7T'/. T1]) Tpa7T'E(y/) upon the table [superposition]

E7T'/. KaAAiov in the time of (the archon) Callias
Ecj>' t7T'7T'OV upon a horse, on horseback
E7T'/. TV 8aAaTT'[1 (position) by or next to the sea
E7T'/. TOL) <TTpanWTaL) over, i.e., in charge of the soldiers
"
E7T' ,
L TOVTOL) in addition to these things
E7T'/. TOV 7T'OTajJ.OV up to the river
hrt 7TOAVV xpOVOV (up to the limit of, i.e.)jor a long time
E7Tt TOV~ nEpCTa~ (warlike campaign) against the Persians
7Tapa Kvpov from Cyrus's presence or from the vicinity

of Cyrus
7Tapa K vPU? in Cyrus's presence or with Cyrus or on
Cyrus's side
among or in the eyes (judgment) of all
men
7Tapa Kvpov to or into Cyrus's presence
,
7Tapa" TOV 7TOTa}J.OV (movement or extension) alongside the
river
beyond or contrary to expectation
7TPO~ TWV 7TOALTWV (e.g., hear, receive) from the citizens

7TPO~
,
T0 ,7TOTa}J.0 (position) near the river
7TpO~ TOVTOL~ in addition to these things
7TPO~ T7JV YE<pvpav (direction) toward the bridge
" , (fighting, war) against the soldiers
7TpO~ TOV~ CTTpaTLWTa~
7TPO~ TOV~ 7TOA{Ta~ (speak) to the citizens; (behave in a

certain way) with regard to the citizens
1. Learn the declension of the article.

2. Study the examples of prepositional usage presented above.
3. Learn as vocabulary the prepositions presented above in §5 and the words
presented below.
VOCABULARY
further masculine o-declension nouns
7rAOVTO>. 7rA01JTov. m. wealth, riches [plutocrat]
, ,
7rOVO>. 7rOVov. m. hard work, toil; suffering [geoponics]
7rOTaWJr;. 7rOTa}J.ov. m. river [Mesopotamia]
(JTpar'lYo>. (JTpar'lYov. m. general [strategic]
, ,
TP07rO>. TP07rOV, m. tum; way, manner, fashion; habits, character
[tropics, hel iotrope]
V7rVO>. V7rVOV, m. sleep [hypnotism]
cj>8ovo>. cj>8ovov, m. envy, jealousy
cj>oJ3o>. cj>opov, m. fear [phobia, Phobos]
xpovo>. xpovov, m. time; period of time [chronology]
44 UNIT SIX
EXERCISES
I. Give the requested form of the Greek noun with the article.
Ex. dat. sing of the road Tn, OOW,
I. acc. pI. of (the) fear 12. gen. sing. of the honor
2. gen. sing. of the general 13. dat. pI. of the table
3. dat. pI. of (the) character 14. nom. pI. of the juryman
4. nom. pI. of (the) jealousy 15. gen. pI. of the door
5. gen. pI. of the toil 16. acc. sing. of the poet
6. acc. sing. of (the) sleep 17. dat. sing. of the god
7. dat. sing. of the hoplite 18. nom. sing. of the office
8. nom. sing. of the gift 19. gen. pI. of the measure
9. gen. pI. of the day 20. nom. pI. of the horse
10. nom. pI. of the citizen 21. acc. pI. of the vote
11. acc. pI. of the wind 22. dat. pI. of the road
II. Write out the declension of "the sickness" in the singular only, of "the
sailor" in the plural only, and of "the book" in both singular and plural.
III. Translate the following into English.
I. 0:11'0 T11'> 8aAaTTYJ'> 10. hrt. TO~'> OWpOL'>
2. (J'uv 7O~'> onAiTaL'> 11. Ei'> TOV 1]AWV
3. Ent. TOU'> (J'TpanWTa'> 12. EK T11'> xwpa,>
4. }lETa TO. naLoia 13. }lETa TWV oLKa(J'Twv
5. EV Tf7 ayopq 14. EV T0 nOTa}l0
6. npo,> TWV oLKa(J'Twv 15. Ei'> T1JV ooov
7. EK T11'> q:HAia'> 16. Ent. TWV TpanE(wv
8. napa T0V (J'TpaTYJYov 17. napa T7JV OOOV
9. OLa TOV cp8ovov 18. npo,> TO~'> OWpOL'>
IV. Translate the following prepositional phrases into Greek. (For some ex-
pressions there is more than one correct rendering.)
I. on account of the hard work 8. regarding the Fates
2. in the house of the children 9. next to the table
3. beside the doors 10. upon the horse
4. from the general 11. beyond reason
5. in pursuit of the soldier 12. out of the land
6. toward the sea 13. by means of the voice
7. among the gods 14. with fear
UNIT SEVEN
Vowel-Declension Adjectives;
Attribution and Predication
PRELIMINARIES
A. Adjectives. An adjective (Greek E7Ti8nov, Latin adiectivum ="word

added to [a noun]") is that part of speech which modifies (or describes or qual-
ifies) a noun. Examples: the large book; The food is good.
In many languages adjectives are inflected to mark concord (see below)
with the nouns they modify. English has no inflection showing gender, num-
ber, and case of adjectives (the large house, the large men), but inflection in
number and gender occurs, for instance, in Spanish, French, and Italian (e.g.,
French un vieux livre vs. la vie lie nourrice). In Greek, as in Latin or German,
adjectives are inflected to indicate not only gender and number, but also case.
Another characteristic of adjectives is that they have three degrees. The
positive degree is the standard form. The comparative degree is used to com-
pare one noun with another in regard to their possession of the same quality:
for example, English stronger, more virtuous. The superlative degree is used
to mark an excess or supremacy in the possession of a quality: for instance,
English strongest, most virtuous. The formation of the comparative and super-
lative degrees is sometimes called "comparison of adjectives" (Unit 30).
B. Concord. Concord is the agreement in various grammatical cate-

gories between words which are associated in the grammar of a sentence or in
the logic of an extended passage.
There may be agreement in number. The singular noun farmer agrees in
number with the verb form plows in the sentence The farmer plows, whereas
the plural farmers agrees with the verb form plow in The farmers plow. Or the
plural pronoun they is used to refer to the farmers, while the singular he refers
to the farmer. These types of concord are also evident in Greek.
There may be agreement in gender. The feminine pronoun she is used to
refer to a feminine noun such as actress, whereas the neuter it is used to refer
to a neuter noun like car. This type of concord is also evident in Greek.
45
46 UNIT SEVEN
There may be agreement in case as well, although this is rarely evident in

English (cf. however I expect the winner to be him.). In a highly inflected lan-
guage like Greek, agreement in case is widespread. The most common type is
the agreement of an article or an adjective with its noun in gender, number,
and case.
C. Phrases and Clauses. A clause is a group of words which contains a

subject and a finite verb (to be discussed in detail in Unit 8). A phrase is a
group of grammatically or semantically associated words that does not contain
a subject-finite verb group.
A noun, taken by itself, is used only to refer to, to identify, or to specify a
person or thing. Without departing from this function of referring, a noun may
have associated with it an article and/or adjectival elements (adjective,
adjectival prepositional phrase, participle, relative clause). The resulting group
of words may be called a noun phrase. The adjectival elements in such a
phrase are said to be attributive (or are called attributes). The speaker's
application of these adjectival elements is called attribution. Attribution
simply makes the act of referring more detailed and precise.
Ex.
man no attribute
the man article
the tall man article, adjective
the tall man by the window art., adj., prep. phrase
the dancing figure by the window art., participle, prep. phrase
the young man now leaving the room art., adj., participial phrase
the old man who left the room art., adj., relative clause
In noun phrases the word order varies in different languages. In English,

adjectives come between the article and the noun, participles precede or follow
the noun, and relative clauses follow the noun. In German, attributive adjec-
tives and adjectival phrases are placed between article and noun. In French,
Spanish, or Italian, most attributive adjectives immediately follow their nouns.
In Greek, attributive words accompanying a noun that has the article are re-
stricted to a couple of positions, but an attributive word accompanying a noun
without the article is less restricted. Inflection clarifies most grammatical rela-
tionships in Greek, so that, in general, word order in Greek is freer than in less
inflected tongues.
In order to utter a complete and meaningful sentence or clause (in written
English or formal spoken English), a speaker must not only refer (by means of
a noun or other substantive) to a person or thing which is the subject or topic
Vowel-Declension Adjectives; Attribution and Predication 47
of his or her utterance, but also predicate something of that subject, that is, the
speaker must comment on the given topic, must assert or affirm an action or a
state of being as applicable to the subject. The main verb of a sentence or
clause carries the force of predication, and the predicate of a sentence or
clause includes the verb itself and all its modifiers and/or complements.
Whereas a reference can be successful or unsuccessful (if we don't understand
to what the speaker is trying to refer), a predication has a truth value: what the
speaker asserts is either true or false.
D. Predicate Nouns and Adjectives. Verbs that express a state of being

(such as be, seem, look, smell, sound) often serve to link the subject noun ei-
ther to another noun in the predicate (which is identified with the subject or
otherwise asserted to apply to it) or to an adjective in the predicate. In the tra-
ditional terminology used in many Greek grammars and commentaries, such a
verb is called a copula (Latin for "link").
Ex.
predicate nouns: That man is my father.
She was an astronaut.
The students became experts in Greek.
predicate adjectives: The man is tall.
This seems correct.
The restaurant smelled fishy.
She looked tired.
Note the difference between a phrase containing an attributive adjective and
performing the function of reference only and a sentence in which the adjec-
tive is in the predicate and (along with the verb) is essential to the act of pre-
dication:
the blue hook (reference only, attributive adjective)
The hook is blue. (reference and predication, predicative adj.)
I. Adjective Declension. Greek adjectives are inflected in two general

classes: the vowel-declension adjectives (also called "first-and-second-declen-
sion" adjectives), and the consonant-declension adjectives (also called "third-
declension" adjectives). The latter will be treated in Unit 22. The vowel-de-
clension adjectives, treated in this unit, have a single stem to which masc.,
fern., and neut. endings are added to form all the cases and numbers. The mas-
culine endings are the same as those of o-declension nouns in -o~ (learned in
U3). The feminine endings are the same as those of the long-vowel feminine
48 UNIT SEVEN
nouns of the a-declension (learned in U4): in the singular long alpha appears
when the stem ends in E, t, or p; eta appears when the stem ends in any other
letter. The neuter endings are the same as those of the o-declension neuter
nouns in -ov (learned in U3).
Ex.
a. with alpha-type feminine singular: atw() = "worthy"
masc. fern. neut.
sing. nom. a~w~ a~ia a~wv

gen. a~iov a~ia~ a~iov
dat. a~iO? a~ia.: a~iO?
acc. a~wv a~iav a~wv
voc. a~t{: a~ia a~wv
(dual n. a. v. a~iw a~ia a~iw)
(g. d. a~iow a~iaw a~iow)
plur. n. v. a~wL a~LaL a~La
gen. a~f.wv a~iwv a~iwv
dat. a~ioL~ a~iaL~ a~ioL~
acc. a~iov~ a~ia~ a~La
b. with eta-type feminine singular: ciya8o() = "valorous, good"
masc. fern. neut.
sing. nom. aya8o~ aya8~ aya80v

gen. aya80v aya8iJ~ aya80v
dat. aya80 aya8f1 aya80
acc. aya80v aya8~v aya80v
voc. aya8i aya8~ aya80v
(dual n. a. v. aya8w aya8ci aya8w)
(g. d. aya8oi:v aya8ai:v aya8oi:v)
plur. n. v. aya80i aya8ai aya8ci
gen. aya8wv aya8wv aya8wv
dat. aya8oi:~ aya8ai:~ aya8oi:~
acc. aya8ov~ aya8ci~ aya8ci
2. Accentuation. The accentuation of adjectives (like that of nouns) is

persistent (see U3.5): that is, the same syllable tends to be accented in all
forms except when the changing length of the ultima forces a change. The
special rule that applied for nouns of the 0- and a-declensions with accented
ultima also applies to the adjectives of this class: an adjective of this type with
acute on U in the masc. nom. sing. has the circumflex in the gen. and dat. of all
numbers and genders (example: aya8os'). Note, however, that the fern. gen. pI.
of adjectives of this class is not treated like the gen. pI. of the corresponding
nouns: the nouns always have -wv, but in the adj. the accentuation is assimi-
lated to that of the masc. gen. pI. (thUS -wv appears only if the ultima is
accented, as in aya8o), not in adjs. accented like Citw)). I
3. Attributive Adjectives. The simplest form of noun phrase in Greek

consists of a noun without the article and an adjective agreeing with it in
gender, number, and case (concord}. The adjective is normally adjacent to the
noun, but the order is variable.
7TOAiTy/) Citw) a worthy citizen
/J.LKpal, iJoovai small pleasures
More common is the noun phrase with definite article. The position of an ad-
jective in relation to the definite article and the noun serves to mark it as an
attribute: an attributive adjective is inside the article-noun group. Three
possible attributive positions are found:
a. (most common) article - modifier - noun
b. (less common) article - noun - article (repeated) - modifier
c. (uncommon) noun - article - modifier
The attributive modifier may be not only an adjective, but also a prepositional
phrase or a participle or (occasionally) even an adverb or certain dependent
genitives.
Ex. 6 aya8o) /3io) the good life
6 EV Tn ayop~ (TTpanWTy/) the soldier in the marketplace
Ot Civ8pW7TOL ot TOTE the people of that time
ot OLKaCTTQI, Ot OiKaWL the just jurymen
4. Substantive-creating Force of the Article. A frequent idiomatic use of

the Greek article is the creation of a substantive by placement of any type of
modifier in attributive position with the article but with no noun expressed. 2
The modifier can thus become a masc., fern., or neut. substantive when used
with the appropriate form of the article. For instance, the masc. sing. article
plus attribute may form a singular substantive referring to a male (e.g., 6
I. The contrast in accentuation is semantically important when a fern. noun in -La coexists with
an adjective in -LO, -La -LOV from the same root: e.g., cittwv. QCHWV, cpduwv, gen. pI. of fern.
nouns citLa, QULa, cptt..La vs. citLwV, O(J"LWV, CPtt..LWV, gen. pI. of any gender. including feminine,
of adjectives from the same root.
2. In some contexts an adjective may be used without the article as an indefinite substantive:
e.g .. KaKov = "a bad thing. harm."
50 UNIT SEVEN
-----~~--- --- ---
="the wise man" or "a wise man" [in general]); the fern. pI. may form a
(J"0cp0'>
plural substantive referring to women (e.g., ai OiKawL = "[thel just women");
or a neuter sing. may form an abstract substantive (e.g., TO KaAov = [literally 1
"the beautiful thing" = "beauty" or "that which is beautiful"). Compare also
the following:
, ,
OL TOTE the people of that time
oi 7TPO'> Til 8aAuTT?} the people near the sea
TO. xaAE7TU (the) difficult things
TO. OiKaw the just things = just deeds = what is just
5. Predicate Adjective. When an adjective falls outside the article-noun
unit it is predicative rather than attributive. In Greek (especially in poetry, in
proverbial sayings, and on any occasion of concise utterance) a nominative
noun plus an agreeing adjective in predicate position may form a sentence
without the appropriate form of the copula be being expressed:
The juryman is just. (predication)
(Contrast 6 OiKaLO'> (JLKa(J"nj,> =the just juryman [attributionl.)
Because ancient Greek is so highly inflected, the word order is not rigid. The
subject-predicate relationship is sufficiently clear from the forms of the noun
and adjective. The order of words may be altered to suit stylistic goals or to
affect the emphasis:
non-emphatic adj.: 6 oLKa(J"T'l]'> oiKaw'>. The juryman is just.
emphatic adj.: oiKaw'> 6 OLKa(TTrl'>. The juryman is iust [not
unjust].
6. Predicate Noun. Another simple form of sentence consists of subject

noun and predicate noun linked by the copula be. As with the predicate-
adjective construction, the verb is sometimes omitted in Greek. A predicate
noun in Greek must agree with its subject noun in case. Usually the subject
noun is accompanied by the definite article and the predicate noun is without
the article.
Ex.
6 oLKa(J"T'l]'>
, ,
vaVTIJ,>.
,
The juryman is a sailor.
7TOLYJTIJ,> 0 (J"TpaTYJYO'>. The general is a poet.
(Note the case: nominative subject, predicate noun is also nominative. Because
this is the most frequent construction, a predicate noun is sometimes called
"predicate nominative.")
7. Possessive Genitive. The genitive of a noun (with its article and other
modifiers, if any) may be placed in attributive position to express possession.
(More details about this construction will be learned in U1O.)
the general's tent or
the tent of the general
TO TOV ClLKaiov ClLKaCTTOV {:3L{3A.iov the just juror's book or
the book of the just juror
8. Identification of Adjective Forms. When you learn an adjective, you

need to learn all the nom. sing. fonns (including the accent), and the English
meaning.
Ex. OiKaLO~, clLKaia, OiKaLOV, just
When you are asked to identify an adjective fonn (or article), first specify the
three variables (case and number and gender) and then give the "dictionary"
infonnation about the word, namely, the nom. sing. fonns (either all in full, or
the masc. in full and the other endings abbreviated), and tell what noun the
adjective modifies, specifying it as attributive or predicative (or say that the
adj. is used as a substantive if it does not modify an expressed noun).
Ex. identify the adj. in TV jJ.aKpq. 000
answer: dat. sing. fern. of jJ.aKpo~, jJ.aKPo., jJ.aKpov
(or jJ.aKpo~,-a, -ov), attributive modifying 00c{>
1. Learn the declension of vowel-declension adjectives.

VOCABULARY
vowel-declension adjectives
aya8o~, aya8~, aya80v good; well-born; brave [Agatha)
aia-xpo<;, aia-xpa, ai(J"xpov ugly; shameful, base
atw<;, atta, atwv worth; worthy, deserving of (takes a genitive
complement: atw<; TLJ.l.ry<; = "worthy of honor")
[axiom]
OryAO<;, O~Ary, OryAov clear, manifest [psychedelic]
OtKaw<;, oLKata, OtKaWv just
KaKo<;, KaKr], KaKov bad; evil; low-born [cacophony)
52 UNIT SEVEN
KaAO" KaAr" KaAOV beautiful; fine, noble [calligraphy]

J.WKPO" J.WKpo., j.J.aKpOV long, tall, large; far [macroscopic]
-, -, - ,
j.J.tKPO" j.J.tKpa, j.J.tKpOV small, little [microscopic, microcomputer]
7rOVT/PO" 7rOVT/Po., 7rOVT/POV worthless; knavish; evil, base
CTO~O" CTO~r" CTO~OV skilled, clever, wise [sophomore 1
~iAW', ~tAia, ~iAWV friendly; beloved
xaAE7rO" XaAE7rr" xaAmOV difficult, hard; harsh, cruel
some vowel-declension adjectives often used substantivally

holy, consecrated [Hieronymus = Jerome,
hierarchy]
TO tEpOV holy place, shrine
Ta tEpa offerings; omens; sacred rites
7rEeO" 7rE er, , 7rEeOV on foot, on land
67rEeO, infantry
Ot 7rEeoi foot soldiers
7rAOVCTW" 7rAOVCTia, wealthy, rich [cf. 7r AOUTO, 1
7rAOVCTWV
Ot 7r AOVCTWt rich men
7rOAEj.J.W" 7rOAEj.J.ia, hostile; belonging to war
7rOAEj.J.WV
Ot 7rOAEj.J.tOt the enemy
~iAO" ~iAT/, ~iAOV beloved, dear
6 ~iAO" ~ ~iAT/ (male) friend, (female) friend
EXERCISES
I. Give the requested fonn of each phrase in Greek.

l. shameful deeds (dat.) 6. the wealthy umpires (acc.)
2. the harsh misfortune (acc.) 7. a beautiful river (gen.)
3. the base men (nom.) 8. a good portion (dat.)
4. a clear measure (gen.) 9. the consecrated roads (gen.)
5. the friendly messenger (dat.) 10. the just manner (acc.)
II. For each sentence or phrase (a) translate into English; (b) identify fully all
adjective fonns; (c) specify the use of the adjective (either attributive modi-
fying which noun, or predicative modifying which noun, or used as a sub-
stantive).
Ex. 6 xaA.E7Ta~ 7rI]AE}J-O~
(a) the cruel war; (b) xaAE7Ta~ is nom. sing. masc. of xaAE7Ta~,
-~, -av; (c) attributive modifying 7TaAE}J-o~.
1. 7Tpa~ Tav oiKawv Aayov 2. }J-LKpo. TO. 7TaLoia.

3. ena TWV }.J.aKpwv 8vpwv 10. npo') TrW noAE}.J.iav (JTpau(w

4. 6 oiKaw') atw') Tf)') apxf)')· 11. (T'VV TOL,) av8pwnOL') TOL,) aya8oL,)
5. }.J.ETa TWV KaAWV 8EWV 12. OLa TO ai(J"xpov
6. r, napa TOV nOTa}.J.ov 600') 13. (J"ocpry r, yvw}.J.Yf r, TWV ECP' Lnn{J)v
XaAE7fr,. (J"TpaTYfYwv.
7. atwL KaKwv OL novYfpoi. 14. r, npo') TWV 8EWV }.J.o'ipa Or,AYf.
8. Ei') Tryv TOV (J"TpaTYfYov (J"KYfVr,V 15. noAE}.J.wL OL npo') Tn 8aAQ.TTT/.
9. 6 TOV VEaviov cpeovo') ov [= not] 16. LEpa TO. (3L{3Aia TO. TWV KpLTWV.
,
}.J.LKPO').
III. Translate the following phrases and sentences into Greek.
1. upon the small bridge
2. because of the valor of the foot soldiers
3. next to the holy books
4. throughout the long life
5. with the small children of the messenger
6. The poet's exile is disgraceful.
7. The deeds of wise men are worthy of honor.
8. Good books are worthy friends.
9. The soldiers in the tent are handsome.
10. The envy of the young men is shameful.
UNIT EIGHT
n- Verbs: Present Active Indicative
PRELIMINARIES
A. Verbs. A verb (Greek pr,jJ.a, Latin verbum = "that which is said,

predicate") is that part of speech which affinns or predicates (see U7 Prelim.
C) by expressing an action or a state of being.
The inflection of a verb is called conjugation. The finite forms of a verb
are those whose inflectional ending defines precisely the person and number
of the subject, or, in an uninflected or slightly inflected language like English,
those which combine with a subject to fonn a clause: for example, we see, they
saw, the man is walking. There are also two important non-finite forms of a
verb: verbal noun (infinitive [e.g., to see] and/or gerund [e.g., seeing]) and
verbal adjective (participle: e.g., seeing, seen). Finite and non-finite fonns
share such features as tense and voice and the ability to govern objects and be
modified by adverbs. Non-finite fonns, however, cannot serve as the predicate
of a clause and carry no distinction of person.
B. Finite verb forms have five important variable features:

1. Person expresses the relation of the verb's subject to the speaker and
listener of the utterance.
first person: the subject is the speaker or a group including the speaker (I,
we).
second person: the subject is the listener or listeners (you).
third person: the subject is a person or thing other than the speaker or
listener (he, she, it, they).
Most English verbs now show distinction of person only in third person
singular present fonns (walks, has vs. walk, have), and thus the person
must be expressed in English by a subject noun or a personal pronoun
separate from the verb itself.
2. Number marks whether the verb's subject is singular or plura\. The subject
and the verb are in concord. Again, most English verbs now distinguish
54
.f2- Verbs: Present Active Indicative 55
number only in the case of the third person present forms: she goes, they
go vs. I go, we go. And again, the number is made clear in English by the
necessary presence of the subject noun or pronoun. (Greek has not only
singular and plural verb forms, but also dual, as for nouns. The dual is rare,
and beginning students are not usually required to learn it. In this book the
dual forms are given in parentheses and are not used in exercises or
reading; but students who go on in Greek will soon meet dual forms.)
3. Tense expresses the time distinction of the verbal action (present, past,
future: for instance, I teach, she taught, they will teach). In Greek as in
some other languages tense also conveys a distinction in verbal aspect,
sometimes even to the exclusion of a distinction in time. Aspect will be
discussed in detail in Unit 20. The seven Greek tenses (present, imperfect,
future, aorist, perfect, pluperfect, future perfect) will be discussed sepa-
rately in the units in which they are learned.
4. Voice expresses the relationship of the subject of the verb to the action ex-
pressed by the verb. The active voice is used when the subject is the doer
of the action (or the one who experiences a state of being). Some active
verbs, called transitive, express actions which are carried through to a
recipient or object, while others, called intransitive, are used absolutely,
without such a complement. Transitive verbs can also be used in the
passive voice, in which the scheme doer-action-recipient of action is
reversed so that the recipient of the action becomes the subject, the verb is
made passive, and the doer is left unexpressed or is expressed in a
subordinate element of the sentence (in English in a prepositional phrase
with by).
Ex. The man walks. active (intransitive)
The boy throws the ball. active (transitive)
The cavalry lost the battle. active (transitive)
The ball is thrown b.v the boy. passive
The battle was lost. passive
Greek has a third voice, the middle, which is lacking in English and many
other languages. The middle is used when the subject is the doer of the
action but acts upon itself or for itself. The middle will be discussed in
detail in Unit 11.
5. Mood expresses the manner in which the action or state of being denoted
by the verb is conceived by the speaker, namely, whether as fact, as as-
sumption, as wish, or the like. Greek has four moods, three of which are
paralleled in English:
indicative: for the assertion of fact (as in English)
subjunctive: for mere assumption or possibility (as opposed to assertion);
often used in subordinate clause constructions. (The English sub-
56 UNIT EIGHT
junctive is now largely defunct, replaced by the indicative or by verb

phrases using modal helper verbs; but cf. It is necessary that he gQ
now.)
optative: originally for expression of a wish, but also used for expression
of a possibility and in subordinate clause constructions. (There is no
English equivalent, nor is there such a separate mood in Latin, German,
French, etc.)
imperative: for expressing a command (as in English)
C. The principal parts of a verb are those forms from which the major
tense stems can be derived and from which, thereby, all the conjugational
forms of a verb can (in theory) be generated. The number of principal parts
varies from language to language. English verbs have three: present, simple
past, and past (passive) participle (e.g., go, went, gone; break, broke, broken;
bake, baked, baked). The normal Greek verb has six principal parts (to be
learned as they arise in future units).
1. lu-Verbs and w-Verbs. There are two basic systems of conjugation in

Greek, and the distinction is readily apparent in the present tense. A limited
number of very basic verbs are conjugated in certain tense systems, including
the present, by the addition of personal endings directly to the verb stem: these
are known as lu-verbs (because the first person singular ending is -fJ..L) or
athematic verbs (because the ending is added directly to the stem). Other verbs
(the w-verbs or the thematic verbs) are conjugated with a theme vowel inter-
vening between the verb stem and the personal endings.
2. The Present System. The present system consists of all forms which
can be generated from the first principal part, including the present active and
middle/passive indicative, SUbjunctive, optative, imperative, participle, and
infinitive, and the imperfect active and middle/passive indicative. All these
forms contain the present stem, which is obtained by removing the ending -w
from the first principal part (the form in which the verb is listed in a
dictionary). The present system of w-verbs features the theme vowel OlE, that
is, it shows two grades or variable forms, a and E (and also lengthened forms w
and 7]).
3. Present Active Indicative. Any Greek verb form can be analyzed into
a tense stem (consisting of a form of the verb stem plus prefixed or suffixed
tense signs), prefixes, and suffixes (indicating, e.g., mood, voice, person, and
number for a finite form). The present active indicative consists of present
.!2- Verbs: Present Active Indicative 57
stem plus theme vowel plus personal endings. The theme vowel 0/ E appears as
o when the first letter of the personal ending is JJ. or v, and as E otherwise.
Because of linguistic developments, it is more difficult to separate theme
vowel from personal ending in many forms of the present active than in some
other tenses. Therefore, the beginner should simply learn the combined ending
(theme vowel plus personal ending).
Ex. "release," principal part: A:VW, stem: Av- + O/E endings
sing. 1st pers. AVW 1 release -W
2nd pen. AVEtS· you (s.) release -Et,

3rd pers. AVEt he (she, it) releases -Et
(dual 2nd pers. AVETOV) ( -ETOV)

(3rd pers. AVETOV) ( -ETOV)
plur. 1st pers. AVOJ.lEV we release -OJ.lEV
2ndpers. AVETE you (pl.) release -ETE
3rd pers. Avovm(v) they release -ov(]'L(v)
Ex. "send, " principal part: 7rEJJ.7rW, stem: 7rEJJ.7r- + 0/ E endings
sing. 1st pers. 7rEJ.l7rW 1 send -W
2ndpers. 7rEJ.l7rEt' you (s.) send -Et,

3rd pers. 7rEJ.l7rEt he (she, it) sends -Et
(dual 2nd pers. 7rEJ.l7rETOV) ( -ETOV)

(3rdpers. 7rEJ.l7rETOV) ( -ETOV)
plur. 1st pers. 7rEJ.l7rOJ.lEV we send -OJ.lEV
2ndpers. 7rEJ.l7rETE you (pl.) send -ETE
3rd pers. 7rEJ.l7rOV(]'L(V) they send -ov(]'[(v)
4. English Equivalents. The present indicative of Greek is equivalent to

the English simple present (I send), the progressive present (I am sending), and
the present emphatic (I do send, more commonly used in the negative, I don't
send, or in interrogative form, Do I send?). Context and English idiom deter-
mine which equivalent is appropriate in any given case. Note that the Greek
finite verb form indicates number and person by itself and may be used with-
out an explicit pronoun subject (cf. Latin and Italian). When a pronoun subject
is expressed, it is emphatic.
AEYW I say Eyw AEyw 1 say
5. Nu Movable. The third person plural of the present active indicative
may have nu added when the verb occurs at the end of a clause or when it is
followed by a word beginning with a vowel (or in verse when it is more con-
58 UNIT EIGHT
venient to the poet to add it). The optional nu was added to avoid hiatus, the
pronunciation of two vowels in succession, a phenomenon often avoided in
everyday speech and almost completely eliminated by the fussiest Greek prose
stylists (such as the orator and teacher of rhetoric Isocrates). (Another term
used for this optional nu is nu ephelkustikon, "attracted, suffixed nu.")
6. Accentuation. The accent of all finite forms of the Greek verb is re-
cessive. That is, it falls as far from the end of the word as is permitted by the
general rules of accentuation: acute on A when U is short, acute on P when U
is long. The circumflex accent appears only when a contraction is involved
(some verbs with contraction will be learned in Unit 13) or in a two-syllable
form with long P and short U. For the present active indicative, it turns out
that the accent falls on the last (or only) syllable of the stem in every form.
7. Negation. Indicative verbs in main clauses and in most dependent
clauses are normally negated with the adverb OV, and a simple unemphatic
negative usually precedes the verb it negates. When the word following ov be-
gins with a vowel, ov takes the form OVK (before an unaspirated vowel) or OVX
(before an aspirated vowel).
, ,
OV fJ.EVW I do not remain
OVK E8EAw I am not willing
OVX ap7Tatw I am not seizing
8. Concord. As one would expect, a Greek verb agrees with its subject
in person and number (see U7, Prelim. B). But when the subject is a neuter
plural noun or pronoun, the Greek verb is normally third person singular
rather than plural, apparently because the neuter plural was originally felt to
express a single collective concept.
9. Direct and Indirect Objects. As mentioned in connection with voice
in Preliminaries of this unit, transitive verbs are those which express an action
that is carried through to a recipient of the action (person or thing) or to an
enduring effect or result of the action. The recipient of the action may in
general be called the direct object of the verb. In English the direct object is
expressed in the objective case, which is noticeable only in pronouns. In Greek
the direct object is expressed in the accusative case (the principal use of this
case). Examples:
He trained the children. The man whom we saw . ..
She wrote this poem. We built a house.
The general sent them.
(; (TTpaT''lY05J TOV5J rTTpanWTQ5J EL5J T~V iqopav 7TEfJ.7TH.
The general sends the soldiers into the marketplace.
.Q- Verbs: Present Active Indicative 59
OV A..Ei7rETE T1JV xwpav;

Are you not leaving the country?
Some transitive verbs also govern a secondary object of the person (much less
often the thing) more indirectly affected by the action than is the direct object.
This is the indirect object. In English it is again in the objective case
(noticeable only in pronouns) and either follows the verb immediately or is
governed by the preposition to or for. In Greek the indirect object is expressed
by the dative case without a preposition. Examples:
They gave the boy some money. They gave him some money.
The gave some money to the boy. Tell me a story.
TO. {3tf3A..La T~ 7rOt!]Tfi OVK E7rtTpE7rOV(J"w.
They are not entrusting the books to the poet.
10. Word Order. The word order of a Greek sentence is very flexible. In
a majority of sentences in which no special emphasis is being sought, the
normal order is subject (if expressed), direct object (if any), indirect object (if
any), verb. But in fact speakers and writers are more often than not trying to
convey some special emphasis, and adjust the word order to suit. The first
word or phrase normally carries the greatest emphasis:
T0 7rOtYJTfj TO. (:3t(3A..La OVK E7rtTpE7rOVCTtV.
They are not entrusting the books to the poet.
Here the poet is emphasized in contrast to some other person or persons whom
they find more trustworthy: English uses stress on the word or phrase more
often than a shift of word order to convey such emphasis.
11. Identification of Verb Forms. When identifying a finite verb form,

specify the five variable features (person, number, tense, voice, mood) and
give the first principal part of the verb, and add the definition if it is requested.
Ex. EXETE: 2nd pI. pres. act. indo ofExw, to have

1. Learn the conjugation of the present active indication of w-verbs.
2. Learn the vocabulary of this unit. For now, you are presented with only the
first principal part of each verb. If your instructor prefers that you begin to
memorize the first three principal parts from this unit onward, consult the
Appendix to U 18 or Appendix 2 for the other principal parts.
60 UNIT EIGHT
VOCABULARY
Vocabulary-building Hints. Greek has a very large vocabulary, but this
richness is in large part due to the readiness with which the same root
manifests itself in several shapes and the frequency with which words are
formed by compounding of familiar elements. Knowledge of the relationships
between roots can make the acquisition of new vocabulary much easier. Two
observations can be made about some words in the very limited vocabulary
presented up to this point. (1) Different vowel grades within the same root are
common. One of the basic variations is between E and 0 grades. The "say" root
produces o-grade noun AOyO~ and E-grade verb AEYW, The same relationship
exists with Tp07fO~ and E7fLTpE7fW. and (if we consider some words not yet
learned) VOJ.lo~ and VEJ.lW. cpopo~ and cpEpW. 7fOJ.l7f1j and 7fEJ.l7fW. A different
vowel variation is seen in cpvy~ and CPElJyw. (2) A root of the same form may
also appear with various suffixes or compounding elements. For instance, the
root ()TpaT- = "army" forms the collective noun ()TpaHG. with the common
suffix -La (cf. cp~Aia. 01JJ.lOKpaTia), the individual noun ()TpaHwT1J~ with a
form of the -T1J~ suffix, meaning "person who does X" (cf. 7fOAf.T1J~. VaVT1J~.
O~Ka()T~~, etc.), and the compound noun ()TpaT1JYo~, in which -1JYo~ is a form
of the root of ayw = "lead" (the lengthening of the vowel in composition is
common). Later you will also meet ()TpaTo~. ()TpaT07fEOOV, ()TpaTEvw.
,
()TpaTEvJ.la.
w-verbs
"
ayw lead; carry [pedagogy]
G.7T08vnCTKW (a7TO) 1 die
apxw begin (+ gen.);2 rule. be leader of (+ gen.)
[monarchy]
ypacpw scratch; inscribe; write [graphic]
E8EAW be willing, wish
EAavvw drive, set in motion; (intrans.) ride, march [elastic]
E7TtTPE7TW (E7Td tum over to, entrust
EXW have, hold [echeneis]
Aallj3avw take, grasp; receive [narcolepsy]
AEYW say, speak; recount
AEt7TW leave, abandon [ellipsis]
1. Compound verbs are indicated by addition of the prepositional prefix in parentheses. It will
become apparent in later units (e.g., UI6.2) why one needs to know that a verb is a compound.
2. When a verb takes a complement other than the usual accusative object, that fact will be
mentioned in the vocabulary. Here, for instance, where English uses an ordinary direct object in
They begin the war or He rules the land, the Greek verb governs the genitive: Toil 7rOAf.}lOV
aPXOV(TL. T17' xwpu, aPXH.
.!2- Verbs: Present Active Indicative 61
lI:vw [v J loosen, release [analysis]

,
J.l.EVW remain, stay; wait for, wait
TrEi8w persuade, urge
TrEJ.l.TrW send [pomp]
CPEPW bear, carry, bring; endure [pheromones, euphoria]
CPEVYW flee, be in exile
negative adverb
au, aUK, auX not (for negation of statements) [Utopia]
EXERCISES
I. Give the requested Greek verb fonn.
Ex. we are dying answer: G.7TOeV!JO"KOjJ.EV
,
1. they do persuade 16. you (pI.) entrust
2. she is sending 17. you (sing.) are dying
3. you (pI.) are speaking 18. he is not urging
4. they rule 19. I send
5. I am entrusting 20. we are speaking
6. you (sing.) have 21. you (pI.) rule
7. we are remaining 22. she is entrusting
8. he is releasing 23. it has
9. it carries 24. I do not receive
10. you (sing.) are leaving 25. they abandon
11. I wish 26. he leaves
12. they are willing 27. you (pI.) drive
13. we march 28. you (sing.) are in exile
14. she is writing 29. we do not endure
15. they are leading 30. she says
II. Translate the following verb fonns into English.
Ex. A.EYETE you (pI.) are saying
.,
1. fA.aVVH'~ 10. ayojJ.EV 19. apxH'~
2. CPEpOjJ.EV 11. OVK EXW 20. A.EYH

3. ypacpw 12. CPEVYOVO"L 21. A.VOjJ.EV
4. A.ajJ.j3avH 13. A.VH~ 22. ov jJ.EVW
5. jJ.EVOVO"L 14. CPEPH 23. feEA.ETf.
.,
6. EXH~ 15. E7TLTpE7TOjJ.EV 24. EXOVO"W
7. 7TELeW 16. ov 7TEjJ.7TETE 25. EA.aVVETf.
8. CPEVyOjJ.EV 17. A.E L7TOVO"L 26. A.EL7TW
, .,
9. 7TEjJ.7TH 18. A.ajJ.pavw 27. apx°jJ.EV
62 UNIT EIGHT
--------
,
28. EeEAOV(n 33. }J.EVE L~ 38. OVK aYEL
"
29. apXETE 34. EAaVVEL 39. ov Aa}J.pavETE
30. AEYEL~ 35. ~ 7rOeVn(J"KOV(J"L 40. CPEPEL~
31. AEi7rEL 36. ayw
' , "
32. E7rLTpE7rETE 37. EX°}J.EV
III. (a) Translate each sentence into English. Then (b) give a full identification
of any underlined word(s), and, if the word is a noun, explain its case (why is
it in the case it is in?).
Ex. 6 (J"TpaTYJYo~ TOV~ ayaeov~ Q7rA(TQ,5 Ei~ TryV TWV 7rOAE}J.iwv
xwpav 7rE}J.7rEL.
(a) The general is sending the brave hoplites into the land of the enemy.
(b) 67rAiTa~ is acc. pI. of 67rAiTYJ~, -ov, m.; it is acc. because it is the
direct object of 7rE}J.7rEL. xwpav is acc. sing. of xwpa, -a~, f.; it is acc.
because it is object of the preposition El~.
I. TOS M~iEQ.£ OV 7rEi80v(J"w Ot 8mi.
2. Ot (J"ocpo~ TryV aAu8ELaV AEYOV(J"W.
3. ~ 8Ea EAaVVEL TOV~ 7rE(OV~ EK TO£' tEPO£'.
4. OLa TO aya80v EPYOV 6 oLKa(J"Try~ TOV KaKOV AV_EL.
5. Ot aV8pW7rOL TOV~ 7r6vov~ 7rapa TWV 8EW~ EXOV(n.
6. Ot vwviaL TO. owpa TOt~ atioL~ cpEPOV(J"W.
7. Ot 7rOAtTaL TOV~ v6}J.ov~ }J.ETa yvw}J.YJ~ ([Ockfu ypacpov(J"L.
8. AEi7roV(J"L 7rapa Tfl yEcpVpq. TOV~ TWV (J"TpanwTwv Z7r7rOV~ Ot 7rOAE}J.WL.
9. AEYOV(J"W Ot aYYEAoL Ta~ Tr,~ (J"TpaTLa~ (J"V}J.cpopa~ TOt) EV Tfl ayopq.
7rQA(,Ta.t ).
IV. Render the following sentences into Greek.

Ex. The goddesses do not receive the offerings.
The goddesses is subject of the sentence, so will be nominative plural (at
8wi). The verb receive is third person plural present active indicative,
with negative adverb (ov Aa}J.pavov(J"L). The direct object of receive is
the offerings, which will thus be in the accusative case (TO. tEpa).
Therefore, a correct answer is:
at 8w~ TO. tEpa OV Aa}J.pavov(J"L. (other word orders are possible)
I. The horses are dying because of the disease.
2. The wicked men are not persuading the jurors.
3. The general is leading his soldiers toward the sea.
4. The citizens entrust their laws to the judges.
5. You (pI.) are not leading the children of the poet out of the large tent.
UNIT NINE
Infinitive; Adjectives with Two

Endings
------------
PRELIMINARIES
The infinitive, a non-finite fonn of the verb (see U8 Prelim.), is a verbal

noun. As a verb fonn it has tense and voice and can govern noun complements
and adverbial modifiers. As a noun, it can serve as subject, object, and the like.
In English the infinitive (fonned with to plus the verb) shares the job of verbal
noun with the gerund (fonned from the present stem of a verb plus -ing). In
Greek there is only the infinitive to fulfill the verbal noun function.
Ex. To see is to believe.
Seeint: is believint:.
Learnint: Greek is not difficult.
In addition to functioning as a noun in these simple uses, the infinitive is used
(1) as a complement to many verbs and (2) in dependent phrases which are
transfonnations of simple sentences embedded in a more complex sentence.
You like to swim. (complementary infinitive)
They are willing to lead. (complementary infinitive)
Wilson is president. (simple sentence, finite verb)
They want Wilson to be president. (embedded sentence, infinitive)
They chose Wilson to be president. (embedded sentence, infinitive)
They believe Wilson to be president. (embedded sentence, infinitive)
1. Present Active Infinitive. The present active infinitive is fonned by

adding -EW to the present stem. (-EW is a contraction of the theme vowel E and
the infinitival ending -EV.)
Ex. ayw -> aynv = to lead; 7fEL8w -> 7fd8nv = to persuade
Accentuation: the non-finite fonns of the verb do not have recessive
accentuation (U8.6). The accentuation of each type of infinitive and participle
63
64 UNIT NINE
must be learned separately. The present infinitive of w-verbs is always

accented on the final syllable of the stem.
2. Some Uses a/the Greek Infinitive
a. The complementary infinitive is used to complete the meaning of a

variety of verbs, such as those expressing will or desire, request, permission,
choice, command, and the like. In the simplest examples the verb has no other
complement:
E8EAOVCH P.EVHV. They are willing to stay.
OVK E8EAETE CPEpHV TOV 7TOVOV. You are not willing to endure the toil.
Some verbs (e.g., those of asking, commanding, persuading) take an accu-
sative object (of the person who is to do the action of the infinitive) plus the
complementary infinitive:
TOV~ CTVP.P.a.xov~ P.EVHV 7TEi8oP.EV. We are urging the allies to remain.
KEAdJW T~V CTTpanuv EAavvEw. I am ordering the army to march.
b. The infinitive, as a verbal noun, often serves as the subject of a sen-

tence, usually with a predicate adjective (the copula is being sometimes ex-
pressed and sometimes omitted) or with an impersonal verb. In English this
usage is somewhat concealed by the use of the expletive it (a "filler" or
apparent subject):
It is just to take the horses. (expleti ve - copula - pred. adj. - info
phrase)
=To take the horses is just. (inf. phrase-copula-pred. adj.)
=Taking the horses is just. (gerund phrase-copula-pred. adj.)
Ot.Kawv Aap.(3a.vEw TOV~ Z7T7TOV~. (pred. adj.-inf.-direct obj. of inf.)
aPXEw xaAE7Tov. It is difficult to lead.
=To lead is difficult.
Note that the infinitive as noun is considered neuter singular: thus the
predicate adj. is neuter singular nom. to agree with the subject infinitive.
Impersonal verbs are verbs normally used only in the third person
singular with an unspecifiable subject it (e.g., it is raining) or with an expletive
it with an infinitive as the true subject:
OEt. 7TEP.7TEW owpa. It is necessary to send gifts.
= To send gifts is necessary.
It is not seemly to take gifts (bribes).
= To take bribes is not seemly.
Infinitive; Adjectives with Two Endings 65
What is expressed in Greek idiom by an impersonal verb and infinitive is often

idiomatically conveyed in English by a personal construction with a modal
verb using must, should, or ought. For example, OE~ 7TfP_7TEW owpa may also be
translated One must (should, ought to) send gifts.
c. The substantival force and case usage of an infinitive used as a noun

are sometimes marked more strongly by the use of the neuter singular definite
article to introduce the infinitive phrase (articular infinitive). The article must
be used when the infinitive functions as a substantive in the genitive or dative
or as the object of a preposition. In the nominative and many uses of the
accusative, either the articular infinitive or the bare infinitive (as exemplified
in a and b above) is allowed.
nom. TO aPXEW 7TOVOV cpfpEL. To rule brings toil.
gen. EK TOV CPE'lJyEW as a result ojfieeing
dat. 7TPO,) T0 owpa Aap.(3avEw in addition to taking bribes
acc. 7TPO,) TO EAaVVEW TOS L7T7TOV') with regard to driving the
mares
3. Negation. The negative adverb p.ry is used to negate an infinitive in

any of the above uses.
7TpE7TEL owpa p.ry Aap.j3avEw. It is fitting not to take bribes.
4. Subject of Infinitive. When the subject of the action expressed by the

infinitive is expressed in Greek, it is normally in the accusative case unless it
is the same person or thing as the subject of the finite verb (there are further
exceptions to be learned later).
ov oLKawv TOV') 7ToALTa') AEL7TEW TO. 7TatOLa.
It is not right for the citizens to leave the children.
(It is not right that the citizens leave the children.)
OE~ TOV') av8pw7ToV') 7TOVOV') cpEPEW.
It is necessary for men to endure toil.
or (personal form) Men must endure toil.
EK TOV TOV KaKov VaVTYfV aPXEw
as a result of the bad sailor's being leader
(as a result of the fact that the bad sailor is leader)
Note that in English the subject of an infinitive is often expressed in a pre-
positional phrase with for or as the possessive with a gerund, or that English
idiom may prefer a personal construction (like men must). In other cases the
infinitive phrase of Greek may be equivalent to a that-clause in English with
subject and finite verb.
66 UNIT NINE
5. Dative of Reference. The person to whose case a statement is limited

or in whose opinion a statement is true is expressed in the dative case. Such a
dative of reference is often used in sentences with infinitive phrase as subject.
T0 O"ocp0 6 f3io~ ou xaAf7T6~.
For a wise man life is not difficult.
ou KaAov T0 ayae0 7TOAiT[I CPfVYfLV.
Being in exile is not afine thing for the good citizen.
(Compare the slightly different emphasis of:
ou KaAOV TO TOV ayaeov 7TOAiTr]V CPfVYfLV.
It is not afine thing that a good citizen be in exile.)
6. Vowel-declension Adjectives with Two Endings. Some vowel-declen-

sion adjectives (usually ones formed by compounding two roots, or prefix and
root) have no separate feminine endings, the "masculine" endings serving as
endings for a common non-neuter gender. Thus in a~JLKO~ 7TOAiT1J~ the
adjective is masculine, but in aOLKo~ yvwJ.l.1J the same form is feminine. These
adjectives thus have only two endings: masc'/fem. and neuter.
Ex. "unjust" mase./fem. neuter
sing. nom. aOLKo~ aOLKov

gen. aOLKov aOLKov
dat. aOLKcp aOLKcp
ace. aOLKov aOLKov
voc. aOLKE aOLKov
(dual n.a.v. aOLKw aOLKw)
(g. d. aOLKow aOLKow)
plur. n. v. aOLKoL aOLKa
gen. aOLKwv aOLKwv
dat. aOLKoL~ aOLKoL~
ace. aOLKov~ aOLKa
7. Alpha Privative. The commonest negative compounding element in

Greek is the prefix a- (or av- before a vowel): compare the English derivatives
atypical and anhydrous and the corresponding negative prefixes in- and un- in
English. Many compound adjectives meaning "not X" or "without X" are
formed from the root X and the alpha-privative prefix, and many of these are
vowel-declension adjs. of two endings.

1. Study the formation and uses of the infinitive.
2. Learn the declension of two-ending adjectives of the vowel declension.

VOCABULARY
w-verbs
pt..G..7TTW hann, damage
KEt..E'UW order, command (+ acc. of person + inf.)
,
K07TTW strike, chop, beat [syncope 1
TG..TTW I marshal, draw up (troops); arrange; appoint
[tactics, syntagmatic 1
impersonal verbs
otl: it is necessary, it is needful (for one to do something)
(+ acc. of person + inf.) (often to be translated
with ought to, must, should in a personal
construction) [deontology 1
it seems good, it seems best (+ dat. of person + inf.)
it is pennitted, it is possible (+ acc. or dat. of person
+inf.)
7TPE7TH it is fitting, becoming, seemly (+ acc. or dat. of
person + inf.)
it is necessary (+ acc. of person + inf.) (often to be
translated with ought to, must, should in a personal
construction)3
negative adverb
not (for negation of most infinitives, individual
words, many types of subordinate clauses)
vowel-declension adjectives
D(no<;, QULa, DULOV hallowed; pious, pure
/J40LO<;. /Jq.oia. !J40LOV easy
I. Non-Attic Tll(]"(Tw (cf. Intro. §6).

2. This word was in origin a noun, with the copula omitted, but the Greeks came to treat it as an
impersonal verb form. The infinitive of XpT, is XpT,VUL, a contraction of XpT, with ElVUL, the
infinitive of Ei)J.L (U 10.4).
3. XpT, and oEL are sometimes used synonymously, but in classical Attic there is a tendency for
XpT, to denote an obligation related to internal constraints of an ethical nature and OEL to imply
external constraints. Compare TL XPl? opav; = What should I do? (in an ethically ambiguous
situation) with TL OEL A.EYEW; = Whv should I mention? (the matter being so obvious) or OEL
CPEPHV TO. TWV OEWV =One must endure what the gods gil·e.
68 UNIT NINE
vowel-declension adjectives with two endings

aOLKO>. aOLKOV unjust
a8aVaTO>. a8aVaTOV undying, immortal
"
avo(J"w>. "
avo(J"wv unholy, profane
pa.ppapo>. pap(3apov non-Greek-speaking, foreign; (pejorative) barbarian
OL pappapoL foreigners, esp. the Persians
(J"v~~axo>. (J"v~~axov
.
,
OL (J"vIJp.aXOL
fighting along with, allied with
allies
EXERCISES
I. Write in Greek.
\. to lead 6. they strike
2. you (pI.) order 7. to loosen
3. we are not hanning 8. to persuade
4. to arrange 9. she rules
5. as a result of speaking 10. I ride
II. Translate the following sentences.
1. T1JV (TTpanaV jJ.EVEW 7TEL8ETE.
2. 6 valmr; TOl» (TTpanWTa) TOS L7T7TOV) AEL7TEW KEAEVH.
3. hrupE7TEw E8EAH TO. XaAE7Ta Epya TOL) KaAOL) VEaVLW).
4. OVK E8EAW (1.7T08VVCTKEW EV Til 8aAaTT[l.
5. jJ.ry pAa7TTEw TOl» 7TAOVCTLOV) 7TOALTa) KEAEVH) TOl>, 07TALTa).
6. 0 8Ea, OVK E8EAH K07TTEW TryV 8Eav.
7. OOKEL TOL, CTOCPOL, TryV aAry8Ewv AEyEW.
8. TOl>, avoCTLov) OEL EAavvHv a7Ta Tr" TWV 7TaLoLwv CTKTWr".
9. oi CTvjJ.jJ.axoL TOl>, pappapov) TryV ayopav AajJ.pavEw KEAEVOVCTW.
10. oi a8avaToL jJ.ry AEyHV avoCTw TOl>, av8pw7ToV, 7TEL80VCTW.
1 I. OLa Ta TOl» 7TOAEjJ.LOV, EV Til XWpq. jJ.EVEW CPEVYOVCTW oi 7TOALTaL.
12. TOL) aya80L' PiOLOV vOjJ.ov) ypacpEw.
13. TOl>, vavTa, xpry aVEjJ.ov KaAaV jJ.EVEW.
14. TOl>, 7TOAEjJ.LOV, [3Aa7TTEw EtECTn TOL, CTTpaT1JYOL,.
III. Render the following sentences into Greek.
Ex. It is unseemly for an unjust person to rule the just (people).
ov 7TPE7TH TaV aOLKov TWV oLKaLwv apXEw.
1. With friends it is easy to endure evils.
2. The general of the enemy anny is marshaling his hoplites.
3. The poet urges the citizens to entrust their fate to the gods.
4. It is impossible for the immortal gods to feel [= have] jealousy.
5. It is possible for a wicked man not to have a bad reputation.

6. It isn't wise to damage one's health.
7. Because of their wealth the rich are permitted to flee difficult tasks. [Hint:
convert to impersonal form: "it is permitted ... "]
8. A poet ought to be unwilling [= not + be willing] to say bad things.
9. In addition to honor, ruling brings envy.
UNIT TEN
Present Indicative of E lILl;

Some Uses of the Genitive and Dative
1. The Verb "to be." One of the most commonly used words in the
language, the Greek verb to be shows irregularities of conjugation in all dia-
lects. The Attic forms of the present active indicative are:
' ,
sing. /st pers. H}.I.L Jam
2nd pers. H" you (s.) are
3rd pers. E(TTi(v) he (she, it) is
(dual 2nd pers. E(TTOV)
(3rd.pers. ECTTOV)
' ,
plur. Jst pers. EOp.EV we are
' ,
2nd pers. HTTE you (pl.) are
3rd pers. fi(J"i(v) they are
Note that the third person sing. and pI. forms may take nu movable (see U8.5).
2. Accentuation. All forms of the present indicative of E ijJ.L except

second singular El (and the third singular in some uses: §3) are enclitic (see
U2.12). This is traditionally indicated in paradigms by the use of the acute on
the ultima. The enclitic forms are accented with acute or grave on U when the
preceding word has acute on P: 7rOALTy/I) f(lTL; 6 7rOALTy/I) f(TTL KaAOl). In other
circumstances, the enclitic forms have no accent, but they may affect the
accent of the previous word (review the rules given in U2.12): aV8pW7rOL
f(J"jJ.EV; owpov f(J"TL; KaKoL d(J"L; TWV (J"TpaTLWTWV f(J"TW i] (J"Ky/Vry.
3. Emphatic E(J"TL. When used emphatically, that is, placed at the begin-
ning of the sentence, the third person singular form is accented on P: E(J"Tdv).
This form is also used when the proclitic OVK, Ei (if), or WI) (as, that) or the
conjunction KaL (and) or aAAa (but) or the demonstrative T01h' (this)
immediately precedes. Emphatic E(J"TL may stress existence ("there is ... ") or
may be used with an infinitive subject in the same sense as the compound
EtE(J"TL ("it is possible to X").
70
Present Indicative of fl~/; Some Uses of the Genitive and Dative 71
4. Infinitive ElvaL The present active infinitive of EijJ.{ is ElvaL When an

infinitive phrase with ElvaL includes a predicate noun or predicate adjective,
the word in the predicate must agree in case with the subject of the infinitive.
Since the subject of an infinitive is normally accusative, the predicate noun or
adjective will normally be accusative.
Ex. EK TOV TOVS 7rOA{TaS oLKa{ovs dvaL
as a result of the fact that the citizens are just
xaAE7rOV aya80v ElvaL.
It is difficult to be brave.
(The unexpressed subject of ElvaL, "one," "a man," or whatever, is felt to
be acc., so the adjective is acc.)
Occasionally the predicate adj. will be in another case:
Ex. OVK EtHTTL T0 oLKa{cr avo(J{cr ElvaL.
It is not possible for the just man to be unholy.
5. Some Uses of the Genitive. The genitive in general limits the meaning
of the substantive, adjective, adverb, or verb on which it depends. The Latin
name genitivus is a translation of the Greek YEVLKry (7rTW(JLS) = "the case de-
noting the class [to which something belongs 1."
a. Genitive of Possession. Like the English possessive or prepositional
phrase with of, the genitive may denote ownership, possession, or the like.
(I) Attributive Use. The genitive of a noun or of a demonstrative or
reflexive pronoun placed in attributive position (i.e., within article-
noun phrase)] may denote possession. (Personal pronouns denoting
possession fall outside of the article-noun group: see U22.6.)
01. TWV 'A8nva{wv VOjJ.OL the Athenians' laws
TO (3L(3A{OV TO TOV 7raLOtOV the child's book
TO. TWV vaVTWv the affairs, possessions,
or deeds of the sailors (see U7.4)
An attributive genitive of possession may also be attached to a noun
that is not accompanied by the article:
Ai(Jw7roV AOYOL fables of Aesop
(2) Predicate Use. The genitive of a noun or pronoun in the predicate
may denote possession.
i] L7r7rO) {(JTL TOV oLKa(JTov.
The mare belongs to the juryman. (The mare is of the juryman.)
I. This is the normal position. but the gen. of possession is occasionally found outside the
article-noun group.
72 UNIT TEN
TOV (J"Ocpov E(J"n </>EPELV 7rovov,>.

It is characteristic of the wise man to endure toils.
[literally, To endure toils is of, belongs to, the wise man.]
b. Partitive Genitive. The genitive is used to denote the whole, a part of

which is expressed by the noun it limits. This genitive takes the predicate posi-
tion, that is, it falls outside the article-noun group.
oi 7rAEL(J"TOL TWV (J"vggaxwv most of the allies
c. Subjective and Objective Genitive. When a noun expresses a verbal

notion, the subject of the action referred to by the noun may be expressed by
the subjective genitive (often in attributive position).
clause form: The unjust man committed perjury. (subject-verb)
verbal noun form: the unjust man's perjury
ry TOV aOLKov E7rWpKLa (verbal noun with gen.)
clause form: The foreigners are afraid. (subject-verb)
verbal noun form: the foreigners' fear
6 TWV [3ap/3&pwv </>0130'> (verbal noun with gen.)
(The subjective genitive is easily confused with the possessive genitive and in
many cases such confusion makes no difference.)
The object of the action referred to by a noun expressing a verbal notion
may be expressed by the objective genitive (normally in predicate position).
verb--<>bject form: to desire pleasures
verbal noun form: the desire of (for) pleasures
ry E7rLeVjJ.La TWV izoovwv (verbal noun with gen.)
verb--<>bject form: to be afraid of the Athenians
verbal noun form: fear of the Athenians
</>0130'> TWV 'Ae!]VaLwv (verbal noun with gen.)
6. Some Uses of the Dative. The Greek dative (oonKry, Latin dativus,
case of "giving to") has instrumental and locative uses (Greek having lost
these cases at an early stage: see Introd. §4) as well as uses belonging to the
dative proper.
a. Dative of Indirect Object. See U8.9.
b. Dative of Interest. The dative is used to denote the person for whom
something is or is done. Several uses of the dative are classified under this
general heading:
Present Indicative of elfa'; Some Uses of the Genitive and Dative 73
(1) Dative of Possession. With verbs meaning to be, to become, to be

available, and the like, the dative may be used to denote the
possessor.
Iii! oLKai'{J 7Tapa TWV eEWV owpa E(}TW.
There are gifts from the gods for the just man.
or The just man has gifts from the gods.
TO'i~ 'A()Y)vaioL~
(}vjJ.jJ.axoL aya()oi Ei(}w.
There are brave allies for the Athenians.
or The Athenians have brave allies.
The dative of possession emphasizes having vs. not having some-
thing; the genitive of possession, on the other hand, emphasizes that
something belongs to X and not to anybody else.
E(}TL {3L{3Aia T0 7TOLY/TfI· The poet has books.
OVK E(}H {3L{3Aia T0 7TOLY/TfI· The poet has no books.
TO. (3L{3Aia E(}Ti wi) The books belong to the
OLKa(}TOV, OV TOV 7TOLy/TOV. juryman, not to the poet.
(2) Dative of Advantage or Disadvantage. The dative is used to denote
the person or thing for whose advantage or disadvantage something
is or is done.
TO. 7TaLoia aLTLa 7TOVWV TO'i~ av()pw7ToL~.
Children are a cause of toil for mankind.
6 aya()o~ 7TAOV(}LO~ E(}TL TO'i~ 7TOAiTaL~, ovX~.
The virtuous man is rich for (in the interest of, to the advan-
tage of) his fellow citizens, not for himself.
(3) Dative of Reference. See U9.5.
c. Dative of Means (or Instrument). The dative is used to denote that by

which or with which an action is done (instrument, means, or cause).
{3aAAOV(}L TOV (}TpaT1JYov Ai()OL~.
They strike the general with stones.
OWpOL~ 7TEi()H TOV~ OLKa(}Ta~.
He persuades the jurymen by means of bribes.
d. Dative of Time When. The dative is used to denote the point in time
when or at which an action occurred.
on the previous day
74 UNIT TEN
-------~- -~-------

1. Learn the present of ELjJ.l..
2. Study the uses of the genitive and dative.
VOCABULARY
verbs
j36.Mw throw, strike [ballistics]
H/J-L be lontology (from the participial stem)]
find, find out, discover [heuristic. Eureka]
have (something) done to one, experience; suffer
Isympathy]
effect, accomplish, do; experience (a certain fortune),
fare Ipractical]
nouns
av6.yK~, av6.YK~~,f force, constraint, necessity
av6.YK~ (f(n/.) (impersonal expression) it is necessary (compuls-
ory, unavoidable)2 (+ dat. or acc. of person + inf)
(often to be translated with must in a personal
construction)
Eip'rjv~, Eip~v~~, f peace; peace treaty [Irene]
f.7n8v/J-La, E7rL8v/J-La" f desire, yearning
E7rLOpKLa, f.7rWpKLa~, f false swearing, perjury
AL8o" Ai8ov. m. stone [monolith]
(as fern.) a particular variety of stone, e.g., magnet, crystal
/J-6.X~' /J-6.X~" f battle, combat [Titanomachy]
adjectives
•A8~val,o" •A8~vaLa, Athenian
'A8~val,ov
OL 'A8~vaI,OL the Athenians
aLno" aiTia, ai'nov responsible; responsible for, cause of (+ objective
gen.) [aetiology]
TrAEI,O"TO" TrAEio"T~, most, greatest, largest; (often with art.) the greatest
TrAEI,O"TOV number, the most [pleistocene]
OL TrAEI,O"TOL the majority, the greatest part (of a group)
I. Non-Attic 7rpu(]"(]"w (or Ionic 7rPr,(]"(]"w): cf. Intro. §6.

2. o.VUYKrI in this use connotes strong external constraint, whereas CEl and Xpr, connote
needfulness, propriety, moral obligation, and the like.
Present Indicative of ~l'p./; Some Uses of the Genitive and Dative 75
, ,
7rPOTEpO'. 7rpOTEpa. fonner, earlier, previous [hysteron proteron]
,
7rpOTEpOV
V(J"TEPO>. v(J"TEpa. V(J"TEPOV latter, later, next
EXERCISES
I. Translate the following short sentences.
,
l. a8avaToi EL(n. 6. "
7TOVTJPO'} EL.
2. OUK aya80i EaTE. 7. ou (Jocpoi E(JjJ.EV.
3. aOLKov E(JTL. 8. (Jocpry E(JTW.
4. cpiAO') ELjJ.i. 9. ~aAE;r?V E(JTL.
5. Or,AOV E(JTL. 10. O(JWL E(JH.
II. Render the following sentences into Greek, using the appropriate fonn of
ELjJ.i. Think carefully about the accentuation and review the rules if necessary.
Ex. I am harsh. xaAE7To'} ELjJ.L. or xaAE7Try ELjJ.L.
l. It is worthy. 6. You (sing.) are pious.
2. The Athenians are responsible. 7. You (pI.) are just.
3. The battle is long. 8. Perjury is not just.
4. We are immortal. 9. She is responsible.
5. I am a sailor. 10. The pebble is small.
III. (a) Translate the following sentences. Then (b) name the case of the un-
derlined word and give the reason for the case.
Ex. T0 (Jock.k {3L{3Aia E(JTiv.
(a) The wise man has books. (b) dative of possession
I. Ot 7TAEL(JToL TWV 7TOALT0R ELm oiKawL.
T0 7TOV~ Ot VOjJ.OL OVK EL(JL' KaAoi.
2.
ry E7TL8vjJ.ia TOV 7TA01JTOV TO'v'} av8pw7ToV'} KaKG. 7Ta(JXEw 7TEi8EL.
3.
Til V(JTfpq. ~ ELpryVTJV ypacpov(Jw.
4.
Ot a8avaToi EL(Jw arnOL TWV a}'Q-8~ TOL'} av8pw7ToL'}.
5.
TWV 'A8nvaiwv E(JTLV ry ViKTJ.
6.
Ot aVO(JWL TO tEPOV Ai80L,} (3aAAov(Jw.
7.
8. ou oEL AfYEW TOV TWV 7ToAEillwR cpof3ov.
9. E(Jn TO KaAOv.
10. EV Til7TpOTfpq. jJ.aX?7 Ot 7TAEL(JTOL TWV 07TALTWV OU CPEVYOV(JW.
IV. Render into Greek.
I. By means of difficult toils the allies are taking the marketplace.
I. Remember that a proclitic followed by an enclitic receives an acute accent (lJ2.12d).

76 UNIT TEN
2. It is necessary for men to do what is just [= just things].

3. After the battle the soldiers flee into the land of the Athenians.
4. The desire for peace persuades the citizens not to harm the enemy's
messengers.
5. The jurors are discovering the majority of the unjust deeds.
6. It is characteristic of wise men to discover the fine pleasures.
7. On account of the war against the foreigners the citizens must suffer.
8. It does not befit a virtuous man to be unjust.
9. In the eyes of the majority pleasure is not the measure of virtue.
UNIT ELEVEN
o· Verbs: Present MiddlelPassive

Indicative
1. Middle and Passive. At an early stage Greek had two sets of personal
endings which served to mark two voices (cf. U.8 Prelim.): active and middle.
In the active voice the subject is the agent. In the middle voice the subject is
agent but acts with some special reference to himself/herself, or to his/her
possessions or own interest (to or for or within himself/herself or the like).
The middle sometimes has a reflexive or reciprocal meaning:
YV/J.va(o/J.aL I exercise myself. (direct reflexive)
7T'apaaxEVa(o/J.aL T~V aKIJV~v. I prepare the tent for myself.
or I prepare my tent.
(indirect reflexi ve)
oi (J"Tpan(iJTaL 7T'apaKEAE1JOVTaL. The soldiers encourage one
another. (reciprocal)
From the reflexive force of the middle there developed the passive use of
the middle form, so that in classical Greek most middle forms also serve as
passive (that is, the subject is acted upon by some other agent). The devel-
opment may be thought of as follows:
7T'EL8o/J.aL: I persuade myself. -> I get myself persuaded. -> I am per-
suaded (by someone else).
cpEpETaL: It carries itself. - > It gets itself carried. - > It is carried.
(Compare reflexive formations in other languages that are translated by the

English passive, such as French if se trouve or German es sich findet = "it is
located" or Italian mi chiamo ="I am called. ")
In the context of a Greek sentence, a middle/passive verb will usually be
identifiable as either middle or passive in sense; but in isolation these forms
are referred to in this book as middle/passive.
When a Greek verb is used in the passive, the personal agent, if men-
tioned, is usually expressed in a prepositional phrase with lJ7T'O + gen. (equi-
valent to English by someone).
77
78 UNIT ELEVEN
2. Present Middle/Passive Indicative. This is fonned from the present

stem plus the theme vowel 0/ E (0 before p. or v, E before other sounds) plus the
middle/passive personal endings (-p.al, -(Tal, -Tal, [-(TeOV, -(TeOV, I -p.Eea,
-(TeE, -VTal). The personal endings are clearly recognizable except in the sec-
ond person singular, where the elimination of intervocalic sigma l in -E(Tal
allows contraction of -Eal to -n.
Ex. "ransom," "be "obey," "be
released" persuaded" theme vowel
present stem: AV- + olE 7rELe- + olE + endin~
sing. 1st pers. AVojJ.at 7TEieojJ.at

2ndpers. AV'[l 7TEie'[l
3rdpers. AVETat 7TEieETat
(dual 2ndpers. AVHJBov 7TEieHJ-eov) ( -HreOV)
(3rdpers. AVHJ-eOV 7TEieHreOV) (-weov)
plur. 1st pen. AVOjJ.Eea 7THeOjJ.Eea -OjJ.Eea

2nd pen. AVHJ·eE 7TEieE(TeE -E(JeE
3rdpers. AVOVTaL 7TEieoVTaL -OVTaL
Note that the accentuation is recessive, as for all finite fonns. In the present
middle/passive indicative it turns out that the accent is on the verb stem in all
fonns except the first person plural, where the number of syllables in the
ending forces the accent to move to the theme vowel.
3. Present Middle/Passive Infinitive. The middle infinitive ending is

-(TeaL When this is added to the present stem with theme vowel E, the result is
the present middle/passive infinitive. Like the present active infinitive, it is
accented on the final syllable of the verb stem: for example, AVE(Teal = "to
ransom" or "to be released."
4. Deponent Verbs. Many Greek verbs are found only in middle/passive

fonns and have no active fonns. Such verbs are called deponent (a not very
helpful tenn coined by Latin grammarians). You will recognize deponent
I. Sigma "between vowels" (intervocalic) was lost in the development of many Greek forms,
and in Attic this loss usually resulted in the contraction of the vowels.
2. From about 350 H.C.E. the second person singular middle/passive ending was often spelled
(and pronounced) -H rather than -TI in Attic, and the form in -H will be found in modem editions
of some Greek authors (either under the influence of the manuscripts or because the editor
believes the particular author originally used this form). Note that such middle/passive forms as
AVH, 7rd8H look exactly like the third sing. active form; but in the context of a sentence there is
usually no ambiguity.
.f2- Verbs: Present Middle/Passive Indicative 79
verbs in vocabulary lists or a dictionary because the first principal part is the
first person singular present middle/passive form (-o}1a~ instead of -w).
,
Ex. y~yvo}1a~ I become. I am born
;30VA0}1a~ I desire. I want
a ia-$(wo}1a ~ I perceive
5. Idiomatic Meanings of the Middle. It takes time for the student to get
an adequate sense of the range of implications conveyed by the middle voice.
Here are some examples of common verbs to illustrate shifts in meaning
noticeable between active and middle.
EXW + acc. I have. hold
EX0}1a~ + gen. I hold on to, cling to
ypacpw I write
ypacpo}1aL I indict, bring a suit against (literally, I get Xl's
name J recorded by the magistrates)
CPEPW I carry
cpEpO}1a~ I carry offfor myself, I win (a prize)
o~Ka(w I (as a judge) decide a suit
o~Ka(O}1a~ I (as a plaintiff) conduct a suit
(T7rEVOW I pour a libation
(T7rEVOO}1a~ I make a truce (solemnized by a libation)
AVW I release
AVO}1a~ I ransom
POVAEVW I plan
pOVAEVO}1a~ I deliberate
7rOA~TEVW I am a citizen
7rOA~ TEvO}1a~ I behave like a citIzen, I participate in public
affairs. I am a politician
7rEiew + acc. I persuade. urge
7rEieo}1a~ + dat. I obey. trust, believe (a person)
As can be seen, the middle usually implies that the subject is more closely
involved or interested in the action. The middle is common when emphasis is
laid on mental or perceptual activities (note the deponent ai()eavo}1a~ and
several verbs of intellectual activity which lack a future active but possess a
future middle l U 18.9]).
80 UNIT ELEVEN
I. Learn the conjugation of the present middle/passive indicative and the for-
mation of the present middle/passive infinitive.
2. Study the idiomatic meanings of the middle (§5).
VOCABULARY
w-verbs
, ,
aKOVW hear (usually with acc. of thing heard + gen. of
person from whom it is heard, usually with prep.
a7To. EK, etc.) [acoustics]
a7ToKTEivw (a7To) kill, put to death
j30VAElJW plan, devise; (mid.) take counsel, deliberate
[probouleutic]
YV!J.va{W train (naked), exercise; (mid.) exercise oneself, be in
trammg [gymnastics, gymnasium]
judge; serve as judge or juror; (mid.) plead a case,
participate in a suit
prepare, provide, procure; (mid.) prepare for oneself,
make preparations
7TOALTEVW be a citizen; have a certain form of government;
(mid.) live or behave as a free citizen; participate
in politics
pour a libation;' (mid.) exchange libations, make a
truce, make peace [spondaic]
deponent verbs
aia-eavo!J.aL perceive, sense, understand [esthetics]
f3ovAo!J.aL want, desire, wish (+ complementary inf.)2
come into being, be born, become [genus]
"
EpX°!J.aL come, go
!J.aX°!J.aL fight (+ dat. of the enemy person or + prep. phrase)
oLo!J.aL or oZ!J.aL.l think, suppose, believe
I. In Greco-Roman antiquity a "libation" was a ritual offering of liquid to the gods; it was made
by pouring the liquid on an altar or on the ground. The liquid could be wine, milk. honey, oil, or
a mixture.
2. In poetry povll.OfJ.aL and i.OElI.w may be synonymous, but in classical prose there is often a
clear distinction between active desire V30vll.0fJ.aL) and willingness or consent (i.OElI.W).
3. OLfJ.aL is a contracted form of OLOfJ.aL. The remaining forms of the present are normal: OLT/,
oLHaL, etc .• inf. OLHTOaL.
.Q- Verbs.' Present Middle/Passive Indicative 81
exhort, encourage (+ dat. of person, sometimes +

inf.)
learn, hear; learn by inquiry, inquire
EXERCISES
I. Give a complete identification of each verb fonn and translate it precisely.
Ex. 7fapa(JKEva(ojJ.EOa: 1st pI. pres. mid/pass. indo of 7fapa(JKEvci(w,
we are making preparations
I. (J7TEVOOjJ.EV 11. A.EyETaL 21. CPEpOVTaL

,
2. jJ.~xn 12. OLWOE 22. pA.o.. 7TTETE
,
3. K07fT0jJ.aL 13. n.a~XETE 23. po..AA.ETaL
4. ypo..CPOVTaL 14. H(JL 24. "
ayn
5. A.ajJ.(3o..vw; 15. 7fOA.L TEvwOaL 25. 7fapaKEA.EvE(JOE
,
6. YLyvETaL 16. pOVA.ETaL 26. 7fVVOo..vovTaL
,
7. 7TpaTTEw 17. OLKo..(ovm 27. oLKo..(ETaL
' ,
8. (3oVA.EvojJ.aL 18. (J7fEVoojJ.EOa 28. aKOVOjJ.EV
" ' ,
9. EpxovTaL 19. a7fOKTEWEL 29. A.EL7TETaL
10. Exn 20. aL(JOo..Vn
, 30. yiyvOVTaL
II. Render into Greek.
1. we are going 16. they are fighting
2. he serves as judge 17. you (s.) suppose
3. you (pI.) cling to 18. it is being led
4. they desire 19. we are indicting
5. you (s.) are making preparations 20. they become
6. he is pleading a case 21. we are being ruled
7. they pour a libation 22. to learn by inquiry
8. you (pI.) are deliberating 23. I am not willing
9. you (s.) exhort 24. to prepare
10. we inquire 25. she supposes
11. she is ransoming 26. we are
12. they hear 27. to be
13. you (pI.) are being marshaled 28. he is being stricken
14. to be in training 29. to be carried
15. I participate in politics 30. you (pI.) are finding
III. Translate.
1. EV TC{; 7fpa'.> TOU'.> pappo..pov'.> 7fOA.EjJ.'{J ayaOoL'.> 7TOA.~jJ.ioL'.> jJ.o..xovTaL oL
, AOryvaLOL.
2. TOU'.> (JTpaTryyou'.> xpry POVA.EVWOaL.
3. TOU'.> o7fA.iTa'.> KEA.EVOV(JL To..TTwOaL 7Tapa Tav 7TOTajJ.OV.
82 UNIT ELEVEN
4. OV CPEVYEW E8EAovrnv oi 7fAE'i(J"TO~ TWV (J"TpanwTwv.

5. xaAE7fo'i~ EPYO~~ VtKYJ TO'i~ 'A8YJvato~~ ytyvETa~.
6. (J"7fEVOOVTa~ Tn V(J"TEpq. r,}J-Epq..
7. EXE(J"8a~ XP7] Tr,~ n}J-r,~.
8. V7fO [= by] TWV 7fOAE}J-tWV ov pAa7fTE(J"8E.
9. OVK EtE(J"Tl TO'i~ 7fa~oio~~ TO'i~ eEO~~ (J"7fEVOHV.
10. oi vafJTa~ 7fPO~ T7]V TWV j3apj3apwv xwpav TO'i~ aVE}J-o~~ EAaVVOVTat.
UNIT TWELVE
Adverbs; Conjunctions;
Prepositions II; Relative Pronoun
PRELIMINARIES
A. Adverbs. An adverb (Greek hrippiJjJ.a, Latin adverbium = "word

added to the verb") is that part of speech which modifies (qualifies, limits) a
verb, an adjective, or another adverb. Adverbs usually express ideas of manner
or degree or time or place.
They walk quickly. (modifying verb walk)
The pitcher is fairly good. (modifying adj. good)
The house is very poorly constructed. (modifying adverb poorly)
In many languages a large number of the adverbs are derived from adjectives
by the addition of a standard suffix. In English the suffix is -ly (cf. German
-lich, French -ment, Spanish and Italian -mente).
B. Sentences and Clauses. A simple sentence contains one subject-verb

unit (although subject or verb or both may be multiple). It consists of a single
independent or main clause (a clause that can stand by itself).
Ex. The sailor leaves the marketplace.
The sailor picks up his gear and leaves.
The sailor and the merchant leave the marketplace.
The woman and her daughter hug and kiss.
A compound sentence consists of two (or more) independent clauses
joined together (though each clause is capable of standing on its own).
Ex. The woman waves. and her daughter waves back.
A complex sentence consists of an independent or main clause and one or
more dependent or subordinate clauses, that is, clauses which do not by them-
selves form a sentence and cannot be uttered in isolation. In the following
examples the subordinate clauses are underlined:
When the sailor arrived. they called a meeting.
83
84 UNIT TWELVE
The messenger who came yesterday told a different story.
C. Conjunctions. A conjunction (Greek (rVVoEOp. O~, Latin coniunctio =

"bond, joining") is that part of speech which joins together two or more words,
phrases, or clauses. There are two kinds of conjunctions. A coordinating
conjunction links two elements (words, phrases, clauses) which are on an
equal footing. A subordinating conjunction links a dependent clause to a
clause of more independent standing (either an actual independent clause or
another dependent clause which is grammatically superordinate). For instance,
the boy and his dog (coordinating two nouns)
in the city or in the country (coordinating two phrases)
He knocked, but nobody answered. (coordinating two independent
clauses)
!i he is found guilty, he will pay a large fine.
(subordinating the conditional clause to the main clause he will pay a
large fine)
The truce which was concluded after Cleon died lasted more than a year.
(subordinating the temporal clause after Cleon died to the relative clause
which was concluded, which is itself subordinate to the main clause the
truce lasted)
A number of common Greek conjunctions and adverbs with connective and
emphatic force are traditionally termed particles. In a beginning course a
student is exposed to only a few particles, but they are an important part of
Greek idiom and should be studied in detail in conjunction with the student's
later reading of Greek texts.
D. Pronouns. A pronoun (Greek o.vTwvvp..ia, Latin pronomen = "sub-

stitute for a noun") is that part of speech which takes the place of a noun
already used or obvious from the context. The noun which a pronoun replaces
(or the person or thing to which it is understood to refer) is its antecedent.
Jane called Jim, who had called her earlier.
(The antecedent of who is Jim; the antecedent of her is Jane.)
Like nouns, pronouns have gender (he, she, it; who, which), number (I, we),
and case (she, her, hers; who, whom, whose). Normally, a pronoun has the
same gender and number as its antecedent, but its case is determined by its
function in its own sentence or clause.
There are seven types of pronouns: personal, demonstrative, relative, in-
terrogative, indefinite, reflexive, and reciprocal. The relative pronoun is pre-
sented in this unit; the others will be considered in detail in later units.
Adverbs; Conjunctions; Prepositions II; Relative Pronoun 85
E. Relative Clauses. A dependent clause which serves as an adjective

modifying a noun is called a relative clause and is introduced by a relative
pronoun (who. which. that) or a relative adverb (where. when). These words
are called relative because while introducing a subordinate clause they refer
back to (relate to) an element of the main (or other superordinate) clause.
Ex. The man whom we saw looked familiar.
(whom is masculine and singular to agree with its antecedent
man, but it is in the objective case because it is the object of the
verb saw in its own clause)
This is the thing that bothers me.
Leave it in the place where you found it.
Note that in English the relative pronoun may be omitted (The man we saw
looked familiar), but that other languages, including Greek, require that it al-
ways be expressed.
l. Formation of Adverbs. Adverbs expressing manner are formed from

adjectival stems by the addition of the adverbial ending -WS" (in origin an
ablative case ending). The stem of vowel-declension adjectives is obvious
from the nominative singular forms. The accentuation of the adverb always
follows the pattern of the gen. pI. form of the adjective.
Ex.
adjective (gen. pl.) adverb
KaAo, (KaAwv) KaAW, l1obly. beautifully. well

,
KaKO, (KaKwv) KaKw, badly. poorly. ill
atw, (atiwv) atiw, worthily
p4'6w, (PCfoiwv) PCfoiw, easily
Although adverbs can be formed in this way from virtually any adjective in
Greek, no -WS" adverb is formed from ayaBoS" in classical Greek, the adverb fV
(= well) being used instead.
2. Coordinating Conjunctions. There are five common coordinating

conjunctions in Greek.
a. Kat = and, joining words, phrases, or clauses. In addition to the simple

use as a conjunction, there are other uses of Kat to note:
Kat. X Kat. y =both X and Y
86 UNlTTWELVE
adverbial Kai: Kai was in origin an adverb meaning also, and is often still
used as adverb adding emphasis to the word or phrase that follows it. In
its adverbial use, Ka~ X may be translated even X, X too, X also, or in
English one may simply give extra emphasis to X in pronunciation.
Ex. Q.vaYKy/ Kd T0 croCP0 7TacrXEw KaKa.
It is necessary that even the wise man suffer hardships.
or The wise man, too, must suffer hardships.
b. TE = and, an enclitic postpositive conjunction joining clauses, phrases,

or single words. A postpositive is a word which cannot be placed first in its
clause or phrase but normally follows the first word of its clause or phrase.
This conjunction is etymologically related to and similar in usage to Latin
-que. TE may be used alone or in combination with Kai. (TE is elided to T'
before a vowel with smooth breathing or to e' before a vowel with rough
breathing. )
Ex. X Y TE = X and Y
TE =pious and just
ocrw<) 'OiKaU)<)
X TE Y TE = both X and Y
i]'O0V17 TE HfJ.ry TE = both pleasure and honor
X TE Ka~ Y both = X and Y
EXH TEKa~ EXETaL = she (both) holds and is held
c. 'OE = and, but, a postpositive conjunction most often found joining
clauses, but occasionally linking phrases or single words. 'OE can be either neu-
trally connective (and) or adversative in sense (but); the context normally
helps decide which English equivalent is appropriate. ('OE is elided to '0' before
a vowel.)
d. X fJ.EV ... Y 'OE. A very important use of 'OE, and one which is espe-
cially characteristic of Greek thought and idiom, is its use in combination with
the postpositive particle fJ.EV to create a contrast between antithetic elements
(or sometimes simply an emphatic link between enumerated elements). The
force of fJ.EV is to anticipate an antithesis by marking its beginning; the second
element is most often joined by 'OE. The contrasted elements may be single
words, parallel phrases, or entire clauses. A common, but clumsy, English
translation of fJ.EV ... 'OE is on the one hand . .. on the other hand; often it is
more idiomatic to convey the antithesis by emphasis in pronunciation or by
turning one of the paired clauses into an English subordinate clause introduced
by while or whereas.
Ex. 6 ].LEV (JTpaTT/Yo~ a7ToBvI1(JKEt. oi oE (JTpanWTaL CPEVYOV(JW.

The general is dying. but the soldiers are fleeing.
Ot fJ-EV 'ABT/va'ioL 7TEiBoVTaL TO'i~ VOfJ-OL~. oi oE pappapoL T0
OE(J7TOT?1'
The Athenians obey their laws. whereas the Persians obey their
master.
(Note the position of the postpositives in these sentences: words like TE. fJ-Ev.
and oE often intervene between an article and its noun or between a preposition
and its object; less commonly, the postpositive may be placed after the phrase
unit, for instance, after article-noun unit.)
e. yap =for. because, a postpositive joining clauses (be careful to dis-

tinguish between English for as a conjunction and as preposition).
Ex. TOV oLKa(JT~v i;EAaVVEtV (3ovAOfJ-EBa' owpa yap AafJ-!3aVEL.
We want to drive out the judge. for he is taking bribes.
f. aAAa = but. but rather, a strong adversative joining clauses or less

often phrases or words, usually following a stated or implied negative. (aAAa
is elided to aAA' before a vowel.)
Ex. OVK E(JTL 7TOTafJ-O~. aAAa BaAaTTa.
It is not a river. but rather the sea.
3. Pronominal Use of the Article. The Attic article o. ;,.

TO was
originally a demonstrative pronoun (this is the usual function of the word in
Homeric Greek and other early poetry). The pronominal use survives in
classical Attic in certain restricted circumstances: namely, preceding fJ-EV and
oE when they are paired, or preceding oE used alone. With fJ-EV ... oE the
pronominal article usually means the one . .. the other . .. or (plural) some . ..
others . .. ; with oE alone. the pronominal article usually makes a change of
grammatical subject from the previous sentence and may be translated by he.
she. it. they. The pronominal article may be used in any of the three genders,
agreeing in gender and number with its antecedent.
Ex. TOV~ gb! a7TOKTEivoV(JL. '[Ol!5~' ayov(Jw.
They kill some and carry off others.
at !lEV ].LEvov(Jw. Q.~OE CPEVYOV(JW.
These women are staying. but the other women are fleeing.
TOV 7TOLT/T~V !3ovAEVE(JBaL 7TEiBofJ-ElJ" 00' OVK EBEAEL.
We are urging the poet to take counsel. but he is unwilling to do
so. (note change of subject from we to he)
88 UNIT TWELVE
4. Prepositions 1/
aVa + acc. up, up along, throughout
G.vTi + gen. instead of, in place of, in return for
KaTa + gen. down from, down upon; against (the interests
of a person); concerning
KaTa + acc. down along, over, throughout; in accordance
with
7fEpi + gen. about, concerning; above, beyond
7fEpi + dat. around (position); about (an object for which
one struggles)
7fEpi + acc. around (motion); about, concerning
7fPO + gen. in front of; in defense of; before (of time or
preference)
iJ7fEP + gen. over, above (of motion or position); in
defense of; concerning
iJ7fEP + acc. over, across, beyond (of motion or position)
lJ7fO + gen. from under, under; by (agent with passive

verb or expression)
iJ7fO + dat. under; under the power of
lJ7fO + acc. under; during, in the course of
5. Examples of Usage of These Prepositions

aVel Tav 7fOTa}J-ov up (upstream) along the river
av' 'EAAaoa throughout Greece
, , ,
avn TOVTWV in return (exchange) for these things
aVT' G.yaewv instead of good men (they have become
bad men)
KaTU Tr,,> KEcpaAr,,> (something poured) down upon the head

KaT' 'OAV}J-7fOV down from Olympus
KaTel TOV (J'TpaT1]yov (speak, accuse) against the general
KaTU TWV (3ap{3apwv (speak) about, concerning the foreigners
KaTel Tav 7fOTa}J-OV down (downstream) along the river
KaTU T~V xwpav throughout the land
KaTel Tav 7fPOTEPOV 7fOAE}J-OV all during the previous war
KaTel }J-o'Lpav in accordance with destiny
KaTel AOYOV in accordance with reason
7fEPL Tr,'> aPETr,,> concerning virtue

7fEPL 7faVTWV TWV aAAwv (superiority) above all others
7ffpt Tfl Kf¢aAfl (a crown) around one's head

7ffpt Tfl H}J- fl (compete) over, concerning honor
7fEpt flfA07f()VV1]O'"OV (a fleet sailing) around the Peloponnese
7fEpt T7JV apETr]V in relation to, concerning virtue
7fPO TWV 8vpwv in front of the doors

7fPO Tf]~ xwpa~ on behalf of the land
7fPO TOV 7fOAE}J-OV before the war
imEp TOV 7fOTa}J-OV (position) over, across the river I

imEp TWV 7fa~of.wv on behalf of, in defense of the children
imfp TOll 'EAA~0'"7fOVTOV (motion or position) across, beyond the
Hellespont
imEp }J-o'ipav beyond (in violation of) fate
imo yf]~ (position) under the earth

imo TWV 7fOA~ TWV (personal agent) (to be sent) by the
( 7fE}J-7fE0'"8ad citizens
imo TO'i~ 'A81]vaf.o~~ (be ruled, controlled, enslaved, etc.)
. ,
V7fO y1]V
~
under the power of the Athenians
(motion) under the earth
imo TOV aiJTov xpOVOV during the same period of time
6. Relative Pronoun. The Attic Greek relative pronoun has the stem h-
(that is, rough breathing) and is inflected in all three genders with the vowel-
declension endings. The declension of ck 17. 0, who. which. that, is as follows:
singular plural
mase. fern. neut. mase. fern. neut.
nom. 051 TJ" (5 Ot" at" a

'i' 'i' 'i' 'i' 'i' l'
Ren. ov TJ, ov wv wv wv
dat.
'i'
cr
'i'
!I
'i'
cr
'i'
Ot, at,
l'
OL, l'
ace. "
ov "
TJV 0" "
OV, "
a, a"
(dual, all genders flom. acc. w)
(gen. dat. OLV)
Note that the fern. sing. nom. and masc. and fern. pI. nom. are different from
the same forms of the article only in that these forms of the article are con-
ventionally written without accents. Similarly the masc. sing. nom. article 6 is
distinguifhed from neut. sing. nom. relative 0 by the accent.
I. For this sense, the accusative is also found in phrases like iJ7TfP Tav 7rOTU/..(()V. esp. in
postclassical Greek.
90 UNIT TWEL VE
7. Use of the Relative Pronoun. Relative pronouns serve as subordi-

nating conjunctions introducing adjectival clauses. The relative pronoun
agrees with its antecedent in gender and number; but the case of the relative
pronoun is usually determined by its use in its own clause (an idiomatic
exception will be learned later, in U38).
Ex. The soldier whom the general is striking is a coward.
(antecedent of whom is soldier; whom is dir. obj. of is striking)
(; (TTpanwT1l'> ov (; CTTparqyo,> KaKo'> ECTTW.
K07rTH
(ov is masc. sing. because antecedent CTTpanWTr/'> is masc. sing.;
it is acc. because it is direct object of K07rTH)
We do not want to abandon the woman with whom we are
fleeing.
ov JjOvAop.EBa AEi7rEW T~V avBpw7rov p.EB· Vi
cpE1JyOP.W.
(1]'> is fern. sing. because antecedent avBpu)7f'ov is fern. sing.; it is
gen. because it is object of preposition P.ETG.. = with)
I. Learn the formation of adverbs and declension of the relative pronoun.

2. Study the examples of usage of the conjunctions and prepositions
presented above.
3. Learn as vocabulary the conjunctions and prepOSitIOns and relative
pronoun presented above (§2, 4, 6) and the remaining words presented
below.
VOCABULARY
Cd-verb
strike. beat [tympanum I
adverbs not formed from adjectives

cut (early Attic + poetic aift. always
also poetic aiEv)
a~ again; in tum
. ,
aVet'> again; in turn; hereafter, in the future
aVTLKa at once, immediately
then. next; accordingly. therefore
f 7TH Ta then. next; therefore
here. there
~
fV well
Adverbs; Conjunctions; Prepositions 1/; Relative Pronoun 91
1/011 already; immediately; actually, now

llaAU very, exceedingly
vvv now, presently
Ton at that time, then
EXERCISES
I. Translate the following phrases.

1. 7rPO TWV ()KTJVWV 9. aVTt TWV 7rDVWV
2. V7rO Ti{l avo()iO! OW'7rDT[1 10. iJ7rf.p T~V (3aAaTTav
t ,\ I
3. KaTo. T1JV TOU OtKa()TOU yvw}J.TJv II. V7rO TTJV ()KTJvrJV

4. 7rEpt Tr,~ TWV 'AOTJvaiwv n}J.r,~ 12. TTJV a yopav
' " I
7TEpt
5. V7TEP TWV cpiAWV 13. KaTo. TWV KptTwV
6. V7TO TOl~ 7TOAE}J.iOL~ 14. 7TPO Tr,~ }J.aX77~
7. avO. TrJU OODV 15. aVTt TOU 7TA01JTOV
,
8. KaTa" T77v 7TpoTEpav 77}J.Epav 16. 7TEpt Tn viK!1
II. Translate.
I. oi }J.EV ()OCPOt Ell 7TpaTTOVCTLV. oi OE KaKOt oV. I
2. OV 7TDAE}J.OV pOvAo}J.EBa EXEW aAA' ELpryVTJV.
3. oi 7TOALTat ()7TEVOOV()t TOL~ BWLI) oi' }J.axovTat V7TEP Tr,~ xwpal)' arnOt yap
EL()t TOU KaAWI) 7TpaTTHv.
4. KaA~ 1] xwpa 1] V7TEP TOU 7ToTa}J.ou ELI) ~V TO. 7Tatoia EPXETat.
5. V7TO TwV T' 'ABTJvaiwv Kat TWV ()v}J.}J.axwv ij077 OLKaiw~ pAa7TTOVTaL Ot
pappapoL.
6. TO oiKaW 7TpaTTHV xaAE7TOV }J.EV TOLl) 7TAEi()TOL~. pqowv OE TOL~ ()O<POL~,
7. TOLl) 7TOAl.TaLI) 7TapaKEAEVETaL O()LOtl) ELvaL Kat VUV Kat avetl).2
8. oi ayaBot T1JV n}J.~v aVTL TOU 7TAOiJTOV EXHV aEt POVAOVTaL
III. Render into Greek.
1. wisely, shamefully, badly, easily, unjustly
2. on behalf of the allies
3. in accordance with the laws of the foreigners
4. concerning democracy
5. The hoplites to whom we are entrusting the children are both just and
pious.
6. One is telling the truth~ the other is not.
I. Note that a proclitic receives an acute accent when it precedes a pause at a mark of
punctuation, as here.
2. For the agreement of the predicate adj. here, review U 10.4.
92 UNIT TWELVE
7. The sailors are going up (along) the river with difficulty, for they are
being pelted with stones by the enemy.
8. The mares about which you are speaking belong not to the citizens, but
to the gods.
9. One must always deliberate exceedingly wisely on behalf of the citizens.
10. It is not easy to obey a harsh law.
UNIT THIRTEEN
Contract Verbs in -ECJJ;

Demonstratives
1. Contract Verbs. A large number of Greek verbs have present stems

which end in one of the three vowels a. E. o. The present-tense forms of these
verbs have personal ending preceded by the theme vowel, preceded in turn by
the final vowel of the stem. In Attic, as in several other dialects, the final a. E.
or 0 of the stem contracts with the theme vowel (or theme vowel plus personal
ending, where these have coalesced).
2. Verbs in -EW. These are the most common type. The Attic contrac-
tions which are relevant to the present indicative are:
E +E ->H E +0 ->ov E+W ->w
E +H ->H E+OV ->ov
(Fuller general schemes for contraction are set out in Appendix 1.)
In the following paradigm the uncontracted form is illustrated in paren-
theses next to the contracted form which results from it in Attic:
Ex. 7rOtEW. "make"
present active indo present middle/passive indo
sing. 1st ( 7roLEW) 7roLw (7TOLEOjJ.ud 7TOWVjJ.UL

2nd (7TOLEH';-) 7TOLEt, ( 7TOLETI) 7TOL i7
3rd ( 7TOLEEd 7TOLEt (7TOLEETUd 7TOLEtTUL
[dual 2nd (7TOLfETOV) 7TOLEtTOV (7TOLE weov) 7TOLE l:a-eOV 1

[3rd (7TOLEETOV) 7TOLEtTOV (7TOLEWeOV) 7TOLELa-eOV 1
plur. 1st (7TOLfOjJ.EV) 7TOWVjJ.EV ( 7TOLEOjJ.Eea) 7TOWVjJ.Eea

2nd ( 7TOLEETtl 7TOLELTE (7TOLEWeE) 7TOLELa-eE
3rd ( 7TOLfOVa-d 7TOWVa-L(V) ( 7TOLEOVTad 7TowvvTaL
93
94 UNIT THIRTEEN
The present active infinitive ends in -ELV (e.g., 7rOLELV from 7rOLEEw); the
present middle/passive infinite ends in -ELcreaL (e.g., 7rOLELcreaL from 7rOLE-
EcreaL).
Accentuation: the uncontracted forms of the indicative have the recessive
accentuation that is normal in finite forms of the verb (in the infinitive the
accent of the uncontracted form is on the last syllable of the stem, as for other
w-verbs). In contraction a circumflex accent results when the first of the two
original vowels has the acute (as happens in all the forms above except 1st
plural middle/passive -EOjJ.Eea). An acute accent results when the second of the
two original vowels has the acute (as in 7rOWVjJ.Eea). When the two original
vowels are both unaccented, the resulting vowel is also unaccented: this does
not occur in the present, but you will encounter it in the imperfect in U16.
3. Demonstratives. Demonstratives are words which refer with extra em-

phasis, as if by pointing (hence the name): in English, this, that, these, those.
Demonstratives function either as pronouns (standing alone, with an ante-
cedent expressed or implied) or as adjectives (modifying a noun). The pronoun
which became the Attic article was originally a demonstrative. There are three
demonstratives in Attic.
a. o~k ryOE, TOOE = this or that, referring to something near, usually pre-
sent or in sight. In some contexts it refers forward and may be translated as the
a
following. OOE consists of the old demonstrative that became the Attic article
plus an indeclinable demonstrative suffix -OE. The fact that -OE was originally a
separate enclitic element accounts for the accentuation of forms like ryOE or
TovcrOE, which are apparent exceptions to the rule that long accented P
followed by short U must have the circumflex.
masc. fern. neut.
sing. nom. OOE ~OE TOOE

gen. TOUOE T11CTOE TOUOE
dat. To/OE TfJOE To/OE
acc. TOVOE T~VOE TOOE
(dual n. a. TWOE TWOE TWOE)
(g. d. TOLVOE TOLVOE TOl.VOE)
plural nom. OLOE aLOE TelOE
gen. TWVOE TWVOE TWVO<:
dat. TOLCTOE TaLCTOE TOLCTOE
ace. TOVCTOE TelCTOE TelOE
Contract Verbs in -fW; Demonstratives 95
b. o lJTO <;, alJTy/, TOVTO = this, the nearer. When contrasted with EKEI.VO<;,
OlJTo<; means the latter vs. the former. When contrasted with ODE, 01)TO<; refers
backward (the foregoing vs. the following). When used by itself, 01)TO<; may
refer either backward or forward. Note two oddities of declension: (1) the stem
of most forms begins with tau, but the masc. and fern. nom. sing. and pI. have
initial rough breathing (h-) instead (the same forms have h- instead of tau in
the article); (2) the diphthong of the stem varies between av and ov depending
on whether there is an a-vowel or a-vowel in the ending (phonetic assimila-
tion): hence av appears in most of the fern. and in the neut. pI. nom. and
accusative.
masc. fern. neut.
'i'
sing. nom. OVTO~ aVT'1l TOVTO
gen. T01JTOV Ta{JTT/~ TOVTOV
,
dat. TOVTCr TaVT'(I TOVTcr
acc. TOVTOV TaVTT/V TOVTO
(dual n. a. TOVTW TOVTW TOVTW)

(g. d. TOVTOW TOVTOW TOVTOW)
'i' 'i'
plural nom. OVTOL aVTaL TaVTa
,
gen. TOVTWV TOVTWV TOVTWV
,
dat. TOVTOL~ TaVTaL~ TOVTOL~
,
acc. TOVTOV~ TaVTa~ TaVTa
c. EKEI.VO<;, EKEivy/, EKEI.VO = that one there, the more distant. When con-
trasted with OVTO<;, EKEI.VO<; means the former vs. the latter. It is declined like a
normal vowel-declension adjective except that the neuter sing. nom./acc. have
the ending -0, not -ov (also, dual forms of the fern. are the same as the masc.).
masc. fern. neut.
sing. nom. EKELVO, EKEivT/ EKELVO

gen. EKEivov EKELVT/~ EKEivov
dat. EKELVcr EKEivTI EKEivcr
acc. EKELVOV EKEivT/v EKELVO
(dual n. a. EKEivw EKEivw EKEivw)

(g. d. EKELVOW EKEI.VOW EKEivow)
plural nom. EKELVOL EKELvaL EKELva

, , , , , ,
gen. EKEWWV EKEWWV EKHVWV
' , , ,
dat. EKEWOL~ EKEwaL, EKEiVOL,
, , , ,
acc. EKEWOV~ EKEwa~ EKELva
96 UNIT THIRTEEN
4. Position of Demonstrative Adjectives. When a demonstrative is used

as an adjective, the noun modified by the demonstrative has the definite article
and the demonstrative is placed in the predicate position (outside the article-
noun group). If a regular attributive adjective modifies the same noun, it has
its usual position inside the article-noun group.
Ex. on this day
t ..... '''' ,,, , .....
Ot vaVTat EKHVOt or EKEWOt Ot vavTat those sailors
7rPOl) TfloE Tfl }.J.aKpq. (J"KYlVfl or
7rPOl) Tfl }.J.aKpq. (J"KYlvfl TfloE next to this long tent

1. Learn the present indicative and infinitives of verbs in -EW.
2. Learn the declension and use of the demonstratives.
3. Learn as vocabulary the demonstratives presented above and the remaining
words presented below.
VOCABULARY
Vocabulary-building Hints. A great many of the verbs in -EW are denomi-
native verbs, that is, verbs formed from noun or adjective roots, meaning to do
or to be whatever the root conveys. In this unit, note cptl\Ew from cpil\ol),
CPOj3Ew from cpoj30l), VO(J"EW from vO(J"Ol), aOtKEw from aOtKOl).
contract verbs in -iw I
be unjust, do wrong; harm, do wrong to (someone
[ace. ])
, ,
aLpEW take, grasp, seize; (mid.) choose, elect [heresy I
acf>LKVE0J.l.aL (a7TO) arrive at, come to, reach
OEW 2 lack, be in need of (+ gen.) (rare outside of certain
fixed idioms)
it is necessary (already learned in U9)
want, be in need of (+ gen.) (more common than
the active); beg, ask for (+ gen. of person + inf.)
I. In dictionaries and vocabulary lists contract verbs are traditionally listed under the
uncontracted fonn, because this makes clear the stem of the verb (and the non-Attic forms). In
the readings and exercises of this course the student should of course use the contracted fonns.
2. Verbs in -Ew with a monosyllabic stem, such as oEw, suffer contraction only when the theme
vowel plus personal ending begins with f. Thus the present active is, e.g .. oEw. Ofl>. Ofl.
OEO}ltv. oElTE. OEOVCTL; present middle/passive oEo}laL. oEn. OElTaL. OdJ}lEOa. oElaBE. OEOVTaL.
Contract Verbs in -lw; Demonstratives 97
(impersonal) there is need of (+ dat. of person and

gen. of thing needed)
(commonly) seem (sometimes + dat. of person +
inf.); (rarely in prose) think, suppose
it seems best (already learned in U9)
Kpanw be strong; rule over (+ gen.); conquer (+ acc. or gen.)
[democratic]
be sick
inhabit, settle; manage (a house or a government);
7roLEW
. dwell, live [economy, ecology]
make, produce; do [poet]
qnt..Ew love, like
CPO{3Ew put to flight; terrify, frighten
cpopEOJ1aL be afraid, be afraid of
WCPEt..EW help, aid
adverbs formed from demonstratives

~OE in this way, thus, so very
OVTW, (before vowel) OVTW~ in this manner, thus, so
Edi in that place, there
EXERCISES
I. Write in Greek.
I. we seem 16. they order
2. they fear 17. I like
3. you (s.) help 18. to be harmed
4. she arrives 19. you (s.) become
5. he likes 20. you (pI.) seize
6. I conquer 21. she is wronged
7. it is inhabited 22. they are being led
8. we desire 23. they arrive
9. they are sick 24. to be in need of
10. you (pI.) make a truce 25. we make
11. to be afraid 26. you (s.) indict
12. they terrify 27. you (s.) choose
13. it is being produced 28. it seems
14. to seem 29. I help
15. we are being aided 30. we are afraid
98 UNIT THIRTEEN
II. Translate each form precisely and give a complete identification of any
ten of the forms.
I. VO(H'iTE II. aOLKE'irT8E 21. KpaTOVrTL
2. OEOVTaL 12. acpLKvE'iTaL 22. OiKOVVTaL
3. OOKE'iV 13. CPOf3ELV 23. aipOvfJ.E8a
4. cpLAOVf1aL 14. 7TOLEL) 24. CPLAELTE
S. aipOVf1EV IS. cpof3ovf1E8a 2S. :;OALTEVT/
6. WCPEAE'i 16. 7Tvv8cLVETaL 26. apXETE
' ,
7. acpLKvE LrT8aL 17. aKOVEL) 27. 7ToLELTaL
8. Kparfl 18. EVpLrTKT/ 28. OOKEL)
9. OOKOVrTL 19. aOLKELv 29. WcpEAOVf1aL
10. ' ~
OLKW 20. OEL 30. YLyvOf1E8a
III. Render each phrase into Greek in the designated case.
I. the following brave Athenians (acc.) 6. the former bad reputation (nom.)
2. that worthless ally (dat.) 7. these wealthy people (acc.)
3. this noble victory (nom.) 8. this hostile army (dat.)
4. these harsh toils (gen.) 9. those evil misfortunes (gen.)
S. those beloved children (acc.) 10. that clever deed (acc.)
IV. Translate.
I. oi j3apj3apoL OV) EKELVOL KpaTOVrTW E7TL Tfl 8aAaTTT/ OiKOVrTW.
2. aVTaL f1EV TO. 7TaLoia cpof30VrTLv. EKE'ivaL OE CPOPOVVTW.
3. TaVTT/ Tfl r,f1EPCf OOKEL TOL) 7TOAiTaL) EipryvYJv 7TOLEtrT8aL 7TpO) TOV)
7TOAEf1iov)' VOrTOVrTL yap oi 7TAEtrTTOL TWV rTTpanwTwv.
4. EKEtVOL TOV) f1EV aya80v) aOLKOVrTL. TOV) oE KaKov) WCPEAOVrTW.
S. T0 rTocp0 rTTpaTYJYct: OELTaL. oLf1aL. TWVOE' T0V KaAw) POvAEvw8aL 7TPO
Try) f1axYJ) KaL TOV d) 7TpaTTHv EV Tfl f1aXT/.
6. OVTO) PCfoiw) TLf17JV cpEpETaL' oiJTW oiKaw) Kat rTOCPO) TOt) 7TOAiTaL) OOKEt
OLa TOV) WAOV) V0f10V) OV) ypacpH.
V. Render into Greek.
1. This country is inhabited both by the Persians and by the Athenians.
2. Because of the earlier peace treaty the general is not permitted to help the
people in the temple of the goddess.
3. Base men rule over most people, for good men are always unwilling to
hold office [use aPXHv].
4. As a result of doing wrong but seeming virtuous, the unjust man wins for
himself wealth and honor.
S. Of the young men, some are now arriving, others are already in training.
UNIT FOURTEEN
Consonant-Declension Nouns I
I. Consonant Declension. The consonant declension (also referred to as

the third declension) is so tenned because most of its nouns have stems ending
in a consonant. But it is actually a diverse family of declension types (includ-
ing some vowel stems) that share certain case endings. The consonant declen-
sion shows much more variety than the 0- and a-declensions because some of
its nouns have variable stems, with different fonns of the stem appearing in
different sets of cases, and some feature contraction of vowels in the endings.
The various types will be learned over the course of several units. In the
consonant declension it is essential to know both the nominative singular and
the genitive singular in order to understand to which family a particular noun
belongs and what fonn or fonns of stem to use in the declension.
CONSONANT-DECLENSION ENDINGS
masc.ljem. neuter
sing. nom. - or-,

gen. -0, -0,
dat. -l -l
- I
ace. -aor -v
voc. - or-,
(dual n. a. v.) (-d
(g. d.) (-ow)
plur. flom.lvOc. -{, -a
gen. -wv -wv
dat. -u(v) -ui(v)
ace. -as' -a
I. The alternative masc'/fem. acc. sing. endings are in origin the same (a zero-grade n-sound).
but have developed to vowel -a or consonant -v depending on the context.
99
100 UNIT FOURTEEN
The case endings shown on the previous page are historically valid, but in
Attic Greek may appear in somewhat different forms because of various
phonetic developments. In general, students need to pay special attention for
each type of noun to the nom., acc., and voc. in the sing. and to the dat. pl. For
instance, when the nom.!voc. sing. ending -'i' or the dat. pl. ending -en is added
to a stem ending in a consonant, the sigma may combine with the previous
consonant to form '" or ~ or may produce a more extensive change. When
there is no case ending added to the stem (as for some nouns in nom. and voc.
sing.), the stem may lose its final consonant because in ancient Greek it is a
phonetic law that words must end either in a vowel or in v, p, or'i'.
2. Labial and Velar Plosive Stems (On plosives [also called mutes], see
U1.2.) Nouns of this type, all masculine or feminine, have stems ending in 7f,
(3, or cp (labial plosives) or in K, y, or X (velar plosives). The original case
endings are all well preserved. The nom. and voc. sing. have -'i'; the acc. sing.
has -ii. In the nom.!voc. sing. and the dat. pl., the final plosive of the stem
combines with sigma to form either'" (labial) or ~ (velar).
Ex. "thief" (m.) "guard" (m.)
stem: KAW7f- cpvAaK-
sing. nom. KAW'" cpvAa[

gen. KAW7fO, cpvAaKo,
dat. KAW7f{ cpvAaKL
acc. KAW7fa cpvAaKa
voc. KAW'" cpvAa[
(dual n. a. v. KAW7fE cpvAaKE)
(g. d. KAW7fo'iv cpVAO.KOW)
plural n. v. KAW7fE, cpvAaKE,
gen. KAW7fWV cpvAaKwv
dat. KAW"'{(V) cpvAa[L(v)
acc. KAw7fa, cpvAaKa,
Accentuation: as for other nouns, the accent is persistent. But there is a

special rule for all monosyllabic-stem nouns of the consonant declension:
monosyllabic stems (e.g., KAW7f-) have the ultima accented in the gen. and dat.
of all numbers (acute on short U, circumflex on long U: e.g., KA.W7fL,
KA.W7fWV), while in the nom., acc., and voc. the accent falls on the first or only
syllable (acute on any short vowel or on a long vowel in the nom. and voc.
sing.; circumflex on a long vowel in acc. sing. or nom., acc., and voc. pl.).
Consonant-Declension Nouns I 101
3. Dental Plosive Stems. Nouns in this group have stems ending in T, 0,

or e, the dental plosives.
a. Masculine and Feminine Nouns. Dental plosives of this group are for
the most part nouns with nominative in -tS that were in origin i-stems without a
dental plosive. The original stem is always used in the nom. and voc. sing. and
the dat. pI. In the remaining cases a longer stem ending in T, 0, or (seen in e
the gen. sing.) is used. The treatment of the acc. sing. has a noteworthy
variation. For disyllabic stems ending in tT, to, te, (1) if the second syllable of
the stem is accented, the longer stem (with dental consonant) is used, and the
acc. sing. ending is -a (as funris -> ao-7Tioa); (2) if the first syllable of the
stem is accented. the shorter form of the stem (without dental consonant) is
used, and the ending is -v (as XaptS -> xapw). Dental plosive stems in which
a vowel other than iota precedes the consonant (as 'EAAas) have a similar
pattern (the dental is not seen in nom. voc. sing. or dat. pl.), but the voc. sing.
has -s and the acc. singular is always -a.
Ex. "favor" (/) "shield" (/) "bird" (m ..!) "Greece" (/)1
stems: XapLT-. XaPL- ao-7TLo-. atT7TL- opvL8-. 0PVL- 'EMao-. 'EMa-
sing. nom. XaPL, atT7ri, °PVL, 'EMa,

gen. XaPLTO, atT7rioo, 0pvL8o, 'EMaoo,
dat. xapm atT7riOL 0pvL8L 'E'\'\aoL
acc. xapw atT7rioa opvw 'E'\'\aoa
voc. XaPL atT7ri OPVL 'E'\'\a,
(dual n. a. v. XaPLTE atT7riOE 0pvL8E 'EMaoE)
(g. d. XapiTOW atT7rioow opvi8ow 'E'\'\aoow)
plur. n. v. xapm, atT7riOE, 0pvL8E> 'EMaoE,
,
gen. xapLTwv atT7rLOWV 0pvL8wv 'E'\'\aowv
dat. XaPLtTL(V) atT7rLtTL(V) °PVLtTL(V) 'EMatTL(v)
acc. XaPLTa, atT7rioa, 0pvL8a, 'EMaoa,
b. Masculine Nouns with Stem in -VT-. The full form of the stem is
visible, as usual, in the gen. sing. (and many other cases). In the nom. sing.
nouns of this type have either the normal stem with -s, which causes the VT to
be dropped and the preceding vowel to be lengthened in compensation (e.g., 0
becomes ov in ooovs, a becomes a in yiyas), or a strong-vowel form of the
stem (e.g., w for 0 in YEPWV) with no ending, the tau being dropped for
I. This noun in fact nonnally has only singular fonns, but the dual and plural are shown here
for the pattern as seen in other nouns in -a,. -aoo,; a few of the plural fonns are found in
postc\assical Greek, usually in an adjectival sense.
102 UNIT FOURTEEN
phonetic reasons. The voc. sing. is either like the nom. or has the weak-vowel
(normal) form of the stem with no ending (and the final tau is simply
dropped). In the dat. pi. the ending -en causes elimination of VT and com-
pensatory lengthening of the preceding vowel.
"old man" (m.) "giant" (m.) "tooth" (m.)
stem: YEPOVT- yLyiivT- 600VT-
,
sing. nom. yEpwv yLyas 600vs
gen. YEPOVTO, yiyavTos 600VTO,
, ,
dat. yEpOVTL yLyaVTL 600VTL
, ,
acc. yEpOVTU yLyavTU 600VTU
, , -
voc. yEpOV yLyav 6oov,
, ,
(dual n. a. v. yEpOVTE yLyavTE 600VTE)
(g. d. yEpOVTOW YLyavTow 600VTOW)
,
plur. n. v. yEpOVTE' yLyavTE' 600VTE,
,
gen. yEpOVTwV yLyavTwv OOOVTWV
dat. YfPOV(]"L(v) yiyQ.(]"L(v) 6oov(TL(v)
, ,
acc. YEpovTa, YLyavTu, ooovTa,
c. Neuter Nouns with Stem in T. The full form of the stem is visible again
in the gen. sing. (and many other cases). Neuters have no ending in the nom.
acc. and voc. sing., and either the final tau is dropped (7fpaYiJ-a) or an alter-
native stem is used in these cases (TEpa" vowp, cpw,). The nom. acc. voc. pI.
form has short alpha, like all neuter forms. In the dative plural the tau does not
appear.
"thing" (n.) "portent" (n.)
stem: 7rPUYIlUT- TEpaT-
nom. 7rpaYllu TEpa,

gen. 7rpaYllaTo, TfpaTo,
,
dat. 7rpaYllan TEpan
,
acc. 7rpaYlla TEpa,
,
voc. 7rpaYlla TEpa,
(dual n. a. v. 7rpaYllaTE TEpaTE)
,
(g. d. 7rpaYllaTow TEpaTow)
,
plur. n. v. 7rpaYllaTU TEpaTa
, ,
gen. 7rpaYllaTwv TEpaTwv
dat. 7rpaYIlUl]"L(v) TEpaC]"L(v)
,
acc. 7rpaYllaTa TEpaTa
4. The Suffix -jJ.aT -. A large number of neuter nouns of the consonant de-
clension are formed from verb stems by adding the suffix -}J.aT- (nom. sing.
-jJ.a). The usual meaning of such a noun is "thing created by the action X."
Ex.
j30VAEVW to plan pOVAEVp..U plan, proposal
I
7rPUTTW to do 7rpuYJ-la action, event,
(root 7rpuy-) circumstance, thing
I
7rOLEW to make creation; poem
ypacpw to write writing, letter

1. Learn the various consonant-declension patterns presented above.
VOCABULARY
consonant-declension nouns
labial or velar plosive stems
8wpat, eWpaKO'>, m. breastplate; breast, trunk (of the body) [thoracic]
KAW't, KAW7T(5~, m. thief [kleptomania]
cpaAuyt, cpaAayyo~, f. line of battle; line of hoplites [phalanx, Falangistj
cpvAat, cpvAaKo~, m. guard, sentinel [prophylactic]
masc. and fern. dental plosive stems

a.(J7ri~, a.(J7rioo~, f. shield [aspidistra]
'EAAci~, 'EAAaoo~, f. Hellas, Greece [Helladic]
f.A7ri~, f.A7rioo~, f. hope, expectation
fPL~, fPLOO" f. strife, quarrel, rivalry [eristic]
OpVL', opvdJo" m. or f. bird; omen [ornithology]
7ruTpi" 7raTpioo" f. fatherland [patriotic]
xapL', XaPLTO" f. grace, beauty; favor, kindness; gratitude [charisma,
Eucharist]
dental plosive stems in VT
yfpwV, YfPOVTO" m. old man [geriatrics]
yiya" yiyavTo" m. earth-born monster, giant [gigantic, gigabyte]
AfWV, AfOVTO" m. lion
OOOV" OOOVTO" m. tooth [orthodontist]
neuter dental plosive stems

j3ovAw/J-a, povAEv/J-aTo" n. plan; proposal, resolution
104 UNIT FOURTEEN
, ,
ypa}J.}J.a, ypa}J.}J.aTO'>, n. line, picture; letter (of alphabet); piece of writing
[grammatical, grammatology]
, ,
7rOL1J}J.a, 7rOl1J}J.aTo,>, n. work, product; poem
7rpG.YJ.i.a, 7rpaY}J.aTo<;, n. deed, action; event, circumstance, thing; (pl.) toil,
trouble [pragmatic 1
, ,
TEpa<;, TEpaTo<;, n. portent, sign, marvel; monster [teratogenesis]
vowp, voaTo<;,n. water [hydrofoil]
cpw<;, cpwnk n.' light [photon, photograph]
EXERCISES
I. Write in Greek the requested fonn of each noun.
1. voc. sing. of favor 16. gen. sing. of shield
2. dat. pI. of old man 17. acc. pI. of fatherland
3. acc. sing. of water 18. voc. pI. of portent, monster
4. gen. pI. of poem 19. nom. sing. of piece of writing
5. nom. pI. of lion 20. gen. pI. of plan
6. dat. sing. of tooth 21. dat. sing. of breastplate
7. voc. pI. of hope 22. acc. sing. of bird
8. gen. sing. of phalanx 23. voc. sing. of giant
9. dat. sing. of omen 24. dat. pI. of piece of writing
10. acc. pI. of strife 25. acc. sing. of light
11. gen. pI. of giant 26. gen. pI. of water
12. nom. pI. of thief 27. nom. pI. of bird
13. nom. sing. of event, action 28. dat. sing. of gratitude
14. dat. sing. of Greece 29. voc. pI. of guard
15. dat. pI. of sentinel 30. gen. sing. of portent, monster
II. Give a complete identification of each of the following fonns.

1. 8wpaKwv 9. cpvi\aKl 17. 'Ei\i\aoa
2. i\Eovaw 10. EPLOO<; 18. cpai\aytL
,
3. cpwTi 11. 7raTpL,) 19. VoaTwV
' , ,
4. oOovTaS' 12. a(T7TUH 20. YLyavTa')
,
5. Povi\EvjJ.aTa 13. Ki\w7TE,) 21. yEpovTwV
,
6. cpai\ayyo') 14. 7TOL rtjJ.acn 22. OOOVITLV
7. Ei\7TioES' 15. 7TpnyjJ.a 23. CPWTO,)
8. "
OpVLV 16. XapLV 24. voan
1. The non-Attic fonn is cpo.o,; in Attic the stem is contracted and treated like a monosyllabic
stem except in the gen. pI., which is accented cpdJTwv.
III. Sentences for reading. (From this point on it is recommended that the
student cease to write out translations of Greek sentences. In order to learn to
read Greek rather than decipher it, one must practice translating mentally or
orally from the text.)
1. (no. Ta<; KaAa<; opvt$a<; 0-0 cpof3oUfJ.E$a TOV 7fPO<; EKELVOV<; 7faAEfJ.ov.
2. KaKov AEL7fEW TryV o.(J"7fLOa, 0.11.11.' o.ya$ov (J"0(EW [save] Tryv tvx'ljv.
3. fJ.ETG. TafJTa vowp CPEPOV(J"W OL yEpOVTH TOtl) VEaVLatl) 0;" lJ7fEP rr,1)
7faTpLOo<; fJ.o.XOVTat.
4. OL cpuAaKEI) OVI) OL 7fOAEfJ.Wt aLpov(J"w o.7fo$viwKOV(J"w.
S. OEt TOV 'HpaKA1] [HeracIes, acc. case] KpaTEtV Tav T' EV NEfJ.Eq. AEOVTa
TOU<; TE yiyavTaI) TO. TE Ka$' 'EAAo.oa TEpaTa.
UNIT FIFfEEN
Consonant-Declension Nouns II;

Interrogative Pronoun
------ - - - - - - - - -
1. Consonant Stems Ending in Liquid (A., p) or Nasal (v). Almost all

nouns in this group are masculine or feminine. The nom. and voc. sing. may
have no case ending (and the nom. then has a strong-vowel form of the stem,
e.g., w for 0 in FJ77TWP and oaiJ-twv) or -" (e.g., 0.A.,,). Acc. sing. has -a. Stems
with final v do not exhibit it in the dat. pI., but there is no compensatory
lengthening in (e.g.) oaiJ-tocn. I
Ex. "orator" (m.) "divinity" (m.) "contest" (m.p "salt" (m.)

stem: PT/TOp- OaLjWV- aywv- 0.11.-
--_. ._-------- ------- ---- ---- ----
' ,
sing. nom. PT/TWP oaLjJ.wv aywv UA.<;
gen. PT/TOP°<; oaLjJ.ovo<; aywvo<; 0.11.0<;
dat. i,J11,To pL oaLjJ.ovL aywvL o.A.L
' ~
acc. prJTopa oaLjJ.ova aywva uA.a
' ,
VOL iJ'r,TOP oal.jJ.ov aywv
' , ' ~
(dual n. a. v. PT/TOP€ oaLjJ.OV€ aywvE UA.t)
' ,
(g. d. PT/TOPOLV oaLjJ.OvoLV aywvoLV o.A.oiv)
' , , ~
plur. n. v. PT/TOP€<; oaLjJ.OVt<; aywvt, aA.€<;

!-!en. PT/TOPWV oaLjJ.Ovwv aywvwv o.A.(i)v
dat. jnjTOPCTL(V) oaLjJ.O(n(v) aywO"L(v) o.II.O"L(V)
ace. pT/Topa<; oaLjJ.ova, aywva<; uII.a,
2. Irregular Stems in p. Three important words have variable stems

ending in p: a strong-vowel form in -T"IJP, a normal grade with short vowel
-up, and a weak grade realized as -TP- (or -Tpa- in dat. pl.). The strong-vowel
I. This fonn may derive from a dat. pI. ending -<l(T( borrowed from another type of noun (cf. §2
below), but with the vowel assimilated to that of the other cases.
2. Note the accentuation of stems in -wv - with accent on the final syllable of the stem (aywv):
acute in nom. and voc. sing .. circumflex in most other forms. because an accented long P
followed by short U musi have a circumflex.
106
Consonant-Declension Nouns II; Interrogative Pronoun 107
fonn appears in the nom. sing, the weak fonn in gen. and dat. sing. and dat.
pI., the nonnal grade in the rest of the cases. The common noun av~p is sim-
ilar, but the Attic fonns have 0 inserted before p in all but nom. and voc.
singular.
Ex. "father" (m.) "mother" (/) "daughter" (/) "man" (m.)

stems: 71"aT(dp- J.i.YJT(E)p- 8vyaT(E)p- aVEp-. avop-
, , ,
sing. nom. 71"aTr,p J.i.YJTYJP, 8vyaTYJp avYJp
gen. 71"aTpo'> J.i.YJTpO'> 8vyaTpo,> avopo,>
, ,
dat. 71"aTpL J.i.YJTPL 8vyaTpi avopi
,
ace. 71"anpa J.i.YJnpa 8vyaTEpa o.vopa
voc. 71"anp J.i.r,np 8vyanp "
aVEp
(dual n. a. v. 71"anpE J.i.YJnpE 8vyaTEpE o.VOpE)
(g. d. 71"anpOLV J.i.YJTEpOLV 8vyaTEpoLV avopotv)
, ,
plur. n. v. 71"anpE'> J.i.YJnpE'> 8vyaTEpE,> o.VOPE'>
, ,
gen. 71"anpwv W/TEPWV 8vyaTEpwv o.vopwv
dat. 71"aTpaIJ"L(v) J.i.YJTpaIJ"L(v) 8vyaTpaIJ"L(v) aVOpaIJ"L(v)
ace. 71"anpa'> J.i.YJnpa,> 8vyaTEpa'> o.vopa,>
Note the variations in accentuation of these nouns. The voc. sing. of 7TaT~p
has recessive accentuation, as do both the nom. and voc. sing. of J.i.~T'fJP and
evyaTYfp. Elsewhere the accent of these three words falls on the stem-ending
-EP- (or -pain dat. pI.) or on the case ending (in the gen. and dat. sing., where
the rule about monosyllabic stems applies nonnally to J1.~TYfP and 7TaT~p,
while evyaTYfp is treated similarly by analogy). The accentuation of av~p
follows the rule for monosyllabic stems of the consonant declension (U 14.2),
except that nom. sing. and dat. pI. (based on disyllabic stem) are accented on
the second syllable of the stem and the voc. sing. has recessive accentuation.
3. Stems in Sigma. Many sigma-stems originally ended in -fCT-: this is

still visible in the voc. sing. of masc. and fern. nouns (e.g., Tp6,!PE'>. ~wKpa
Tf.'», and is present in a long-vowel fonn -Yf'> in nom. sing. (TpL~PYf'>. ~wKpa
TYf'». In a large group of neuter nouns the -E(J"- ending appears in the o-grade
fonn -0'> in nom. acc. voc. sing. (e.g., yEVO,». In the other cases the sigma of
-fCT- has dropped out between vowels and contraction has taken place. The acc.
pI. of masc'/fem. nouns in -Yf'>. however. is assimilated to the nominative rather

than based on the usual ending -as. A few sigma-stem neuters have final -alJ"-
(e.g., YEpa'»: again, whenever the sigma drops out, contraction takes place. In
the paradigms on the next page, the uncontracted fonns (sometimes found in
poetry and in other dialects) are shown in parentheses after the Attic prose
fonns.
108 UNIT FIFTEEN
~.------ -----
Ex. "trireme" (f) "kind, race" (n.)

stem: TpL7]pdrr)- YEVdrr)-
,
sing. nom. TPL~P7]') YEVO')
gen. TPL~POVS (TpL~PfO<;) YEVOV') (YEVW<;)
,
dat. TPL~PEL (TpL~pfL) 'lEVEL ( y~vfI)
ace. TPLYJP7] (TpL~pW) YEVO,)
,
voe. Tptr,pE,) YEVO,)
[dual II.a. v. TPt~PEL (TpL~pH) 'lEVEL (YEVHli
[g. d. Tpt7]pOW (TPLTJP~OW) YEVO'iV (ywEow)1
plur. n. v. TPL~PEt,) (TpL~PH<;) 'lEV 7] (YEvw)
gell. TPL~PWV (TPLTJP~WV) yEVwV (YWfWV)
dat. TPt~pErTt(v) (TpL~pE(J(TL) YEVErTL(V) (YEvfO'O'd
ace. TPt~PEt') 'lEV 7] (YEvw)
"pri~e, honor" (n.)

stem: YEpa(rr)-
,
sing. nom. yEpa,>
gen. yEPW') (y~pao<;)
dat. YEpaL orYEpq (yfparl
ace. yEpa<;
,
V()C. yEpa<;
[dual n. a. v. yEpa (yipadl
[g. d. yEPr{W (Yfpaow) I
plur. n. v. YEpii (YEpaa)
gen. yEpwV (Yfpawv)
dat. YEparrt(v) ( YEpa(J(TL)
, -
ace. yEpa (YEpaa)
Note that the accent of the contracted form of the gen. pi. (and gen. dat. dual)
of TPL17PT]'> is assimilated to that of the other cases and does not derive from the
uncontracted form. For proper names in -T]'> like '2:wKpaTT]'>, the voc. is accent-
ed recessively, on A ('2:wKpan'».
4. Interrogative Pronoun. (On pronouns in general, see U 12 Prelim. D.)

Interrogative pronouns are pronouns used to introduce questions. In English
the interrogative pronouns are who, which, what. Note that who and which are
also used as relative pronouns and that which and what can also be used with a
noun as interrogative adjectives.
Ex. Who is winning the prize for boxing? personal (masc.lfem.)
Whom are they selecting as general? personal (objective)
Consonant-Declension Nouns 1/; Interrogative Pronoun 109
What are you doing? impersonal (neuter)

Which is the just citi::.en? pronoun
Which daughter is the sailor marrying? interrogative adj.
The Greek interrogative pronoun/adjective TLr;, TL, equivalent to all three Eng-
lish interrogatives, has a nasal consonant stem (nv-) in most cases and a
simple i-stem in the masc.!fem. nom. sing. form and the neuter nom. acc. sing.
form. Like some consonant-declension adjectives (to be learned in U22), the
interrogative has a common personal gender that serves as masculine and
feminine. In such a declension, the gen. and dat. forms are identical for all
three genders, and the neuter is distinguished from the masc'/fem. only in nom.
and acc. (and voc., if any).
sinRular plural
masc.lfem. neuter mase.ltem. neuter
--- --
,
nom. H, H TW~, Twa
Ren. TWO, (TOD) TLVO, (TOD) TWWV TWWV
,
dat. TWL (T0) TWL (T0) TL(n(v) TLcn(v)
ace. Twa H Twa, Twa
(dual, all Renders: nom. ace. TLV~, ReI!. dat. TLUOW)
Note that there are alternative forms for the gen. and dat. sing. (shown in par-
entheses). These are o-stem forms and look just like the corresponding forms
of the article.
Accentuation: because of the interrogative intonation (and perhaps also to
distinguish the forms from similar indefinite enclitic forms), the interrogative
is accented with the acute on its first (or only) syllable, and this acute never
changes to a grave even though the one-syllable interrogative is normally
followed by another word without pause. (The alternative forms in gen. and
dat. sing. have the circumflex, just like the article; in context, the interrogative
and articular uses are usually easily distinguishable.)
Ex. Tiva pt...a7fTojJ.w; Whom are we hurting?
, "
nr; EpxnaL; Who is coming?
T0 E7fLTpE7fHr; TO. 7faLoia; To whom are you entrusting the
children?
, "
Twa (TTpanryov 7fEjJ..7fEL; Which general is he sending?

1. Learn the various consonant-declension patterns presented above.
2. Learn the interrogative TLr;, Ti.
110 UNIT FIFTEEN

VOCABULARY
consonant-dec1ension nouns: liquid and nasa) stems
aywv. aywvo>. m. contest. struggle; assembly. national games
[agony. agonistic]
ails. ciAo>. m. salt, grain of salt [halides]
aA>. ciAo>. f. (poetic) sea
aV17P. avopo>, m. man. male; warrior; husband; "real man." "man" (in
contexts emphasizing sexist or macho traits)!
[android. androgynous]
oaiflwv. oaiflovo>. m. or f. god. divinity; tutelary divinity, the power controlling
an individual's destiny; one's destiny. lot [demon]
"EAA17v. "EAA1]vo>. m. a Greek (man), Hellene [Hellenic]
evyaT1]p. evyaTp0<;. f. daughter
fl~T1]p. fl1]TPO>. f. mother [metropolis. metronymic]
7TaT~p. 7TaTpo>. m. father [patriarchy 1
p~TWp. p~TOpO>, m. speaker. orator [rhetoric]
consonant-dec1ension nouns: sigma-stems

6.1]flOO"eEV1]>. 6.1]fl°O"eEVOV>. Demosthenes (Athenian orator and politician, 4th
m. cent. S.C.E.)
LWKpaT1]>. LWKpaTov>. m. Socrates (Athenian philosopher, teacher of Plato)
TPL~P1]>. TPL~POV>. f. trireme (a military vessel with three banks of oars)
[trierarch]
yEVO<;. YEVOV>, n. race, stock; offspring; class, sort, kind [genocide,
genealogy]
yEpa>. yEpW>. n. gift of honor, privilege
yi}pa>. y~pw>, n. old age [geriatrics]
"
ETO>. "
ETOV>. n. year [etesian]
KpaTo>. KpaTov<;,n. strength, power; victory [timocratic]
flEpO>. flEPOV<;, n. share, portion; part; one's tum [meroblastic.
penthemimeral]
7TAi}eo>. 7TA~eov>. n. multitude; the masses, the majority; quantity; size
[plethora]
wall [teichoscopy]
I. Contrast av8pw7To,. which refers to human beings as a species. Herodotus (7.120)

commented on the repelling of numerous Persian forces by the few Spartan defenders of
o·
Thermopylae that it showed 7TOA.A.Ot fJ.EV av8pw7Toi €i(TLv. OA.iYOL avop€'>.
Consonant-Declension Nouns II; Interrogative Pronoun III
fulfillment, completion; end, finish; authority; (pI.)

service, duty; offerings, rites; taxes
[teleological]
interrogative pronoun/adjective
n<;,n (pronoun) who? which? what?; (adj.) which? what?
EXERCISES
I. Give a complete identification of each of the following.

,
I. "
ETH II. jJ.EpWV 21. TWWV
,
2. 2.WKpaTOv~ 12. Y1JPo., 22. avopa~
, ,
3. THX1J , 13. TpL1JpUH 23. 7TaTEp
,
4. 7TaTpo~ 14. avopi 24. TpL1JP1J
,
5. "EAA1JVL IS. (iAa 25. Y1JPw~
,
6. oaLjJ.ovwv 16. aywva 26. Twa
' , ,
7. P1J TO,P(TW 17. 6.1J jJ.O(T(3EVE ~ 27. KpaTEL
,
8. jJ.1JTEpa~ 18. yEpa 28. oaijJ.ovH
9. (3vyaTEp 19. 7TAr,(3ov~ 29. ayw(Tw
, ,
10. KpaT1J 20. TEAO~ 30. TL(TL

1. what portion? (nom.) 9. the wise plan (dat.)
2. the unjust orators (dat.) 10. what hopes? (nom.)
3. most (acc.) of the triremes II. this multitude (gen.)
4. which Greeks? (gen.) 12. after the contest
5. a small privilege (gen.) 13. which mothers? (dat.)
6. evil strife (ace.) 14. toward that wall
7. large teeth (nom.) IS. with the husband
8. during that year
III. Sentences for reading.
1. Ti~ E(TTW 6 pr,TWP; 6.1JjJ.O(T(3EV1J~. O~ TO 7TAr,(30~ 7TEi(3H TOS TPLr,PH~ TOL~
7TAOV(TiOL~
E7TLTPE7TEW KaL TEA1J Ei(}(j>EPHV. I
2. Ti XP1] 7TOLELV; OL jJ.Ev yap TWV 'EAAr,VWV EV Tn
TWV pappapwv xwpo.
wixw{3aL <pOfjOVVTaL. OL oE T0 TWV 'A{31Jvaiwv (TTpaT1Jy0 7TEi(3E(T{3aL OUK
E(3EAOV(TW.
3. 6 7TaT1]p KaL ry jJ.r,T1JP Tr,V TE (3vyaTEpa <pLAOV(TL KaL inr' EKEiv1J~
<pLAovvTaL.
I. Compound of CPfPW and ti>. "into (the public treasury)."

112 UNIT FIFfEEN
4. Tiv' aywva napaa"KEVa(ovcHv oi KPLTai; TivE>; VEaViaL YEpa CPEPOVTaL;

5. avoO"Lov EO"n jJ.ry EXHV xapw TWV ayaewv EpywV aimEp Try>; Oy/jJ.OKpaTia>;
EKELVOL npaTTovO"w.
1. The men have breastplates and shields, but are not brave.
2. Being just and telling the truth are parts of virtue for the race of men.
3. This year is the beginning of a long and difficult war.
4. We await the end of the court case [= suit], for the thief is responsible for
the fact that the citizens do not fare well.
5. From those walls the mother of Socrates hears the voice of the speaker in
the marketplace.
UNIT SIXTEEN
o· Verbs: Imperfect Indicative
1. Secondary Tenses. The tenses of the indicative which refer to present

or future time are called the primary tenses, while those which refer to past
time are called secondary tenses. The distinction between the two types is
apparent in three ways. (1) The personal endings of secondary tenses differ in
some persons and numbers from those of primary tenses. (2) Secondary tenses
show augment (explained in §2 below). (3) In many forms of complex sen-
tence, the mood used in the subordinate clause may differ according to wheth-
er the main verb is primary or secondary (sequence of moods, presented in
U31.5). The primary tenses are the present, future, perfect, and future perfect
(also for some purposes the gnomic aorist, U20.5c); the secondary tenses are
the imperfect, aorist, and pluperfect (also for some purposes the historical
present, U20.5b).
2. Augment. Augment is a modification of the beginning of a tense stem

which marks an indicative verb as referring to past time. Augment is found in
the imperfect indicative (presented below), in the aorist indicative (UI9), and
in the pluperfect indicative (U41). Augment takes one of two forms:
a. Syllabic augment is the addition of the syllable E- to the beginning of a

tense stem that begins with a consonant.
Ex. present stem imperfect stem
7T(Jl7T- E7T(Jl7T-
f3ovt..- Ef30Vt..-
TaTT- ETaTT-
Note that a few stems which begin with a vowel in classical Greek originally
began with a consonant (e.g., initial sigma or vau [U1.4]) and so have syllabic
augment, but the vowel E- has contracted with the following vowel after the
disappearance of the intervening consonant. For instance, from EXW with its
113
114 UNIT SIXTEEN
present stem EX- based on original *O'"EX- is derived the imperfect stem EiX- (by
way of*EO'"EX- -> *EEX-).1
b. Temporal augment is the lengthening of the initial vowel or diphthong

of a stem that begins with a vowel. If the stem already begins with a long
vowel or a "long" diphthong or OV, no change is made; but otherwise the
vowel is changed as follows: ii -> Y/, E -> Y/, [ -> f, 0 -> w, V -> ii, at
n, n,
-> EL -> av -> Y/V, EV -> Y/V, Ot -> <p. 2
,
ay- 7JY-
aLpf.- TlPE-
oiKE- ~KE-
WCPf.Af.- WCPEAE- (no change)
Augment is applied directly to the verb stem. Consequently, in com-

pounds consisting of prepositional prefix and verb stem, the augment appears
between the preposition and the verb stem, often with elision of the final
vowel of a two-syllable preposition (for elision review U 1.5):
a:rrO/KTELV- a7r/E/KTELV-
f.'TrL iTpm- E7r/E/TPE7r-
7rapa/ Kf.AEV- 7rap/ E/ KEAEV-
acp/ LKVE- acp/i:KvE-
3. Imperfect Indicative. The Greek imperfect indicative refers to action
in the past which is incomplete (hence the name, from the Latin for "unfin-
ished"), in progress, or repeated or customary. It corresponds to the English
past progressive (I was sending), verb phrases with used to (I used to send),
and in some contexts the English simple past (I sent).
The imperfect is formed from the imperfect stem (= present stem with
augment) plus theme vowel 0/ E plus secondary personal endings. Recall that
theme vowel 0 is used before }J. or v; otherwise E is used. The secondary
endings are worth memorizing, as they will reappear in later units. Note that
the second person singular middle/passive ending -0'"0, when combined with
theme vowel E, loses the intervocalic sigma, and the remaining 0 contracts
I. An asterisk (*) placed before a form indicates that the form is a reconstructed historical
precursor of a known form and is not actually found in surviving Greek documents.
2. Outside of Ionic/Attic, ii -> a instead of 1] and aL -> q. instead of T/. In postc\assical Greek
there are two verbs beginning with VL-, and the augmented form is also VL-.
[2- Verbs: Imperfect Indicative 115
with E to fonn av Oust as in the second person singular primary ending in the
-n
present middle/passive: from -d<T)at).
SECONDARY PERSONAL ENDINGS
active middle/passive
sing. 1st -v -JlTJV

2nd -S' -(JO
3rd -TO
(dual 2nd -TOV -(Jeov)
(3rd -TTJV -(JeTJv)
plur. 1st -Jlw -JlEea
2nd -TE -(JeE
3rd -v -VTO
CONJUGATION OF IMPERFECT ACTIVE
Ex. 4C send" "lead" theme vowel

stem: f.7TEJl7T- + olE ~Y- + olE + pers. ending
';'
sing. 1st E7TEJl7roV TJYov -ov
';'
2nd E7TEJl7TES' TJYES' -ES'
3rd E7TEJl7Td v) ~ydv) -dv)
(dual 2nd f.7TfJl7TETOV ~YETOV) ( -ETOV)
(3rd f.7TEJl7TfTTJV ~YfTTJV) (-ETTJV)
plur. 1st f. 7Tfll7TOJlW "
TJyoJlw -OJlW
2nd f.7TfJl7TETE ~YfTf: -ETE
';'
3rd E7TEJl7TOV TJYov -ov
CONJUGATION OF IMPERFECT MIDDLE/PASSIVE
sing. 1st f.7TEJl7TOJl TJV ~YOJlTJV -oJlTJv

' ,
2nd E7TEJl7TOV ~yov -ov [-d(J)ol
3rd f.7TfJl7TETO "
TJYETO -ETO
(dual 2nd f.7TfJl7TE(JeOV ~YE(JeOV) ( -E(JeOV)

(3rd f.7TEJl7Tf(JeTJV ~Yf(JeTJV) ( -{(JeTJv)
plur. 1st f.7TEIl7TOJlEea ~y6JlEea -OJlEea
2nd f.7TfJl7TE(JeE ~YE(Je{ -{(JeE
3rd f.7TfJl7TOVTO ~YOVTO -OVTO
116 UNIT SIXTEEN
Note the similarities and differences between the secondary endings (plus
theme vowel) and the primary endings (plus theme vowel), which are most
obvious in the middle/passive.
Accentuation: the accent is recessive, as for all finite forms. An apparent
exception arises in compounds of verbs with monosyllabic stems that begin
with a vowel. It is a rule that when a Greek verb has more than one preverb
(prefixed element: e.g., augment or prepositional prefix) the accent cannot
precede the first preverb element (namely, the augment). For instance, from
Cl7TEXW = to be distant is derived the imperfect a7Tf.Lxov (not G.7TEtXOV, because
the accent cannot precede the augment contained in Et), and from 7Tapayw = to
lead astray is derived the imperfect 7Tapr,yov (not 7Tap1JYov, because the
accent cannot precede the augmented vowel1J).
The imperfect indicative is part of the present-stem system of the verb
(which consists of all forms derived from the first principal part). You will
learn later how the present infinitive and participle sometimes serve to convey
"imperfect" meanings.
4. Imperfect of Verbs in -EW. Review the possible contractions of -EW

verbs and the explanation of their accentuation presented in U 13.2. Here is an
example of the imperfect indicative of a verb in -EW (OLKEW = inhabit). In the
following paradigm the uncontracted form is illustrated in parentheses next to
the contracted form which results from it in Attic:
1st 'tl KOVV (0KWV) 0KO'uj.iT/V (0W),uT]v)

2nd 'tlKEl~ (0Km) 0KO'v (0 KfOV)
3rd "
'tlKEl (0w) 0KELTO (0KEETO)
[dual 2nd 0KELTOV (0KfETOV) 0KELa-8ov (0KfEU8ov)I

' ,
[3rd 'tlKEl TT/V (0KffTT]V) 0KEtIT8T/v (0KEfU8T]v)I
plur. 1st 0WVj.iEV (0KfO,uW) 0KO'Uj.iE8a (0w),u€8a)
2nd 0KELTE (0KfETd 0KELIT8E (0KfEU8d
3rd " (0KWV) 0KO'VVTO (0KfOVTO)
'tl KOVV
5. Imperfect of f. i!J.i
singular (dual) plural
1st ~j.iEV
2nd ( ~ITTOV) ~TE or ~ITTE
3rd ( ~ITTT/V) ~ITav
.!2- Verbs: Imperfect Indicative 117
6. Imperfect of XP'r7 and oLojJ.aL. The imperfect it was necessary has the
fonn xpfJV or ExpfJV. The fonner is a contraction of xp~ (noun) + ryv (imperfect
of ELjJ.L); the latter is xpf]v with augment added on the analogy of ordinary
imperfect fonns. The imperfect of oLojJ.a~ has both the regular fonns (00jJ.y/v.
etc.) and a contracted first sing. 0jJ.y/v (like the present form oIjJ.a~).
1. Learn the imperfect active and middle/passive indicative.

2. Learn the imperfect of the irregular verb ELjJ.i.
VOCABULARY
consonant-stem nouns
r,YEJ.lWV. r,YEJ.l0VM. m. leader. guide [hegemony]
8~p. 8YJpor;. m. beast of prey. wild animal
8YJpiov. 8YJpiov. n. wild animal [theriomorphic, megatherium]
7TaLr;. 7TatOOr;. m. or f. I child, boy, girl; slave, servant [pedagogy]
adjectives
apXaLOr;. apXaia. apXaLOV ancient, old; old-fashioned [archaeology]
{3i1.a{3Epor;. {3 il.a{3 EPa.. harmful
{3i1.apEpov
DEwOr;. DEtV~. DEWOV fearful, terrible; wondrous; clever, skillful
DEwor; il.EYEW clever at speaking
, , ,
Kowor;. KOWYJ. KOWOV common, public [Koine, epicene]
, ,
TO KOWOV public authority, state, league
, ,
Ta Kowa public affairs; public funds
cpaVEpOr;. cpaVEpa.. cpavEpov visible, manifest
verbs
.,
atTEw ask for (+ acc. of person and acc. of thing or inf.)
Q.7Tayw (<17T0) lead away; arrest, carry off to prison
a7TEXW (a7TO) hold off; (intrans.) be away from, be distant from
E7TawEw (E7Td approve, praise
E7Tt8vJ.lEw (E7Td long for, desire (+ gen. of object desired)
(YJTEW seek, seek for; examine, investigate
I. The vocative singular is 7Tui:; the genitive plural is accented 7TUtOWV.

118 UNIT SIXTEEN
lead, guide (usually + dat. of person); command. rule

(usually + gen. of person); consider. think
KwAvw I v I hinder. prevent (+ acc. + inf.)
napayw (napa) lead by; lead astray. mislead; bring forward.
introduce
napf.xw (napa) furnish, supply. afford
TptnW tum, direct; change; put to flight (in battle) [trophy I
tpvAaTTw l guard, defend; watch for; (mid.) be on one's guard
(against)
EXERCISES
I. Translate each form precisely and give a complete identification of any ten.
1. nTEL(J"eE 15. r,C)lKELTE 29. WcpEAEL(J"eE
2.
3.
.
CI.7r17YE
,
a7TEXH~
16.
17.
nr;eavoJJ.YJv
yLyVT/
30.
31.
.
cpEpETaL
,
E7TETpE7TOV
4. E7TnVOVV 18. EOH 32. 7TowvJJ.aL
E7T~eVJJ.ELV E(~TH
5.
6. E(YJTOVJJ.EV
19.
20.
.
EOOKOVV
~
':JKHTO
33.
34. KwAVWeaL
7. "hYOVVTO 21. 7TapEKEAEVOJJ.YJV 35. ci7T~yOVTO
8. EKWAVETO 22. 7TVVeCWOVTaL 36. EyiYVETO
9. "
YJV 23. E(J"7TEVOE~ 37. at TE L(J"eaL
10.
11.
7TapaYE(J"eaL
,,!ap~LXE
24.
25.
ECPEVYE
ECPOf30VJJ.YJv
38.
39.
.
E;3oVAO}-J.Eea
,
EVO(J"OVV
12. ETpE7TOJJ.EV 26. E7TpaTTETo 40. E7TVVeavov
13. "hyovvTaL 27. "
YJ(J"av 41. "
':Jov
14. EcpvAaTTov 28. ETaTToJJ.Eea 42. EAaJJ.f3avoJJ.EV
II. Write in Greek.
1. it was being carried 12. they were being misled
2. we were afraid 13. we are seeking
3. to be loved 14. she was perceiving
4. I was helping 15. I was inquiring
5. they used to suffer 16. we used to seem
6. you (s.) were fighting 17. it is being made
7. to march 18. she used to say
8. you (pI.) were 19. you (pI.) were leaving
9. he was leading away 20. you (5.) supposed
10. they used to arrive 21. they were remaining
11. you (pI.) were guiding 22. I desired
I. Non-Attic CPVAQ.(J"(J"W.
.Q- Verbs: Imperfect Indicative 119
23. I hindered 27. it was being written

24. to be furnished 28. we used to harm
25. you (s.) are on your guard 29. it is being heard
26. it is distant from 30. you (s.) were finding
III. Reading.
l. EVeaoE Ot !J.Ev KaAOt KaL ayaeOt T~V 7TaTpioa j3Aa7TTELV Kat 7TAOlJTOV
Aa!J.j3avEw OVK iJeEAOV. aAAa !J.~ aOLKELaBaL 1mo TWV 7TOV7JpWV
Ej30VAOVTO' TOL~ OE 7TOV7JpOL~. oi.' aEt apxfl~ TE Kat 7TAOVTOV E7TEeV!J.OVV,
n)TE Etflv TflCTOE Tfl~ xwpa~ KpaTELV' TOV~ !J.Ev yap (TTpaT7JYov~ a7To-
KTEivOV(H. TOV~ oE MTOpa~ Ei~ TO tEPOV a7TaYOV(rL Kat EKEL cpvAaTTOV(HV.
E7TELTa TO 7TAfleo~ 7TEpt TWV 7TpaY!J.aTWV j30vAEvwBaL EKWAvOV.
2. TaVTa TO. OELVa EK TOV yEpOVTO~ at TOV t::.7J!J.OCTeEVOV~ evyaTEpE~ aKOVOVCTL
Kat aVTiKa TOV~ vEavia~ nTOVV ~yELCTeaL EK Tfl~ xwpa~ EKEiV7J~. EV f, 17CTav
eflpE~ TE Kat OpVLeE~ j3Aaj3Ep0i.
3. E7TELTa 6 f1avCTavia~1 TOL~ 'Ae7JvaioL~ 7TapEKEAEVETO K~pvKa~ 7TE!J.7TELV
7TEpt Tfl~ Eip~v7J~' Ot oE E7TEieoVTO.
4. E7TEt [when] oE 17CTav E7Tt TaL~ eVpaL~ TaL~ TLCTCTacpEpvov~. 2 Ot !J.Ev CTTpa-
T7JYOt Ei~ T~V CTK7JV~V EPxovTaL. Ot oE CTTpanWTaL E7Tt TaL~ eVpaL~ E!J.EVOV.
!J.ETa OE ov !J.aKpov xpovov EKELvoi TE npOVVTO Kat OVTOL EK07TTOVTO.
E7TELTa OE Ot j3apj3apoL OLa TOV 7TEOiov [plain] iJAavvov Kat. TOV~ "EAA7J-
, ,
va~ a7TEKTELVOV.
I. Pausanias, king of the Lacedaemonians at the end of the Peloponnesian War.

2. Gen. ofTtlTlTo.</>EPVT/~, Tissaphernes, a Persian governor.
UNIT SEVENTEEN
Indefinite TL~; Uses of the Accusative

~.--- .. --------------- ---
I. The Greek Indefinite. Indefinite pronouns and indefinite adjectives re-

fer to an unspecified, uncertain, or vague person or thing or portion of a group
of persons or things. In English the indefinite words include pronouns an}',
some, anyone, someone, anything, something, and adjectives any, some. The
idiomatic use of a certain or certain (with plural noun), by which the speaker
refers to someone definite without making the identification precise, is also
equivalent to use of an indefinite adjective. The Greek indefinite pronoun/
adjective n." n is identical in form to the interrogative pronoun/adjective
(learned in U 15.4), except that the indefinite is an enclitic, whereas the inter-
rogative always has the acute on its first syllable.
sin!tular plural
mase./jem. neuter mase.lfem. neuter
,
nom. H') H TWE') Twa (aTTa)
, ,
!ten. TWO,) (TOV) TWO,) (TOV) HVWV HVWV
,
dat. TWL (T'r) TWL (Tcr) H(J"[(V) H(J"[(V)
,
ace. Twa H Twa') Hva (aTTa)
(dual. all !tenders: nom. ace. HVE, !ten. dat. HVOI.V)
Remember that in paradigms disyllabic enclitics are shown with an accent on
the second syllable, though they will not always have an accent in actual use.
The use of the circumflex on the second syllable of nvwv may be an ortho-
graphic convention rather than a reflection of classical pronunciation. Note the
alternative forms given in parentheses for the gen. and dat. sing. (as for the
interrogative) and also for the neuter nom. and acc. pI. (aTTa is not treated as
an enclitic and usually follows an adjective with its neuter pI. -a elided).)
I. aTTa actually derives from adjective ending in -0. plus enclitic *rya redivided (e.g., DELVa
Tya - > DE LV' aTTa (y = semivocal ic iota). (Note that the accent on P in DE LV' is the result of
elision: when a final vowel accented with a grave is elided, an acute accent is placed on P.)
120
Indefinite Ttl); Uses of the Accusative 121
2. Accentuation of the Indefinite. Review U2.12 on the accentuation of

enclitics and be sure that you understand the accentuation of the indefinite in
the following examples:
, ,
aV1Jp n~ a certain man
AOy~ nvi by a certain account
av(3pw7Toi TWE~ some people
7TELpa n, any attempt
j.l1JTEpWV TLVWV of some mothers
An additional peculiarity in the accentuation of enclitics occurs when two or
more enclitics appear in a series. In such a series, the convention is usually that
every enclitic except the last in the series receives an acute on its final syllable.
Ex. j3aAAEL Ti~ TLva T~.
Someone is striking someone with something.
EL'" n Twa (3'
Aa7TTEL~, ...
If you are doing any harm to anyone, ...
Recall [U2.12d] that a proclitic that precedes an enclitic receives an acute, as
EL in the second example here.
3. Uses of the Accusative Case. The accusative case (Greek ainaTLK7]
7TTW(n~, "case of effect," misleadingly translated as accusativus by Latin
grammarians because of the ambiguity of the Greek word aiTia) in general
serves to define or qualify the action expressed by a verb.
a. Accusative of the Object of a Verb. The use of the accusative to

express the direct object of a transitive verb was introduced in brief in U8.9. It
is now time to learn the finer details of grammar related to objects of a Greek
verb.
(l) External object, object of the thing affected, or "direct object": a per-
son or thing existing prior to an action and directly affected by the
action is normally expressed in the accusative case.
j3aAAEL Tav Ai(3ov. He throws the stone.
j3aAAEL Tav avopa. He strikes the man.
Tiva (3Aa7TTOj.lEV; Whom are we hurting?
(2) Object of the thing effected, accusative of result, or (loosely) "direct
object": a thing (often but not always concrete) which is brought into
existence, produced, or effected by an action and which continues to
exist as a temporary or enduring result is expressed in the accusative
case.
7TOL7}j.lam ypaqm. She writes poems.
122 UNIT SEVENTEEN
a(J7rioa<; 7roLEt. He makes shields.

cpoj3ov 7fOLOVa"W. They create (cause) fear.
(3) Internal object, internal accusative, "cognate" object or accusative,
accusative of the content: 1 an abstract thing (usually a noun of
action) which is brought into existence by an action and the existence
of which is coextensive with the action (that is, the object has no
existence external to the action of the verb) is expressed in the
accusative case. The internal accusative is sometimes etymologically
related (cognate) to the verb itself, but is often a noun of related
meaning or a neuter pronoun or neuter adjective (a noun of related
meaning being understood). Stylistically, the motivation for using an
internal object is often the desire to attach adjectives to the internal-
object noun.
He lived a long and peacejullJk..
You ran a very fast race.
He struck several blows upon the boy's back.
OL7fAryv 7fAYTY~V E7fAYTTTE. He was striking a double stroke.
OL7fAryv 7fAYTY~V ETV7fTE. He was striking a double blow.
EVX0/J-aL T~V EVX~V T~VOE. I pray the following prayer.
cpopov cpEpOVcrW. They pay tribute.
Ti j3AG.7fTO/J-W; What harm are we doing?
[in English we cannot idiomatically say What (harm) are
we harming?]
You do good (doings).
= You do good things.
= You benefit . .. [someone].
She does bad (doings).
= She does bad things.
= She harms . .. [someone].
\. As the lists of terms show, there is considerable variety in the terminology used by
grammarians to describe the different types of accusative object. Note that type (2) shares some
characteristics of both type (I) and type (3). The object of the thing effected, type (2), may be
considered an "external object" (in a wider sense) because the object is something which exists
after the action has ceased and so is "external" to it; cf. type (I). On the other hand, type (2)
shares with type (3) the characteristic that the object does not exist prior to the action and is
thus, in origin, "internal" to the action. Moreover, an object of the thing effected can be
"cognate" with its verb just as type (3) is: 7T"onlJ.1.aTa 7T"OLEL. But type (2) again sides with type
(I) in the distinction between transitive and intransitive verbs: verbs with objects of these two
types are transitive, they need the object to complete the sense of the verb. Intransitive verbs, on
the other hand, may have only an internal object, type (3): this object is either dispensable to the
sense or present only to make possible the use of a modifier qualifying the action.
Indefinite TtS'; Uses of the Accusative 123
TOlno EiJX0/J-aL. I pray this prayer.

=I make this prayer.
A transitive verb may have both an internal accusative (double un-
derline below) and a direct object (single underline) at the same time:
TOVI) 7roAiTal) ayal1a7rOLELI). You do good doings (to) the citizens.
=You benefit the citizens.
, , ",
TOVI) 7raTEpal) KaKaE7rOWVV. They were doing bad doings (to) their
fathers.
= They were harming their fathers.
(In) what are we harming those women?
=What harm are we doing to those
women?
Verbs that normally govern a complement in the genitive or dative
may take an internal accusative:
KaT'flYopw TOV (TTpaT71YOV.
I accuse the general. (gen. complement)
TOVTO KaT71YOpw TOV (TTpaT71YOV.
I make this accusation against the general.
(I accuse the general this accusation.)
E7rEiI1HrI1E TOLl) 'AI171vaioLI). You used to obey
the Athenians. (dat. complement)
mvm E7rEiI1EfTI1E TOLl) 'AI171vaioLI).
You used to obey the Athenians in these matters.
(You used to obey the Athenians these obeyings.)
The internal accusative construction is much more at home in Greek
idiom than in English. Note that it is often convenient or necessary to
translate a Greek verb with internal accusative other than literally. In
some cases it is best to use the English catch-all verbs make or do
and express the verbal action in a noun (What harm are we doing? I
make this accusation.); in others, a prepositional phrase (esp. with in
or in respect to) may be appropriate (I obey them in this).
b. Internal Accusative with Adjectives. Verb phrases consisting of cop-
ula (to be) and predicate adjective sometimes take an internal accusative, and
this usage is also extended sometimes to the adjective alone used outside such
a copula phrase.
fToCPOI) EfTTW. He is wise.
fToCPOI) EfTTL TrJV TWV 7rOL71TWV fTocpiav.
He is wise in the wisdom of the poets.
124 UNIT SEVENTEEN
oTaVT1JV T~V ()ocpiav ()ocpor; EV 7TpaTTH.

The man who is wise in this wisdom fares well.
c. Accusative of Extent of Space or Duration of Time
( 1) The space over which a motion takes place or the extent of space
(how far?) is expressed in the accusative case.
aYH T~V ()TpanaV ()TEVar; ooovr;.
He leads the army along (over) narrow roads.
ayH T~V ()TpanaV ()TaOW OKTw.
He leads the army eight stades (= one mile).
o7TOTaJJ.or; OEKa ()TaOW a7TELXE.
The river was ten stades (= 1.25 miles) away.
(2) Duration of time (how long?) is expressed in the accusative case.
EVTav8a JJ.EVOV()W E7TTa r,JJ.Epar;.
They remain there (for) seven days.
d. Accusative of Respect or Specification. The accusative case is used to

express the thing in respect to which an adjective or verb phrase denoting a
state is applicable.
oi 'AerJVa'io~ OWCPEpOV()L T~V ()ocpiav. The Athenians excel in cleverness.
7ToOar; wKvr; swift in respect to the feet, swift-footed
7TOTaJJ.or; Kvovor; ovoJJ.a a river Kydnos by name
e. Adverbial Accusative. Some words and phrases originally used as in-

ternal accusatives became frozen as abverbial forms, and this usage is known
as the adverbial accusative. Here are some typical, idiomatic examples:
,
n; why? (neuter sing. acc. of interrogative)
TOVTOV TOV TP07TOV in this manner, in this way
TEAor; finally, at last
TO apxa'iov formerly, in the old days
f. Accusative Subject of Infinitive. This use was presented in U9.4.
4. Two Accusatives. In various circumstances there may be two accusa-

tive complements with one verb.
a. Some verbs have both an internal and an external (direct) object, as

illustrated in §3a(3) above.
b. Certain verbs (e.g., of asking, concealing, reminding) take two direct

objects, one a person and one a thing. (English idiom will have only one object
and a prepositional phrase for the other noun.)
Indefinite Ttl); Uses of the Accusative 125
Tav 7fa'ioa Tav Tr,~ }J.YJTpa~ eavaTov EKPV7fTOV.

They concealed from the boy his mother's death.
xp7}}J.QTa aLTEi TO'V~ 7foAiTa~.
He asks the citizens for money.
c. Verbs meaning to appoint, to choose, to consider, to make, to render,

or the like may take both a direct object (single underline below) and a
predicate accusative (either predicate noun or predicate adjective: double un-
derline).'
TOlnov Tav !LQ.~{D1l!.- (njJaT!rya~ VpOVVTO.
They were choosing (electing) this citizen (as, to be) general.
ciyQeOV~7fO~EiTE TOV~ (npaTLwTa~.
You are making the soldiers brave.
1. Study the indefinite pronoun TL(), H.

2. Study the uses of the accusative.
3. Learn the adverbial phrases under §3e above and the vocabulary of this
unit.
VOCABULARY
o-declension nouns
(nOG.oxaAo'>. (nOaCTKaAov, m. teacher; trainer of a chorus, producer of a play
l Didaskal ia, didactic]
CTTaowv. CTTQOLOV, n. stade (unit of length. about 600 ft. or 1/8 mile); race
alternative plural CTTaow~. course, single course (without a tum) [stadium]
CTTaoLwv, m.
CTTpan)7rEOov. CTTpaT07rEOOV, camp (of an army)
n.
<popo'>. <popov. m. payment, tribute
I. A construction of this kind may be considerd a transformation and embedding of a

subjectlcopulalpredicate-noun (or adj.) clause with the copula suppressed. In fact, in Greek the
infinitive f~vaL is sometimes expressed in this construction, just as to be may appear in English
versions.
Socrates is !?eneral. o };wKpaT1» rnpaT1)yo> f(J"TW.
They choose Socrates to be !?etleral. atpOVVTaL TOV };wKpaT1)V (J"TpaT1)yov f~VaL.
They elect Socrates !?eneral. atpOVVTaL TOV };wKpaT1)v (J"TpaT1)yov.
126 UNIT SEVENTEEN
a-declension nouns
EVX~. EVX77~,f. prayer, vow
7TA.7]y~. 7TA.7]y77~, f. blow. stroke [paraplegic]
rrocpia. rrocpia~, f. cleverness, skill; intelligence, wisdom, learning
[philosophy]
consonant-declension nouns
OVOlla. ovollaTo~, n. name [synonym, onomatopoeia]
7TOV~. 7To06~, m.' foot [octopus, podiatrist]
XP771la, xp~llaTO~, n. thing, matter, affair; (pl.) goods, property, money
[chrematistic]
verbs
oWCPEpw (ow) carry across; endure; differ, excel (+ gen. of person
or thing compared; sometimes + acc. of respect)
pray, pray for; profess openly, boast
speak against, accuse (+ gen. of person accused)
[category]
hide, cover, conceal [cryptographer]
strike [apoplexy]
adjectives, etc.
irrxvpo~. irrxvpa. irrxvpov strong, forceful, violent
, , ,
rrTEVO~. rrTEV7]. rrTEVOV narrow; close, confined [stenography]
n~. n (enclitic) (pron.) any, some, anyone, someone,
anything, something; (adj.) any, some, (a) certain
E7TTa (indeclinable)3 seven [heptagon]
, ,
OKTW (indeclinable) eight [octopus]
OEKa (indeclinable) ten [decade]
,
7TOTE when? (interrogative)
7TOTE (enclitic) at any time, ever; (idiomatically
reinforces a preceding interrogative: e.g., n~ 7TOTE
= who in the world?)
" ,
OV7TOTE. 1l7]7TOTE never
7TOV where? (interrogative)
7TOV (enclitic) somewhere, anywhere; to some degree,
perhaps
how? (interrogative)
7TW~ (enclitic) somehow, in any way, at all
1. The dat. pl. of 7TOVS' is 7TOcr[(V); the voc. sing. is 7TOVS'.

2. Non-Attic 7TA:rj(TlJ"w.
3. "Indeclinable" means that the word does not vary with case: the same fonn can accompany
any case of a noun.
Indefinite rtf; Uses of the Accusative 127
EXERCISES
I. Write in Greek. Remember that an enclitic cannot be placed first in a

sentence or isolated phrase: thus a certain measure by itself should be j.J.f.TpOV
TL, in that order (within a sentence one might find n j.J.f.TpOV, provided some
other element of the sentence precedes).
1. any leaders (dat.) 7. in return for a certain blow
2. a certain daughter (gen.) 8. next to a certain narrow road
3. certain Greeks (nom.) 9. some (acc.) ofthe hoplites
4. a certain clever soldier (acc.) 10. in the presence of any teacher
5. some small power (nom.) 11. with some goddesses
6. because of a certain one of the 12. in a certain one of the tents
prayers
II. Reading.
1. 6 TWV 'EA)u7VWV (JTpaTTJYo~ EV EKEtVTl Tn xWpq. OEKa i]j.J.Epa~ j.J.EVH KaL
xp~j.J.aTa Aaj.J.(3aVEL 7Tapa TWV (3ap(3apwv oi' f.7TL Tn 8aAaTTTl OLKOV(JW.
E¢0(30VVTO 0' oi YEPOVTE~ KaL ai j.J.TJTEPE~ imEp TWV 7TatOwV, aAA' 67TAI.Tat
TWE~ aya80L TOV~ vavTa~ KaKOV n 7TOLEI.V EKEtVOV~ EKWAVOV.
2. j.J.ETa TaVTa i] (JTpana EAaVVEL f7TTa (JTaOLa KaL a</nKVEl.TaL Ei~ 7TOTaj.J.OV
XaAov ovoj.J.a KaL EL~ YE¢vpav TLV' apXataV 17v E¢vAaTTE 7TAf]8o~ avopwv
L~VPWV,
3. KaTTJYOPH j.J.EV 6 oLoa(JKaAo~. E¢EVYEI 0' 6 KAwt. EOtKa(OV 0' oi
7T AOV(JLOL.
4. TO j.J.EV 7TPOTEPOV (3ovAEVj.J.a oiJTW~ yt YVETaL. TO 0' V(JTEPOV ~OE' TO
7TAf]8o~ T<{1 6.TJj.J.O(J8EVEL E7TEt8ETO.
5. E(~TOVV
, ,
oi yEpOVTH TO. apXal.a ypaj.J.j.J.aTa. aAA' imo 7TaLotwv TLVWV
EKpV7TTETO.
1. Who must excel in this wisdom? A teacher.
2. At that time you (pI.) were making those dreadful accusations against the
guide.
3. Somebody was guiding the soldiers away from the enemy's camp along a
narrow road.
4. He wanted to conceal his feet somehow, but his (tutelary) divinity always
used to prevent (it).
5. They are asking the beast [i.e., Chiron, the only just and wise centaur] for
water, for he is in a certain way friendly to human beings.
6. How and where must one seek the truth?
1. Here cpdryw is used in a legal idiom, "flee a charge," so "be a defendant (in a court case)."
UNIT EIGHTEEN
n- Verbs: Future Active and Middle

Indicative
I. Future Principal Part. The second principal part of a Greek verb is

the first person singular future active indicative form (or if the active is lack-
ing, the first person singular future middle indicative form). This form
provides the tense stem from which are formed the future indicative, optative,
infinitive, and participle in both active and middle voices.
2. Formation of Future Stem. The safest way to recognize or to be able

to form the future of a given verb is to know the principal parts of the verb.
But it is also useful to know some of the basic patterns involved in formation
of the future stem, as this helps in learning principal parts and helps in
interpreting future forms you come across for the first time in reading.
The future stem is commonly formed by the addition of sigma to a simple
form of the verb stem (the verb stem is not always obvious from the present:
further discussion of this in U 19.8).
Ex. present stem + (J future stem
"
ayw ay- + (J ut-
aKOVW aKOV- + (J UKOV(J-
PAG.7rTW pAa(3- + (J pAa'-f!-
7rEi8w 7rEL8- + (J 7rEL(J-
,
7rpaTTW 7rpay- + (J 7rpat-
,
7rOtEW 7rOtE - + (J 7rOt YJIJ-
cptAEw cptAE - + (J cptAYJIJ-
Note that stems ending in labial (;3, 7T, <p) or velar (y, K, X) plosives form a
double consonant (t, ~) in-the future stem, whereas stems ending in a dental
(0, 8) plosive lose the dental before the sigma of the future. In verbs in -EW it is
normal for the E of the stem to be lengthened to I) in the formation of the other
principal parts, though there are a few verbs which show no lengthening (e.g.,
E7TawEw, E7TawE(Jw).
128
.12-Verbs: Future Active and Middle Indicative 129
Under the influence of verbs in -EW, a number of verbs which do not have
E in the present stem nevertheless have YJ (i.e., lengthened E) inserted before the
sigma of the future (and in some other principal parts as well):
jJ.av8o..vw jJ.a8- + E + CT jJ.a81]CT-
poVAOjJ.aL ;30VA- + E + CT f30VA1]CT-
yLyvOjJ.aL YEV- + E + CT yEVrw-
E8EAW E(JEA-+E+CT E(JEA1]CT-
3. Conjugation of Future Indicative. The future is conjugated by the ad-

dition of theme vowel 0/ E and primary personal endings to the future stem.
Primary endings are used because the future refers to future time or to inten-
tion in present time. The combinations of theme vowel plus personal endings
are thus exactly the same as in the present indicative (only the stem differs).
The accent is recessive, as usual for finite forms. The English equivalent of the
future uses the modal verb shall or will, as in I shall lead, you will go, and so
on.
FUTURE INDICATIVE OF ayw AND clKOVW
active middle
---
sing. 1st atw aKOVCTOjJ.aL

2nd atm aKovCTTI
3Td atH aKOVCTETaL
(dual 2nd atETov clKOVCTW(JOV)
(3Td atETov clKOVCTW(JOV)
plur. 1st atojJ.EV clKOvCTojJ.E(Ja

2nd attTE clKOVCTW(JE
3Td atovCTL(V) aKOVCTOVTaL
4. Future Infinitives. The future active and future middle infinitives have
the same endings as the corresponding present infinitives (-EW, -WeaL), and
the accent again falls on the final syllable of the stem .
future active . d "t
In .: asw
.if. "t
In .: asEW
ind.: ypatw in/: ypatEw
future middle ind.: atOfJ-aL in/: atweaL
ind.: aKolxTOfJ-aL in/: aKOV(}ECTeaL
The uses of the future infinitive will be learned later. When the future infin-
itive is used in isolation in an exercise, it is convenient to translate it with the
paraphrase about to X (AEtEW = about to say).
130 UNIT EIGHTEEN
5. Contract Futures. Some verbs, especially those whose stems end in a

liquid (A.. p) or nasal (j1.. v), have E inserted between the verb stem and the
tense suffix sigma. In this case the E was not lengthened and (as often happens
in the development of Greek forms) the intervocalic sigma dropped out and (in
Attic) the remaining vowels suffered contraction. The resulting endings are the
same as those of the present of verbs in -EW.
present stem + E + 0- future stem
(o:rro) 8vilo-Kw 8av + E + (0-) 8avE-

(3aAAw j3aA- + E + (0-) (3aAE-
,
J.lEVW J.lEV- + E + (0-) J.lEVE-
,
J.laX°J.lat J.lax- + E + (0-) J.laXE-
7TL7TTW 7TEo-- + E + (0-) 7TEo-E -
FUTURE OF j3aAAw AND ().7T08Vilo-KW
active indo middle indo

stem: j3aAE- C!.7T08aVE -
sing. 1st j3aAw cJ.7To8avovJ.lat

2nd j3aMis cJ.7To8avii
3rd j3aMi cJ.7To8aVElTat
(dual 2nd j3aAElTov cJ.7To8avElo-8ov)
(3rd j3aAElTOv cJ.7To8avElo-8ov)
plur. 1st (3aAOVJ.lEV cJ.7To8avoVJ.lE8a
2nd j3aAElTE cJ.7To8avElo-8E
3rd j3aAovo-d v) cJ.7To8avovVTat
infinitive j3aAElv cJ.7To8avElo-8at
6. Attic Futures. In certain verbs the future involves contraction in Attic

and some other dialects, but not in Koine. Later grammarians called this class
of futures the Attic future because they encountered it most often in Attic
literature. There are two types of Attic future:
a. A few verbs with stems ending in E or a lose the sigma of the future
and undergo contraction. The a-type will be learned later (U29). The most
common word of the E-type is KaA.EW, present stem KaA.E-, future stem KaA.E- +
(0-) =KaA.E- (for this verb the present and future forms end up looking identical
in Attic).
.f2- Verbs: Future Active and Middle Indicative 131
b. Verbs of more than two syllables with present-tense suffix -i(w have
an alternative future-tense suffix (J"E- (instead of (J").l (was eliminated before
the future suffix, the sigma dropped out, and contraction took place. For
instance, vO}J-i(w -> fut. *VO}J-L(J"EW -> VO}J-LEW -> VO}J-LW (inflected like
f3aAw).
7. Note on Terminology. The future middle is called "middle" rather

than "middle/passive" because there is a separate future form, based on a dif-
ferent tense stem, that has traditionally been termed "future passive" by gram-
marians (to be learned in U35). In fact the future "middle" is a middle/passive
form and in many verbs it can be translated as a passive:
Ex. 6 OiKaw) TOU) 7TOAiTa) WCPEAEl:V ad AEtETaL.
The just man will always be said to benefit his fellow citizens.
8. Future of Ei}J-i and xpr,. Ei}J-i has a future middle, with stem E(J"-; the
future middle info is E(J"E(J"8aL.
1st EO"O}laL EO"O}lE8a

2nd "
EO"?1 (EO"w8ov) EO"E0"8E
3rd "
EO"TaL (EO"w8ov) "
EO"OVTaL
Note the elimination of theme vowel E in 3rd sing. E(J"TaL. The future of xpr, is
XP17(J"TaL = it will be necessary, a contraction of xpr, (noun) + E(J"TaL (fut. of
Ei}J-i).
1. Learn the various types of future conjugation presented above.

2. Learn the future principal parts of the verbs learned to date (these are
compiled in the Appendix at the end of this unit). Note that in this book the
future principal part is always given in its uncontracted form for the sake
of clarity; in many books and dictionaries only the contracted form is
listed.
1. This alternative suffix produces variant futures in a few other verbs: e.g., cf>f1;yw has future
middle (future active lacking) cf>Ev~O/Aat (with normal suffix) or cf>EV~ofj/Aat (from cf>EV~{O/Aat,
from the suffix O"E-),
132 UNIT EIGHTEEN
VOCABULARY
Studying the principal parts of the verbs learned to date will be a major
assignment in the next two units as well. You may wish to begin learning the
third principal part along with the second as you study the list in the appendix
of this unit, and from this unit on the first three principal parts are given for
new verbs in the Vocabulary.
w-verbs
KaAEW, KaAEw, EKuAE~a call, summon; call by name, name [ecclesiastic]
JlaVeUVw, Jlae~~OJlaL, learn; perceive; understand [mathematics]
EJlaeOV'
JlEAAW, JlEAA~~W, be destined to, be likely to (+ inf.); be about to (+ fut.
EJlEAA1wa2 inf.); delay (+ pres. inf.)
vOJli(w, VOJlLEW, EVOJlL~a have as a custom; acknowledge, consider as; believe,
think (+ info of indirect discourse [U20])
[numismatics]
fall [peripety]
negative conjunctions
OVOE, JlTJOE and not, but not; (adverb) not even
OVTE . . . OVTE, neither ... nor
, ,
flYl TE . . . Jl1JTE
particle
9
W o! (exclamatory particle that often accompanies
vocatives, often best left untranslated in English)
EXERCISES
I. Translate each form precisely.
1. KaAEL(]-ea~ 7. f3aAELv 13. a7TOeavE L~eE
2. J.laerWo J.lE ea 8. EvtHTeE 14. KotETa~
3. V0J.lWl)(TL 9. OE~(TOJ.la~ 15. EtE(TTa~
4. 7TE~ovvTa~ 10. Owi(TEL~ 16. 7TapaKEAd)(TETa~
5. aO~K~(TEL 11. AEit w 17. E7T~eVJ.l~(TW
' ,
6. a~T""(TETE 12. O~""(TETa~ 18. KpvtTl
I. Note that many verbs with active forms in the present have only middle forms in the future
(with the same meaning as the active). This is often true of verbs of perception or mental
activity (aKov(J"ol.t.aL, j1ae~(J"Oj1aL), but is also found in other verbs (cpEvtOj1aL, A~"tOj1aL, etc.).
2. This verb sometimes shows double augmentation: imperfect 17WAAOV as well as Ej1EAAOV,
aorist T,j1f.AATWa as well as Ej1f.AATwa.
.Q- Verbs: Future Active and Middle Indicative 133
,
19. ~1]()ELV 23. "
HTTI 27. A~if!OVTaL
20. acpEtojJ.EV 24. cpEVtovp.aL 28. CPOf3~(TELV
21. a7rOKTEVEL~ 25. 7rEP.if!ELV 29. AEtETE
, ,
22. acpitTl 26. 7rEiO"HT8aL 30. E7raLVEO"H
1. we shall not fare well 11. you (s.) will prevent
2. they will make a truce 12. they will guide
3. he will not fear 13. it will be written
4. about to be on one's guard 14. we shall be wronged
5. you (pI.) will be 15. she will carry
6. I shall be in training 16. I shall never fall
7. we shall throw 17. you (pI.) will tum
8. you (pI.) will be in need of 18. they will obey
9. it used to seem 19. it will be possible
10. about to have as a custom 20. he will suppose
III. Reading.
1. b..apEiov Kat. ITapv(J"(iTLoo~ [gen. of Parysatis, wife of Dareios II, king of
Persia 423-404 B.C.E.] yiYVOVTaL 7raLOE~ ovo [two]. E7rEt. [when] 6 o·
b..apELo~ EP.EAAE a7r08avEL0"8aL, Ef3ovAETo TOV~ 7raLOa~ 7rapELVaL [be
present, from 7rapa + Eip.i]. ayyEAov~ Of 7rEP.7rH oi.' KaAOVO"L Kvpov, 6 o·
acpLKVELTaL 7rapa TOV 7raTEpa. Vo"TEpOV o·
6 Kvpo~ 7rEPt. Tfi apxfi 7rPO~ TOV
aOEAcpov [brother] aoiKw~ p.aXELTaL Kat. o'ih' EV 7rpatH OVTE ViK1]V OrO"E-
o·
TaL, aAA' EV Tfi p.aXTl7rHTELTaL. TEAO~ 6 aOEAcpo~ aptH aVT' EKEivov.
2. OV7rOTE p.a8~O"Tl' ;;; 7rOV1]PE, ovo' EKELva TO. p.LKpa· KaAOV yap oatH TOL~
7rOAiTaL~ p.1] 7rEi8E()8aL TaVTa AEYELV P.~TE xp~jJ.a()L jJ.~TEI 7rA1]yaL~.
3. KEcpaAo~, 6 TOV Av()iov [gen. of Lysias] 7raT~p, 7rEi8ETaL P.fV 1mo ITEPL-
KAEOV~ [gen. of Pericles] Ei~ T1]V TWV 'A8YJvaiwv xwpav EPXE0"8aL, xpovov
Of p.aKpov EKEL oiKEL Kat. 7rAOVo"LO~ yiyvETaL.
1. The Greeks will choose the Athenians to be leaders.
2. This thing which I am about to say is wondrous, but I shall not conceal the
truth.
3. Neither the sailor nor the juror will ever do any harm to any of those rich
citizens.
4. The fact that not even the children are afraid will aid the army.
5. For the duration of those years we had ten triremes.
I. }J-~T€ • . • }J-~T€ is here to be translated as either . .. or. Formal English does not tolerate
double negatives; but Greek idiom often employs multiple negatives within a sentence for
el1}phasis.
134 UNIT EIGHTEEN
APPENDIX TO UNIT EIGHTEEN
The following list presents all the verbs learned in Units 8-20 with their
present, future, and aorist principal parts. The number preceding each verb
indicates the lesson in which it was first introduced. Use this list while
studying Units 18-20 to learn the principal parts. A long dash indicates that
the verb lacks a principal part and has no forms for that tense system. Contract
futures, like contract presents, are given in uncontracted form.
19 announce ayyf.AAw aYYEAf.W ~yYHAa

8 lead "
ayw a~w ~yayov
13 do wrong aOLKf.W aOLKryuw ~oiKYJua
13 seiz.e aipf.W aipryuw EiAOV (stem f.A-)
II perceive aiu8avoJlaL aiu8ryuoJlaL iW 80JlYJv
, ,
16 ask/or aiTf.w aLTYJUW nTYJua
II hear aKovw aKOVUOJlaL ~Kovua
16 lead away a7Tayw (a7To): see ayw
16 be distant a7Tf.xW (a7To): see EXW
8 die a7To8viWKW (a7To) a7To8avf.OJlaL a7Tf.8avov
, ,
II kill a7ToKTEivw (a7To) a7TOKTEVf.W a7TEKTHva
8 lead apxw ap~w ;'p~a
13 arrive acpLKVf.OJlaL (a7To) acpi~OJlaL acpLKOJl YJV
10 throw j3aAAw j3aAf.W Ej3aAov
9 harm j3Aa7TTw j3Aa",w Ej3Aa",a
II plan j30VAEvw j30VAEVUW Ej30vAEVua
II desire j3ovAOJlaL j3ovAryuOJlaL
, , ,
II become YLyvoJlaL YWYJuoJlaL EYEVOJlYJV
19 recogniz.e yLyvwUKw yvwUOJlaL EYVWV (U24)
8 write ypacpw ypa"'w Eypa"'a
,
II exercise yVJlva(w YVJlvauw
9 be necessary OEL: see Of.W
13 lack Of.W oE1juw
17 excel owCPf.pW (ow): see CPf.pW
II judge oLKa(w oLKauw
9 seem best OOKEL: see OOKf.W
13 seem Eoo~a
8 be willing ~8f.AYJua
19 saw ELOOV: see opaw
, ,
10 be HJlL "
EUOJlaL
19 said
fl- Verbs: Future Active and Middle Indicative 135
8 drive EAavvw EAaw (U29) ~Aa(m

19 hope EA7ri(w EA7rtEW ~A7TL(m
9 be possible "t EOTt ct)
E "
E : see EtfJ.t
' , , ,
16 praise hratvEw (hrtl E7m tv EfTW E7rIlvEfm
16 desire hrt8vfJ.EW (hrt) E7l"t8vfJ.-r]aw E7rE8vvrwa [ v J
8 entrust E7l"tTPE7rW (E7rtl: see TpE7rW
, ,
19 say [no present in Attic] EpEW "
Et7rOV "
or Et7ra
(stem E17r-)
II go EPX°fJ. at EAEVa0fJ.at ~Mov (stem
EM-)
' , , ,
JO find EVptaKw EVpYJaw '"
YJvpov
17 pray EVX°fJ. at EVt°fJ. at YJvtafJ.YJv
8 have EXW Etw and aX-r]aw Eaxov
16 seek (YJTEW (YJT-r]aw E(-r]TYJaa
' , , ,
16 lead. believe ~yEOfJ.at YJYYJa0fJ. at YJYYJaafJ.YJv
18 call KaAEw KaAEw EKaAEaa
,
17 accuse KaTYJyopEW (KaTa) KaTYJyop-r]aw KaTYJyopYJaa
9 order KEAEVW KEAEvaw EKEAEVaa
,
9 beat K07rTW KO"'W EKo"'a
,
13 be strong KpaTEw KpaTYJaw EKpaTYJaa
,
17 hide KPV7rTW KPV"'W EKpv"'a
16 prevent KWAVW [ v I KWAvaw [ v J EKwAvaa
8 take AafJ.j3avw A-r]"'0fJ.at EAaj30v
8 say AEYW AEtw EAEta
8 leave AEi7rw AEi",w EAt7l"OV
8 release AVW [ v J Avaw [ v J EAvaa
18 learn fJ.av8avw fJ.a8-r]a0fJ.at EfJ. a8ov
II fight fJ.aX°fJ. at fJ.axE0fJ.at EfJ.aXEaafJ.YJv
18 be about to fJ.EAAW fJ.E AA -r]aW EfJ.EAAYJaa
8 remain fJ.EVW fJ.EVEW "
EfJ.Etva
,
18 believe v0fJ.i(w V0fJ.tEW EVOfJ.taa
, , ,
13 be ill voaEW voaYJaw EVoaYJaa
' ,
13 dwell 01KEW OtKYJaw "
~KYJaa
,,
II suppose "
otOfJ.at "
or otfJ.at Ot YJa0fJ.at
19 see opaw (U28) O"'0fJ. at E(OOV (stem 10-)
16 lead astray 7rapayw (7rapa): see ayw
II exhort 7rapaKEAEV0fJ.at (7rapa): see KEAEVW (use middle forms)
,
I1 prepare 7rapaaKEva(w (7rapa) 7rapaaKEvaaw 7rapEaKEvaaa
16 furnish 7rapEXW (7rapa): see EXW
,
10 suffer 7raaxw 7rEta0fJ.at E7ra8ov
136 UNIT EIGHTEEN
8 persuade 7TEiew 7TEirrw "

E7THrra
,
8 send 7TEjJ.7TW 7TEjJ."'W E7TEjJ."'a
18 fall 7Ti7TTW 7TErrEojJ.aL E7TErrov
17 strike -7TAryTTw -7TArytw -E7TAT/ta
13 make 7TOtf.W 7ToLryrrw E7TOiT/ua
II be a citizen 7TOALTf.VW 7TOALTf.VrrW E7TOAiTf.vrra [ ;: I
10 do 7TpaTTw [ a I 7Tpatw [a I E7Tpata
,
9 befitting 7TpE7TH
II inquire 7Tvv8avojJ.aL 7TEvrrojJ.aL E7TV8ojJ.T/v
,
II pour libation rr7TEvow rr7THrrw EU7THrra
,
9 arrange TaTTW Tatw hata
16 turn TPE7TW TPE"'W ETpE",a and
hpa7Tov'
, ,
12 strike TV7TTW TV7TTT/rrw
8 bear CPEPW oLrrw 7]VEYKOV and
"
T/vEYKa
(stem EVEYK-)
8 flee CPEVYW cpEvtojJ.aL and ECPVYOV
cpEVtEojJ.aL
20 say cp1/jJ.i cpryrrw ECPiWa
13 love CPLAEW CPLAryuw EcpiAT/rra
13 frighten CPOPEW cpopryrrw EcpopT/Ua
16 guard cpvAaTTw cpvt..6.tw EcpvAata
9 be necessary xpry2 XP7]UTaL
13 help WCPEAEW wcpEAryrrw wcpEAT/rra
1. The second aorist is poetic and intransitive in sense; in prose the second aorist middle is used
with the intransitive meaning "fled."
2. Imperf. xp~v or Exp~V. inf. xp~vaL.
UNIT NINETEEN
o· Verbs: Aorist Active and Middle

Indicative
1. Aorist Principal Part. The third principal part of a Greek verb is the
first person singular aorist active indicative form (or if the active is lacking,
the first person singular aorist middle indicative form). This form provides the
tense stem from which are formed the aorist indicative, subjunctive, optative,
imperative, infinitive, and participle in both active and middle voices.
2. Formation of Aorist Stem. The safest way to recognize or to be able

to form the aorist of a given verb is to know the principal parts of the verb. But
it is also useful to know some of the basic patterns involved in formation of
the aorist stem, as this helps in learning principal parts and helps in recogniz-
ing aorist forms you come across for the first time in reading.
There are two types of aorist stem and two corresponding schemes of
aorist conjugation.
a. Strong aorist, traditionally called second aorist. This is the more

primitive type of inflection and is found in many of the most common and
basic verbs. (Cf. "irregular" verbs in modem languages, such as English break,
broke; teach, taught; bring, brought.) The strong aorist stem is usually a sim-
ple form of the verb stem itself with a weak-grade vowel, such as ii, E, C, V.
Ex. present aorist stem
j3o.Mw j3ur..-
r..UJ.l.j3o.vw r..uj3-
YLYVOJ.l.UL yEV-
7Ti7TTW 7THj-
r..Ei7TW r..L7T-
,
7TU(jXW 7TU$-
CPElJyw cpvy-
,
say (no pres.) EL7T-
see (no pres.) LO-
137
138 UNIT NINETEEN
present aorist stem

,
"
uyw ayuy-
EXW ax-
cpipw EVEYK-
EPXOjlUL Et..e-
The root form of a verb is not always obvious from the present principal part
(see further details on stem formation in §8 below). A few verbs (to see, to
say) have no present stem from the same root in Attic Greek. For a few verbs a
full conjugation is created by using etymologically distinct roots in different
principal parts: for instance, three separate roots in CPEPW, OL<TW, ijVEYKOV; two
separate roots in EPX0jJ.aL, hE"l)<TojJ.aL, l,Mov. A few primitive verbs show
reduplication (repetition of an identical or nearly identical syllable) in the
formation of the strong aorist: for instance, ayay- from root ay- of ayw;
EVEYK- from root *EYK-/*EVEK-.
b. Weak aorist, traditionally called first aorist. This is the (historically)
more recent type of inflection and is found in "younger" and derivative verbs.
(Cf. "regular" verbs in modem languages, such as English narrate, narrated;
walk, walked; type, typed.) The weak aorist stem commonly consists of a
simple form of the verb stem with sigma added, whence it is also sometimes
called sigmatic aorist. In some forms, however, the sigma has disappeared or
its presence has caused some modification in the verb stem. In particular,
(1) stems ending in labial (f3. 7T. cp) or velar (y. K. X) plosives form a
double consonant (t, ~) in the aorist stem;
(2) stems ending in a dental (0. 8) plosive or in t lose the consonant be-
fore the sigma of the aorist;
(3) stems ending in a liquid (A. p) or nasal (jJ., v) lose the sigma, but the
vowel of the preceding syllable is lengthened in compensation;
(4) in verbs in -EW it is normal for the E of the stem to be lengthened to YJ
in the formation of the aorist (as of other principal parts), though
there are a few verbs which show no lengthening (e.g., E7TawEw.
aorist E7T?1vE<Ta).
Ex. present stem + (J" aorist stem
,
UKOVW UKOV- + (J" UKOV(J"-
f.,:uw 'A.v- + (J" 'A.v(J"-
{3'A.G..7rTW {3'A.u{3- + (J" {3'A.u",-

7rPUTTW 7rpuy- + (J" 7rput-
7rEi$w 7rEL$- + (J" 7rEL(J"-
vOlli(w VOjlL(- + (J" vOIlL(J"-
.Q- Verbs: Aorist Active and Middle Indicative 139
present stem + 0" aorist stem

,
j.l.WW j.l.W + 0" j.l.EW-
aYYEAAw aYYEA- + 0" ayyELA-
7TOLEW 7TOLE- + 0" 7TOLTJO"-
Note that in some cases the aorist stem turns out to be identical to the future
stem (the actual conjugated fonns will nevertheless almost always be distinct).
When you know a verb's principal parts, you know the aorist stem: to ob-
tain it, simply remove the augment and remove the ending.
3. Conjugation of Aorist Indicative. The aorist indicative is more or less

equivalent to the English simple past tense and so is a secondary tense in
Greek. Accordingly the aorist indicative has augment, like the imperfect, and
the personal endings are secondary endings. The accent is recessive, as usual
for finite fonns.
a. The strong aorist indicative is fonned by adding syllabic or temporal

augment to the front of the aorist stem and adding theme vowel 0/ E and sec-
ondary personal endings at the end of the stem. The combinations of theme
vowel plus personal endings are thus exactly the same as those found in the
imperfect indicative, but the tense stem differs.
STRONG AORIST INDICATIVE
active of AEi7TW middle ofyiyvoj.l.aL

aorist stem: Am- yw-
' ,
sing. 1st EAmov EYwoj.l.TJv
2nd EAmE> EyEvovl
, ,
3rd EAmdv) EywHO
(dual 2nd EAi7THOV EyEVE0"8ov)
(3rd EAmhTJv EYWE0"8TJv)
plural 1st EAi7TOj.l.EV EywOj.l.E8a
2nd EAi7TETE EyEVE0"8E
' ,
3rd EAmov EYWOVTO
b. The weak aorist indicative is fonned by adding syllabic or temporal

augment to the front of the aorist stem and by adding tense vowel ii and sec-
ondary personal endings at the end of the stem. The tense vowel appears in all
fonns except the third person singular active, where E appears (with no per-
I. From *fyEVda-)o.
140 UNIT NINETEEN
sonal ending, but nu movable may be added). The personal endings are the
same as those learned in U 16.3, except for the first person singular active
(where nothing is added to a). In the second person singular middle, the sigma
is dropped from -acro, and -0.0 contracts in Attic to -w.
WEAK AORIST INDICATIVE
AV(JJ, aorist stem: AlXT-

active endings middle endings
sing. Jst EAv(ja -ii EAV(j(J.j.J."I)V -aj.J."I)V

2nd EAv(ja, -ii, EAV(j(JJ -(JJ I*-iik)o]
3rd EAV(jdv) -((v) EAv(jaTo -iiTO
[dual 2nd EAv(jaTov (-iiTOV) EAv(ja(j8o!J (-ii(j8ov) ]
[3rd EAv(jaT"I)V (-iiT"I)V) EAV(j(J.(j8"1)v (-ii(j8"1)v) ]
plur. Jst EAV(jaj.J.f.V -ii)J.f.V EAV(ja)J.E8a -iij.J.E8a
2nd EAv(jaTE -aTE EAv(ja(j8E -ii(j8E
3rd EAv(jav -av EAv(javTo -aVTO
4. Aorist Infinitives
a. The strong aorist infinitives are fonned by adding to the aorist stem
(N.B. no augment) the active ending -EW (= theme vowel E + EV) or the middle
ending -E(JBa~ (= theme vowel E + creu~) and accenting the theme vowel (pro-
ducing a circumflex in the contracted active fonn). Accentuation of the theme
vowel is a distinguishing trait of strong aorist infinitives and participles.'
Ex. (active) AmEi:v, ioEi:v, ayuYELv, crXELV
(middle) yEVE(JBu~, ayuyEcreu~
b. The weak aorist infinitives are fonned by adding to the aorist stem
(N.B. no augment) the active ending -UL or the middle ending -ucreuL (= tense
vowel a + creaL) and accenting the final syllable of the stem (the accent of the
active info will be a circumflex if it falls on a long vowel, since final -UL counts
as short).
Ex. (active) AVcrUL, POVAEVIJUL, vO}J.icru~. pAcnvuL
(middle) AvcrUIJeUL, (3ovAEVIJucreuL
The uses of the aorist infinitive will be learned later. When the aorist infinitive
is used in isolation in an exercise, it should be translated in the same way as
the present, to X (AEtUL = to say).
I. And as will be seen later (U41) also in a very few imperative fonns.
----------- -------------- ------------
5. Translation of Aorist Indicative. The aorist indicative corresponds in

general to the English simple past: EAv(J"a = I released, EAV(J"UIll]V = I ran-
somed. A more detailed discussion of aorist aspect and possible translations
will be presented in U20.
6. Note on Terminology. The aorist middle is called "middle" rather than

"middle/passive" because there is a separate aorist passive form, based on a
different tense stem (to be learned in U35). In fact, strong aorist middle forms
are sometimes found with passive meaning in early poetry and early prose, but
in classical Attic usage this passive use of the aorist middle form is confined to
EaXOIll]V, from EXW (and compounds). The weak aorist middle is sometimes
used intransitively or reflexively, but it cannot be used with a passive meaning.
7. Two Aorists of CPEPW and ELnov. From the earliest period of classical
Greek there already existed weak aorist alternative forms for 1jVEYKOV (aorist
of cpEpW) and ELnov, namely 1jvEYKa and ELna. For instance, ELna'>, and not
ELnE'>, was the normal second singular form in Attic. In postc\assical Greek
prose the a-endings also appear sometimes in other strong aorist verbs (e.g.,
Enwav for EnE(J"ov in Polybius).
8. The Formation of Tense Stems. This section contains optional infor-

mation for the curious student. It may make the variety of Greek principal
parts somewhat more understandable and learnable.
a. Present stems are derived from verb roots in a variety of ways:

(l) simple root without suffix: e.g., AVW. IlEVW. nEi8w. nOLEw;
(2) labial plosive stems with present suffix T: e.g., (3AanTW from f3Aa(3-,
KCJ7rTW from Kon-. KpvnTw from KpVcp-;
(3) with present suffix semi vocalic iota (y), which has always disap-
peared while producing euphonic changes (changes made for the
sake of ease of pronunciation):
(a) added to dental stems, such as KOlli(w from KOIlLO-. EAni(w from
EA7rLO- [but note that -L(W and -a(w were productive suffixes in
their own right, as in vOlli(w from VOIlO'> or napa(J"KEvu(W from
(J"KEV1j] ;
(b) added to stems in y, such as apnu(w from apnay-;
(c) added to velar plosive stems, producing Attic -TT- and non-Attic
-(J"(J"-, e.g., CPVAUTTW (cpvAaK-). npuTTw (npay-), TUTTW (TaY-);
(d) added to stems in liquid or nasal, producing either a doubling of
A or a compensatory lengthening and alteration of the vowel
preceding v: e.g., ayyEAAw (aYYEA-). PUAAW (paA-). cpaivw
(cpav-). KTdvw (KTEV-);
142 UNIT NINETEEN
(4) with present suffix ending in v, often involving the insertion of jJ. or v
within the present-tense verb stem (nasal infix): e.g., AajJ.[3cww from
Aa(3- (suffix av, infix jJ.), EAavvw from EAa-, 7rVv8cwojJ.aL from 7rv8-
(suffix av, infix v), jJ.av8uvw from jJ.a8- (suffix av, infix v);
(5) with present suffix -U"KW or -LU"KW (usually with inceptive meaning,
i.e., "beginning to X, becoming X," or the like): e.g., 8vfwKW from
root 8v1]- (a variant of root 8av-), YLYVWu"KW from root yvw-, 7ruU"xw
from root 7ra8- (*7ra8U"Kw - > 7ruU"xw by elimination of 8 and trans-
ference of its aspiration to K [assimilation]).
b. Reduplication (repetition of the initial sound) occurs in some tense

stems. In the perfect stem reduplication with the vowel E is regular, as will be
seen in U37 (e.g., AEAoma, yEyova). Some present stems feature iota-redupli-
cation: for instance, yiyvojJ.aL from root y(dv-, YLYVWu"KW from root yvw-,
7ri7rTW from root 7r(dT- (alternative form 7rEU"-), and several jJ.L-verbs (to be
learned in U23). As mentioned above (§2a), a few aorist stems are formed by
reduplication criyayov, 1/VEYKOV).
c. Variation in vowel grade is common in the different tense stems from

the same root. The consonants of the root stay the same, but the central vowel
shifts in quality or quantity (cf. in English sink, sank, sunk; eat, ate). For
example, AEi7rw (strong E-grade), EAL7rOV (weak grade), perfect AEAoL7ra
(strong o-grade); AajJ.(3uvw, ArytojJ.aL (strong grade), EAapov; yiyvojJ.aL (zero
grade yv), EyWOjJ.1]V (E grade), perfect YEyova (0 grade). In some verbs the
shift in quantity of the vowel is accompanied by a shift in position of the
consonants (metathesis): weak grade 8av- in future and aorist, strong grade
8v1]- in present and perfect; weak grade KaA- in present, future, and aorist,
strong grade KA1]- in perfect.
d. The verb EXW has interesting variations of stem. The root was *U"EX-
(with zero grade U"X-, still evident in the aorist). Initial sigma before a vowel
normally disappeared in Greek, replaced by the h-sound. But the expected root
*EX- does not appear in the present because of a phonetic rule (Grassmann's
law): normally in Greek when two successive syllables contain an aspiration,
one of the aspirations is lost (dissimilation). Thus the present is EXW, but in the
future, where the aspiration of the X is lost in its combination with suffix u", the
initial aspiration survives in E~W. The alternative future of EXW is formed from
the root U"X- with E (lengthened) added before the suffix U": U"XryU"w.
1. Learn the two types of aorist conjugation presented above.

2. Learn the aorist principal parts of the verbs learned to date (these are com-
piled in the Appendix of Unit 18).
VOCABULARY
w-verbs
ayyEAAw. aYYEAEw. bear a message, announce, report
~YYHAa
, ,
yLYVWU"KW. YVWU"OjJ.aL. come to know, get to know; perceive; think, judge
t'yvwv l [agnostic]
EZOOV (stem io-), fut. o"ljlojJ.aL 2 (aorist) saw [optics]
EZ7TOV (stem Ei7T-), fut. EPEW 3 (aorist) said
EA7Ti(w. EA7TLEW. ~A7TLU"a expect; hope for, hope
adjective/pronouns
G.AAo<;. G.AAT/. G.AAo 4 another, other [allomorph, allegory]
ETf.pO~t {TEpa, ETEPOV one of two, the other of two [heterodox]
EKaTEpo), EKaTEpa, EKaTEpov each of two
EKaU"To<;. EKQ.U"TT/. EKaU"Tov each (of more than two)
EKQ.G"TOTE (adv.) on each occasion, each time
EXERCISES
1. ayyEAELv 11. "
YJvpojJ.w 21. EKpvtaTE
' ,
2. aYYELAaL 12. YJYYJU"aTo 22. OL71VEYKOV
3. "
YJyayE'~ 13. jJ.WELV 23. ELAOjJ.W
, ,
4. EAEU"8aL 14. jJ.WEW 24. yVjJ.vaU"w
, ,
5. iw 8ojJ.E8a 15. 7TapEKEAE1)U"W
' ,
25. EyvjJ.vaU"w
6. 7TapEU"Xov 16. EU"7TELU"allTO 26. (YJTfWaL
' ,
7. E(3aAE'~ 17. EjJ.axov 27. .ryMw
8. Ef3aAAE~ 18. a7Toax~U"w 28. jJ.ax EU"aU"8aL
9. YJVqKHE 19. ~afaU"XELv 29. E7TV8ov
10. EOOtE 20. EyWHO 30. jJ.a(Mv
I. A }.tL-verb aorist, to be learned in U24; for now simply learn the principal part.
2. Present (from another stem) opaw, to be learned in U29; you may wish to learn this now as
first principal part.
3. No present from these roots in Attic; for present system AEyw or cj>1)}.tL is used.
4. Note the pronominal ending -0 instead of -ov in the neuter nom. acc. voc. sing.
144 UNIT NINETEEN
31. (J.7TE8aVE 33. EL7fE'iV 35. EcpvAatavTO

32. ~A7fi(mTE "
34. TJjJ.EV 36. ~ptajJ.EV
I. to provide (aor.) 19. about to kill
2. we fell 20. to choose (aor.)
3. to bear (aor.) 21. she died
4. we fled 22. you (sing.) throw
5. you (sing.) saw 23. I shall hope
6. they led astray 24. we saw
7. they were leading astray 25. they led away
8. to acquire [= aor. of to have] 26. to entrust (aor.)
9. they announce 27. it was necessary
10. about to have as a custom 28. we learned by inquiry
II. she said 29. I shall fall
12. you (pI.) became 30. to hope (aor.)
13. to summon (aor.) 31. it was possible
14. we arrived 32. to praise (aor.)
15. we deliberated 33. to ransom (aor.)
16. she will hear 34. you (sing.) went
17. to prevent (aor.) 35. I shall excel
18. they participated in a lawsuit 36. we wrote
III. Reading.
I. Ot E7f1. Tfl 8aAaTTTl TO. jJ.Ev aAAa EV E7fpaTTOV, KaKW~ oE E7faCTXOV iJ7fo
TWWV TWV 7fOAEjJ.iwv oi' T~V xwpav aEI. ECPEPOV Kal. ~yOV. J
2. 6 KEcpaAo~ Kal. Ot 7faiOH hTJ TpLaKovm [30] EKE'i C(JKTJCTaV Kal. OiKTJV OVTE
EOLKaCTavTo 7fOTE OVTE ECPVYOV' 2 OVTE yap EKE'iVOL TOV~ aAAOV~ KaKa
E7foiTJCTaV OVTE Ot aAAOL EKEivov~ ~OiKTJCTav. E7fEI. [when] oE Ol)TOL Ot
7fOVTJpOI. T~V apx~v ELAOV, TOV jJ.Ev OoAEjJ.apxov OLa TO. xp~jJ.aTa
a7fEKTEWaV, 6 OE AVCTia~ xaAE7fW~ T~V xwpav EAL7fEV. aAAa TEAO~ Ot Tr,~
OTJjJ.oKpaTia~ CTVjJ.jJ.axoL EKpaTTJCTaV Kal. EKE'iVO~ TWV avoCTiwv
KaTTJyop~CTaTo' OEWO~ yap ~v AEyELV.
3. 7fPO~ TOV CTTpaTTJYov ~MEV 6 aYYEAo~ Kal. E/,7fEV' "ELOOV TOV~ 7fOAEjJ.iov~
7fPO~ m'i~ E7fTa 7fVAaL~ [gates]. Ti~ EV EKaCTTTl 3 Tfl 7fVATl iJ7fEp TWV 7fOAL-
TWV jJ.aXE'imL; TiCTL 8EO'i~ KEAEVCTW Ta~ jJ.TJTEpa~ EVXEIJ8aL; 7fW~ ViKTJ
yEV~CTETaL; Ti xp~ 7fOLE'iV;" 6 oE EL7fEV' "Ol! OE'i cpoj3E'iCT8aL' CTOCPW~ yap
TOV~ CTTpaTLWm~ 7fEPI. TO. TEiXTJ hata. "
a
1. Idiom cptiPHV KaL yHV =plunder.
2. For the idiom OLKTJV t'cpvyov. cf. UI7 Ex. II.3.
3. EKaO"To> as adjective may be used either with a noun without the article or in predicate
position with a noun with the article. as here.
UNIT TWENTY
Tense and Aspect; Indirect Discourse
1. Time versus Aspect. Greek tense stems convey time distinctions in

most uses of the indicative and in a few uses of the infinitive and participle.
But the fundamental distinction conveyed by Greek tense stems is one of
aspect, that is, of the type of action or state of being denoted in terms of
completion vs. noncompletion, customary action vs. single occurrence, general
truth vs. a specific occurrence, or some similar distinction.
Aspectual distinctions of the type of action denoted by a verb are espe-
cially clear in the case of certain verbs which are used exclusively or predom-
inantly with one kind of aspect or which have noticeably different senses in
different tense systems. Certain actions by their very nature must take place
over an extended period of time (the occurrence cannot be fixed at one point
on a time line) or do not include conceptually the intended completion of the
action. Other actions by their very nature must take place at an instant (at one
point on a time line), or they include conceptually the intended completion of
the action. For illustration, consider the contrasts between the following pairs
of verbs:
to seek to find
to look to perceive, to see
to believe to realize, to learn
to go, to travel to arrive, to depart
to urge to persuade, to convince
to be to become
to cry to burst into tears
to be dying to die
The type of action exemplified by the left-hand column is that expressed by
the present stem; some verbs with such meanings have a present stem but no
aorist stem (EijJ.l., EPX0jJ.aL). The type of action exemplified by the right-hand
column is that expressed by the aorist stem; some verbs with such meanings
have an aorist stem but no present stem (Eioov, ryA(1ov), or the aorist may show
most clearly the verbal root while the present stem is formed secondarily by
145
146 UNIT TWENTY
the addition of reduplication and/or a suffix that marks the change in aspect
(EyEVOjJ.YlV vs. yi yvojJ.a~. E/.w8ov vs. jJ.av8avw. a7TE8avov vs. a7To8vyl(]"Kw).
2. Present-stem Aspect. The present stem has the aspect of action not yet
completed, or in progress, repeated, customary, or pertaining to general truth:
AEYW
I am talking (action in progress)
7TEi8w
I am urging (persuasion, the intended effect of the action on the speaker,
is not yet complete)
7TOAAaK~1) owpa <PEpW.
I often bring gifts. (repeated action)
OL f3apf3apo~ TOLl) 7TaTpam 7TEi8oVTa~.
The foreigners obey their fathers. (customary action)
6 (J"o<POI) T~V aA1j8Ewv (YITEL.
A wise man (always, in general) pursues the truth. (general truth)
This force of the present stem is evident throughout the present system, not
just in the present indicative. The imperfect is a past tense with the aspect of
continuous or incomplete or repeated or customary action:
TaVTa EAqOV.
I was saying these things (at a particular moment).
7TOAAaK~1) owpa E<PEPOV.
I often used to bring gifts.
EKa(J"ToTE TOV (J"TpaTYlYov E7TylVOVV.
On each occasion they praised the general.
Likewise the present infinitive in most uses has aspect meaning rather than
time meaning: it refers to continuous or customary action: I
OL 7ToA'iTa~ aya80L ELva~ f30VAOVTa~.
The citizens want to be brave (on all occasions, in general).
xaAE7TOV TO <PEVYEW.
It is difficult to be in exile. (exile is a lasting state, not isolated at one
point in time)
Because the present stem implies action not yet completed, its meaning is
often conative, that is, it expresses an action begun, attempted, or intended
(often translated into English with the phrase try to X):
I. Thus. some of the examples of info usage in the exercises of earlier units were not fully
idiomatic, for in some cases real Greek would have used an aorist infinitive, which the student
was then not yet ready to use: e.g., in Ex. 1.4 of U9, idiom actually requires aorist D.7To8avELv.
Tense and Aspect; Indirect Discourse 147
TaVTa TOl:l) (J"TpaTLWTa~I) o[OWIl~.

I give/offer the soldiers these things.
(In the proper context, if it is unclear whether the soldiers will accept the
gift, the verb is better translated with try to give or offer [conative pre-
sent].)
TOVI) 7ral:oal) f7rEL8E.
He was trying to persuade the children.
(If it is unclear whether the children will be convinced, the verb is best
translated with was trying to persuade or was urging [conative im-
perfect].)
3. Aorist-stem Aspect. The aorist stem conveys an action which is in-

stantaneous and includes conceptually its completion. In the indicative, since
the aorist carries no suggestion of duration or of permanent results of the
action, it is used to refer to simple, unique occurrence in the past (for instance,
for the statement of historical fact):
oi 'A87]val:0~ Tav 2,WKpaT7]V ~OiK7](J"av.
The Athenians wronged Socrates.
a7rE8avov EV Ti7llaXTI f.7rTa 67rAI:Ta~.
Seven hoplites died in the battle.
Outside the indicative the aorist stem normally has aspect meaning only and
does not refer to past time. The aorist infinitive, for example, in most of its
uses refers to a self-complete, instantaneous, or unique occurrence:
oi 7rOA'iTa~ aya80L yEvE(J"8a~ EV TaVT'(l Ti7llaXTI pOVAOVTa~.
The citizens want to be (become, prove themselves, show themselves)
brave in this battle.
foOtE TOl:l) 'A87]vaio~I) E7raWE(J"a~ Tav tl7]1l0(J"8EV7].
The Athenians resolved to praise Demosthenes (on some particular
occasion).
Verbs which denote a state of being or an action which by its nature is usually
continuous may require a somewhat different English translation in the aorist,
which refers to action at a single moment in time. Often the aorist of such
verbs refers to the single moment in time at which the subject enters into the
state of being or begins the continuous action (ingressive or inceptive aorist):
present stem aorist
t:xW, EtXQV, I have, I had t(JXQV, I came to have, I acquired, I got

j:3ucHAEVW, I am king Epu(JiAEv(Ja, I became king
OUKPVW, I am crying EOcJ.Kpv(Ja, I began to cry. I burst into tears
VQ(Jw, I am ill EVQ(JYWU, I became ill. I fell ill
148 UNIT TWENTY
4. Perfect-stem Aspect. The distinction between present and aorist aspect

is by far the most important in Greek idiom, but there is a third significant
variety of verbal aspect, that of the perfect stem. The Greek perfect stem
conveys a completed action with results that continue in the present, and the
Greek perfect is a primary tense, like the present. For instance, fJ.EfJ.a8YIKa = I
have learned (and now know), PEPOVAEVfJ.at = I have deliberated (and am
now resolved). Further illustration and discussion of perfect aspect will be
provided in U37, when the conjugation of the perfect is learned.
5. Exceptions to Aspect
a. The future stem conveys no distinction of aspect; that is, it may con-
vey either continuous/repeated action in future time or unique/instantaneous
action in future time. l (For the rare occasions when the Greeks wanted to
convey a perfect aspect in future time, there was a separate future perfect, to
be learned in U41.) Because the future stands outside the aspect system, Greek
had no use for a future imperative or subjunctive, and the future optative is of
quite restricted use compared to the present and aorist optative. Similarly, the
future infinitive is rarely used for complementary or articular or other substan-
tival purposes, since the present and aorist infinitives sufficiently serve these
functions: the future infinitive is thus found mainly in indirect discourse and
occasionally as a complementary infinitive with fJ.f.AAW (where it is "hyper-
characteristic," that is, "overdoes" the marking of futurity, which could have
been conveyed with a present or aorist complementary infinitive).
b. In historical narrative the present indicative is sometimes used without

its usual aspect to convey historical fact, as a stylistic variation on the aorist of
historical narrative. This use is called the historical present (and the student
has already seen it in exercises, e.g., U16 Ex. 111.1 or U18 Ex. III.3), and it
may be translated in English with a similar present or with a past tense.
c. In poetry and proverbs, the aorist indicative is sometimes used to ex-

press a "timeless" general truth, translated in English as a present tense. This
use is called the gnomic aorist. Example: (Pindar) [:3ia Kal fJ.EYaAaVXov E(J"cpa-
AW EV xpov'{), in time violence trips up even a supremely confident man.
I. In some uses of the futures of fXW there appears to be a distinction of aspect between E'tw,
fonned from the root of the present stem, "will have, will possess" (present aspect), and crx~a-w,
fonned from the root of the aorist stem, "will acquire, will stop (hold)" (aorist aspect). But this
distinction is not absolute. Some grammarians fonnerly suggested that there was an aspectual
distinction between future middle fonns used with passive meaning and future passive fonns
(based on an aorist stem), but this is not borne out by Greek usage.
6. Indirect Discourse. Indirect discourse is the embedding of a thought

or of an actual statement as a subordinate element in an independent sentence.
The most common form of indirect discourse in English is the subordinate
noun-clause introduced by that. The English indirect discourse construction is
a clause because it contains a subject and a finite verb; it is subordinate be-
cause it cannot stand on its own and must depend on an independent clause; it
is a noun clause because the whole clause performs the function of a noun in
the main sentence, whether as object, subject, or appositive to a noun (as in the
phrase the fact that . .. ).
Ex. (direct quotation) "The soldier is ill. "
(indirect) He says that the soldier is ill.
(indirect) I believe that the soldier is ill.
Note that the subject of the statement sometimes changes person in the trans-
formation from direct to indirect form:
(direct) H[ am ill," says Bill.
(indirect) Bill says that he is ill.
Furthermore, in English, the verb of the statement sometimes changes tense in
the transformation from direct to indirect form:
(direct) "There are no seats."
(indirect) The man said that there were no seats.
(direct) "He will come."
(indirect) They believed he would come.'
7. Indirect Discourse with the Infinitive. In Greek there are three indirect
discourse constructions: with infinitive; with participle (U28); with on
or OJ'>
and a finite verb (U33). The choice among these three is determined by the
type of verb introducing the indirect discourse and by idiom (some verbs may
take two of the three constructions).
The infinitive construction for indirect discourse is found with certain
verbs of saying, thinking, believing, hoping, swearing, promising, and the like
(e.g., cflYljJ.i, oLojJ.at, vOjJ.i(w, ~yEojJ.at, EA:rri(w). In this construction the sub-
ject-finite verb unit of the direct form is converted into an infinitive phrase
with subject either unexpressed or expressed in the accusative case.
direct 6 (TTpanc;JTYl'> VO(TEt.
The soldier is ill.
I. Note that English is not always consistent or unambiguous in these changes: sometimes a
present tense of the direct form remains present in the indirect form; moreover, the indirect form
of There were no seats would also be The man said that there were no seats.
150 UNIT TWENTY
indirect TOV (TTpaTLWTTlV oijJ.aL VO(J"E~V.

I believe that the soldier is ill.
direct oi oLKa(J"TaL owpa AajJ.j3avov(J"L.
The jurymen are taking bribes.
indirect TOV!> OLKa(J"Ta!> <P'l(J"L owpa AajJ.j3aVELv.
He says that the jurymen are taking bribes.
In the transformation from direct to indirect form, the finite verb of the state-
ment or thought is always changed to the infinitive of the same tense (or same
tense stem: imperfect indo of direct becomes present info of indirect) and same
voice. The subject of the statement or thought is left unexpressed if it is the
same as the subject of the main verb (of saying, believing, etc.) but is other-
wise expressed in the accusative (as usual for the subject of a Greek infinitive).
direct (imperfect indicative)
TOTE 0pXEV 6 EEpfrJ!>.
Xerxes was then ruler.
indirect (present infinitive; different subject)
TOTE aPXELv <pa(J"L TOV EEptrJV.
They say that Xerxes was then ruler.
direct (future indicative)
Kpa T~(J"W TOV!> 7TOAEjJ.iov!>.
I'll conquer the enemy.
indirect (future infinitive; same subject)
KpaT~(J"Ew <P'ljJ.L TOV!> 7TOAEjJ.iov!>.
I say that I'll conquer the enemy.
KpaT~(J"Ew f<P'lV TOV!> 7TOAEjJ.iov!>.
I said that I would conquer the enemy.
direct (aorist indicative)
6 KAwt TO. xp~jJ.aTa fAL7TE.
The thief left the money.
indirect (aorist infinitive; different subject)
~YE~TaL TOV KAw7Ta TO. xp~jJ.aTa AL7TE~V.
She believes that the thief left the money.
EVOjJ.L(OV TOV KAw7Ta TO. xp~jJ.aTa AL7TE~V.
They believed that the thief(had) left the money.
In the indirect discourse construction, the infinitive is negated with ou (where-
as in its other uses it is negated with jJ.~):
TOV (J"TpaT'lYov OVKETL VO(J"E~V ~yovVTaL.
They believe that the general is no longer ill.
8. Predicate Nouns and Adjectives in Indirect Discourse with Infinitive.
Nouns or adjectives in the predicate after an infinitive copula in indirect dis-
course follow the usual rules of concord (cf. U 10.4). A predicate noun must be
in the same case as its subject; a predicate adjective must agree with its subject
noun in gender, number, and case. Thus, if the subject of the indirect statement
is expressed in the accusative, the predicate noun or adjective will also be
accusative; if the subject is unexpressed because it is the same as that of the
main verb, the predicate noun or adjective will be nominative, agreeing with
the subject of the main verb (of saying, etc.).
OI.KaWV Tav avopa cpallEV ElvaL.
We say that the man is just.
o~wKpaTYJ'> OUK OrETaL erocpa,> ElvaL.
Socrates does not believe that he is wise.
Ot 'A8YJva'ioL OI.KaWL ElvaL ryYOVVTaL.
The Athenians believe that they are just.
9. The Verb CPYJIlI.. The verb CPYJIlI., say, normally takes the infinitive of
indirect discourse and (like EillL) has enclitic forms in the present active indi-
cative (except 2nd sing. CPV,». The present system (stems cpa-. CPYJ-, info cpavaL)
is conjugated as follows (the future cpryerw and aorist EcpYJera are regular):
present active imperfect active
sing. 1st CPYJ}J.L ECPYJV

2nd CPrl" EcpYJ0"8u or EcpYJ"
3rd CPYJO"L(V) ECPYJ
(dual 2nd cpun)v EcpUTOV)
(3rd CPUTOV EcpaTYJv)
plural 1sf CPU}J.EV ECPU}J.EV
2nd CPUTE Ecpun
3rd cpa.O"L(V) ECPUO"UV
Note that the other common verbs of saying, AEYW and El7rov, are not normally
used with the indirect-discourse infinitive construction in Attic prose.
1. Study the examples of aspect meaning and study indirect discourse with
the infinitive.
2. Learn the present system of CPYJlll.
3. Study again the first three principal parts of all verbs learned to date (use
the list in the Appendix of Unit 18).
152 UNIT TWENTY
.. ------- - - -
EXERCISES

1. E(J7TE UTa}J.EOa 8. 'AEtat 15. cpaTE
2. E7T'AryTTOVTO 9. }J.a8ry(Jw8at 16. EVo(J1](Jar:;
, ' ,
3. ~yyEt'Aav 10. yt YVW(JKE tr:; 17. 1]VX°}J.1]v
4. 'Ow i(JE TE 11. Ka'AELTat 18. Epov'AEv(Ja(JOE
5. 'AapELv 12. " 19. acpitETat
1]PX°}J.EV
6. E'Amov(Jw 13. Ep'Aatar:; 20. "
w?1
7. Ecpa(Jav 14. E7Ta8E 21. cpt'Aw
1. we are leading 12. I was ordering
2. you (pI.) threw 13. he learned
3. it will be necessary 14. they make preparations
4. I praised 15. you (s.) will die
5. about to guide 16. to write (aor.)
6. they say 17. you (pI.) were
7. we used to dwell 18. they pray
8. you (s.) perceived 19. it will be concealed
9. she wanted 20. you (s.) will remain
10. they used to seem 21. we urged
11. we shall say 22. to find (aor.)
III. Reading.
1. 'EpaTo(JOEv1]r:;, or:; DiK1]v cpovov [murder] EcpEVyE, I TaD' El7TE TOLr:; DtKa(J-
TaLr:;' "Et aPX11r:; 'AEtw TO. 7Tpa y}J.a TQ Kat OVK a7TOKpvtO}J.at." 2 OVTW yap
ryYELTO 7TEi(JEtV TOVr:; 7To'AiTar:; }J.ry a7TOKTELVat EaVTOv [him(self), acc.],
a'A'Aa 'Av(Jat T11r:; aiTiar:; [charge].3
2. 7TWr:; ov OEWV nr:; TryV TOVTOV yvw}J.1]V Ep'AatEV, or:; E'AEyE }J.Ev avo(Jw 7TEpt
TOV O' ry'Aiov TWV T' avE}J.WV Kat TWV a'A'Awv }J.ETEWpWV [celestial phenom-
ena], E7TOiEt DE 7T'AEL(JTQ KaKa TO. [Epa TO. TWV 'E'A'Aryvwv;
3. "Kat OV7TOT' EPEL ovDEir:; [no one, nom. sing.], ~ aVDpEr:; (JTpanWTat, wr:;
[that] "E'A'A1]var:; ~yayov Eir:; TO'vr:; [3ap[3aPOvr:; Kat E7TEtTa E'Amov }J.Ev TOVr:;
"E'A'A1]var:;, TryV DE TWV pappapwv cpt'Aiav d'Ao}J.1]v. a'A'A' E7TEt [since] E}J.Ot
[me, dat.] OVK EOE'AETE 7TdOwOat, 7Td(Jo}J.at V}J.LV [you, dat. pl.]." TaVT'
El7TEV 6 K'AEapxor:;. EVO}J.t(E yap TOVr:; (JTpanWTar:; EaVT0 [him(self), dat.]
1. For the idiom OLKT/V EcpWyf. cf. U17, Ex. 11.3.

2. You should be able to guess the meaning of this U7TO- compound; the sense is here middle,
not passive.
3. The reflexive pronoun iuvTt)v is better translated in this sentence (and sentence 3) simply as
English him. The gen. UiTLU, here expresses separation,from.
EZvaL Kat! 7raTpL'Oa Kat <p[i\OV) Kat (J"VjJ.jJ.axov). oi 'OE (TTpanWTaL Ot T'
EKELVOV Kat oi aAA.DL TafJT' E7r?7Vwav.
4. 6 yEpwV TOU) KAW7ra) E<Py/ ~EAAEW TO. xpryjJ.aTa a7ra~EW, aAAo. Tav
<pVAaKa KwAv(J"at.
5. TOU) 8EOU) Ot!! W<pEAry(J"EW TOU) 'OLKaLov) EV T0 7rOAEjJ.I.J,J;
6. TOVTOV Tav KryPVKa VLKy/V aYYEAELV EA7rL(OjJ.EV.
IV. Render into Greek. (Hint: when translating indirect discourse from English
into Greek, always determine first what is the direct form of the thought or
statement and use the direct form to decide the tense of the Greek infinitive.
Remember that an English past tense may represent a present tense in direct
discourse, indirect would may represent direct will, indirect had Xed may
represent a direct simple past [aorist 1.)
I. One must not obey those orators in these matters, but one must deliberate
well and justly and seek the truth.
2. We used to believe that different men excelled in different things [use
aAAO) I.
3. The young men resolved [use impersonal 'OOKE'Ll to marry luse middle of
ayw I the daughters of the chorus trainer, for they hoped that each one
would be both beautiful and wealthy.
4. Do you suppose that the Greeks will choose the Athenians to be leaders'?
5. They did not believe that an orator must excel in this wisdom.
6. This woman said that the soldiers had led the jurymen away to the shrine
next to the walls.
I. This Kat introduces the series of three coordinate nouns, 1ra1pL0a, </>LAOV" and ITv!J.p.axov\'.
The first Kat in the series can be omitted in English or translated as hOflz. In a series of coordi-
nate words, Greek style usually prefers a conjunction between each pair of words, whereas
Engl ish often has a conjunction only between the final pair of words.
UNIT TWENTY -ONE
Consonant-Declension
, , Nouns III;
Pronoun a VTOS'
PRELIMINARIES
Personal Pronouns. The pronouns which refer without special demon-

strative emphasis to persons or things are personal pronouns. For the concept
of person, review U8 Prelim.; for pronouns in general, U12 Prelim. D.
Personal pronouns occur in all three persons: (1 st) I, me, we, us; (2nd) you;
(3rd) he, him, she, her, it, they, them. In English (as in some other languages),
the personal pronouns are very common, because English verbs must have ei-
ther a noun subject or an explicit pronoun as subject; but there are also other
uses of the personal pronouns. Greek verbs normally do without an explicit
pronoun subject, but a personal pronoun may be used as subject for purposes
of emphasis. and there are other uses for the oblique cases.
1. Third-declension Vowel Stems. Some nouns of the consonant or third

declension have stems ending in a vowel. The case endings are the same as for
other consonant-declension nouns, but in many forms contraction has taken
place with the final vowel of the stem or the quantities of two consecutive
vowels have been exchanged (short-long becoming long-short by quantitative
metathesis). Many of these nouns also show a variation in stem vowel.
2. Stems in ~ or v. There are two types:
a. Nouns in which stem vowel ~ or v appears only in nom., acc., and voc.
sing., but an alternative stem vowel E appears in the other cases. The paradigm
is shown on the next page. Note that the gen. sing. form derives from an alter-
native stem with strong vowel 1] (e.g., 7r0A1]-), the ending -1]0>; becoming -EW>;
by quantitative metathesis without change of accent (the accent is still on A
despite the long vowel in U). The unusual accent in the gen. pI. is by analogy
with the gen. sing. Contraction has occurred in dat. sing. and also in
154
Consonant-Declension Nouns III; Pronoun aVTr}t, 155
masc'/fem. nom pI. and nom. acc. dual (E + E - > EL) and in the neuter nom.
acc. pi. (E + ii -> ,,). The masc'/fem. acc. pi. is probably borrowed from the
nom. pi. (some explain it instead as derived from *-EV~).
Ex. "city" (f) 'jorearm" (m.) "town" (n.)
' ,
stems: 7fo/u-, 7fOAE- 7f1JXV-, 7f1JXE- UO"TV -, UO"TE-
sing. nom. 7fOAL~ 7ff]xv~ "

UO"TV
gen. 7fOAEW~ 7f~XEW~ "
Uo"TEW~
dat. 7fOAH 7f~XH aO"TH

acc. 7fOAW 7ff]xvv "
UO"TV
voc. 7fOAL 7ff]xv "
UO"TV
(dual n. a. v. 7fOAH 7f~XH aO"TE L)
(g. d. 7fOAf.OW 7f1JXf.OW aO"Tf.Ow)
plur. n. v. 7fOAH~ 7f~xm "
UO"T1J
gen. 7fOAEWV 7f~XEWV "
UO"TEWV
dat. 7fOAWL(V) 7f~XEo"L(V ) aO"TEO"L(v)
acc. 7fOAH~ 7f~xm "
UO"T1J
b. Nouns in which L or v appears in all forms. These are not common,

and since pure L-stems are especially rare, only the v-stem is demonstrated
here, with the example iX8v~,fish (m.) (stem: iX8v-).
nom. iX8v~ or -v~ (n. a. v. iX8vE) n. v. iX8vE~

gen. iX8vo~ (g. d. iX8vow) gen. iX8vwv
dat. iX8vr l dat. iX8vO"L(V)
ace. iX8vv acc. iX8v~
voc. iX8v
In this noun the v is short in trisyllabic cases, long in the disyllabic cases (in
poetry sometimes short in acc. sing.). The accentuation of the nom. sing. is un-
certain (and the acc. sing. is also sometimes written iX8vv). The acc. pi. ending
is from *-vv~.
3. Stems in EV, av, av. In this type, too, the stem vowel varies (paradigm
on next page). The diphthong appears in nom. acc. voc. sing. and dat. pI. (and
also in acc. pi. of nouns in av or av). In the remaining cases there is found an
alternative stem: namely, EV is replaced by E or strong vowel" in hf7TEV~, av
by a. or" (or E) in ypav~ and vav~, av by a in pav~.
I. Recall that the mark over the iota (diaeresis) indicates that the v and L are in separate
syllables and do not form a diphthong: cf. U 1.6e.
156 UNIT TWENTY -ONE
~~~----
"cavalry-
man" (m.) "old woman" (/) "ship" (/) "ox" (m ..!)
' ,
vav-, V1)-,
stems: L7r7rEV-, L7r7r1)-, ypav-, ypli- j3ov-, 130-
,
L7r7rE- VE-
sing. nom. t7r7rEV~ ypav~ vav~ pov~

, , ,
gen. L7r7rEW~ ypao~ VEW~ poo~
dat. t 7r7rEL
- .~
ypaL
..
V1)L j30t
, ,-
ace. L7r7rEa ypavv viJa f30vv
VOL'. t7r7rEV ypav vav f30v
(dual n. a. v. t 7r7riJ ypo.E ViJE pOE)
' ,
(g. d. L7r7rEOW ypliOLV VEOLV f300LV)
plUTo n. V. t 7r7riJ~, -E L~ ypo.E~ ViJE~ j30E~
, , ,
gen. L7r7rEWV ypliwv VEWV powv
dat. t7r7rEVC]'L(V) ypavO'i(v) vavO'i(v) j3ovO'i(v)
ace. t 7I'7I'EIi~ ypav~ vav~ j3ov~
Quantitative metathesis is apparent in several forms (e.g., ~7r7r(iw'), VEW'),

I.7T7Tfii from 1.71'71'1]0'), vY'/6'), I.7T7T1]ii). The nom. pI. ending of -EV,) nouns was -1]')
in the fifth century, but in the course of the fourth century this was replaced by
-EL<>- Note the shifting accentuation of the nouns with monosyllabic stems
(review UI4.2).
4. Some Irregular Nouns
"woman" (/) "hand" (/) "son" (m.)

,
sing. nom. yvv1) VtO~ or vo~
, , I f I
gen. yvvaLKo~ XHpO~ mEO~ or VEO~

dat. yvvaLKL XHpi VtEL or VEL
ace. yvvaLKa XELpa
,
voe. yvvaL XEip
(dual n. a. V. yvvaLKE XELPE VtEL or VEL)
(g. d. yvvaLKoLv XEPOLV VtOLV or VOLV)
plur. n. V. yvvaLKE~ XELPE~ VtEL~ or VEL~
, I "
gen. yvvaLKwv XHPWV mEWV or VEWV
dat. yvvaLti(v) XEpO'i(v) VtE(]'L(V) or VEO'L(V)
ace. yvvaLKa~ XELpa~ VtEL~ or VEL~
Note the unusual accentuation of U in the gen. and dat. forms of yvvry. In
poetry the two stems of hand (XHp-, XEp-) are used as variants in all cases to
suit metrical requirements. The noun son has o-declension inflection (vI.6'),
vl.oi), etc. or v6'), voi) etc.} as well as the consonant-declension inflection
Consonant-Declension Nouns Ill; Pronoun aVn)f 157
shown above. Only the o-declension fonns viov and viE are found for the acc.
and voc. sing. In addition, the iota of the initial diphthong VL was usually so
weakened in pronunciation that the word was often spelled without it.
5. Pronoun alna). The pronoun alna), aim], aina is declined like EKE'i-
vo) (that is, like a vowel-declension adj. except for pronominal neuter -0 in
place of adjectival-ov). It has several uses.
a. In origin this pronoun is reflexive (himself, herself, itself, myself,

yourself, etc., according to context) and is used in conjunction with the per-
sonal pronouns to fonn reflexive pronouns (to be learned in U25).
b. When used in agreement with a noun in any case or when used in the
nominative in agreement with the subject pronoun implied in the personal
ending of the verb, it is emphatic or intensive. In this use it must be in predi-
cate position (outside the article-noun group).
TO. pLpAia ryG"av alJToD ToD oLoaG"KaAov.
The books belonged to the teacher himself
(pred. position, agrees with oLoaG"KaAov)
TaVT"'lV T1JV G"v/J-cpoPo.v alJTry E~OOV.
I mvselfsaw this disaster. (woman speaking; with a man speaking, alJTo)
(agrees with implied [fern. sing. nom.] subject)
c. When placed in attributive position (with article), alJTa) is adjectival

and means the same, the very.
t " , ~
o aVTO) /J-aVTL) EL7TEV ... The same prophet said . ..
E7TE/J-tE TOV) alJTov) i7T7TEa). He sent the same cavalrymen.
d. The oblique cases (that is, all except the nominative) are used in Attic
as the personal pronoun of the third person (him, her, it, them).
, I , ,
a7TEKTEwavaVTOV. They put him to death.

TO. 7TaLoia aln1]) ATJta/J-Eea. We'll seize her children.
Note that when used as possessive (as in the second example above) the geni-
tive of alno) takes predicate position. Do not confuse alJT~ (herself) with
ai.!TTJ (this woman), or aiJTai (fern. themselves) with alnaL (these women):
both breathing and accent are different.

1. Learn the various declensional patterns presented above.
2. Study the uses of pronoun alna).

VOCABULARY
Vocabulary-building Hints. With this unit you learn the declensional pat-
terns used with two very productive suffixes. (l) The suffix -ElJS, -EWS (m.) is
added to many noun roots to form a noun meaning "person who is involved
with or works with X": so I.EpE7JS for the person involved with sacred rites and
sacrifices (I.Epa), 1.7T7TElJS for the person involved with horses, xaAKE1JS for the
person who works with xaAKDs, so bronzesmith, and so forth. (For many of
these nouns there are corresponding verbs in -ElJW, like (3aenAE"lJw, 1.7T7TElJW,
and the -ElJW suffix also forms verbs for which there is no -EVS noun, like
7ToALTEVW.) (2) The suffix -ens, -(J"EWS (f.) is added to verbal roots to form an
abstract noun of action: for instance, 7TOLy/(J"LS from 7TOLEW, (J"Ta(J"Ls from the
root to stand, j30VAEV(J"LS (deliberation) from j30VAEVW. Note also in this unit
the word L(J"XVS, which provides the root for the adj. L(J"XVPOS, previously
learned: -pos and -EPOS are common adjectival suffixes, seen also in, for in-
stance, 7TOVy/POS (7TOVOS), {3Aa{3Epos ({3Aa7TTw, root j3Aa{3-), CPOj3EPOS (cpo-
(3os), ai(J"xpos (aL(J"Xos).
nouns in t or v (variant stems)

oVvu}.m, ovva}J.Ew'>, f. power; authority; capacity, ability [dynamic]
7TOL1/ITL'>, 7T0L71ITEw,>, f. creation, production; writing of poetry; poem
7TOII.L'>, 7TOII.EW'>, f. city; citadel [metropolis]
ITTalTL'>, ITTaITEw,>, f. position, standing; party (with political interests),
faction; party strife, discord [apostasy]
VPPL'>, VPPEW'>, f. violence, insolence; assault, rape [hybristic]
UITTV, UITTEW'>, n. town
7TryXV,>, 7T~XEW'>, m. forearm, arm; cubit (a unit of measure equal to
average length from elbow to tip of middle finger)
nouns in v (pure stems)

iITXv'>, iITXvo'>, f. strength
iX8v'>, iX8vo'>, m. or f. fish [ichthyologist]
(rik ITvo'> or v,>, va'>, m. or f. swine, hog
nouns in EV. avo av

PUITLII.EV,>, purTLII.f.w,>, m. king [Basil]
pov,>, 1300'>, m. or f. ox, cow [Euboea]
ypuv,>, ypao" f. old woman
f , f I
LEPEV'>, LEPEW" m. priest, sacrificer

Consonant-Declension Nouns Ill; Pronoun aVT(J" 159
i7r7rEv". i7r7rEw", m. cavalryman; (pI.) the cavalry

vav". VEW", f. ship [naumachy]
cpOVEV". cpovEw", m. murderer
irregular nouns
YVVrl. yvvaLKa", f. woman; lady; wife l [gynecology]
via" (va,,), viov or viEo", m. son
XELp. XELpa", f. hand [surgeon, chiropractor]
pronoun/adjective
aiJTa". aiJTrl. aim) self; him, her, it, them; the same, the very
[tautology, autocrat]
EXERCISES
I. Reading.
I. OlJTOL }J-Ev V7rO TWV pappapwv (l7rEeavov. 2 E7rEL [after] oE TO/JTOV'>
EK7rOOWV [adv.: out of the way] E7rOLry(TaTO 6 paCHAElJ'>, OEwa p.ETa TafJTa
Tfl 7r()AEL EYEVETO' ~v DOE aLno'> E(J'TW' aiJTo'> yap E7rEL(J'E TOV pa(J'LAEa
E7TL T1JV 'EAAaoa EMEI.v.
2. KaL 6 'AyrwiAao,> TPLryPYJ 7rapWKEva(J'E KaL KaAAiav EKEAEV(J'E cmayaYE'iv
TrW 7ra'ioa, aiJTo'> 0' (J.7r17Mw [compound of a7rO-] Ei'> T1JV I.EpaV 7rOAW, EV
f, cP KEL 6 T17'> pappapov eEOS I.EPEV,>. a7TE'iXE 0' aUTYJ (J'Taow OEKa a7TO TOV
pa(J'LAEw'> a(J'TEw'>, EV aiJTfl 0' ryv 7rOTa}J-o'> P.LKpWV iXevwv 7TAryPYJ'> [adj.,
nom. sing. masc.: full of + gen.].
3. 6 7TAOV(J'W'> Ta'> TE pov,> KaL Ta'> (J'V'> Tip Vl.ip aiJTiKa E7rL TphfrEW E<pYJ,
aAAa Ta'> L7T7rOV'> OVK EtE'ivaL.
4. aAAoL aAAov,> TP07TOV'> E7Tawov(J'w.
5. TWV TELXWV TO p.Ev ETEPOV TOI:,> 1.7T7TEV(J'L <pVAaTTEW 7TapEKEAEV(J'aTO,
TOVTO 0' a VTO'> KaL 01. 7TE(OL E<pVAa TTOV.
6. OUTW'> OVX 1.I7T0 TWV 7TOAEP.iwv p.ovov [adv.: only], aAAa KaL 1mo TOVTWV
TWV 7TOALTWV f.7TEPOVAEVWeE [from E7rLPOVAEVW = plot against] KaL
ayaeov TL 7TpataL EKWAVWeE. KaL v}J-a,> [you, acc. pl.] ryYOVVTO TWV T17'>
7rOAEW'> KaKwv E7rLeV}J-El:v a7raAAaY17VaL [com pI. inf., to be rid of + gen.
TWV KaKwv] KaL 7TEpL TWV aAAwv 7Tpayp.aTwv OVK EVeVP.ry(J'WeaL [fut. inf.,
feel concern]. T1JV yap OYJp.OKpaTiav AVEW EP.EAAOV.
I. Just as Q.v~p implies male traits and social roles, so yvv~ implies traits, roles, and stereotypes
connected with females.
2. As the u7To-phrase shows. Q.7TOeVyiITKW is here equivalent to a passive verb, be put to death.

1. For that day the cavalry guarded the camp. but on the next day they rode
against the enemy. for they believed they would easily defeat them.
2. Strife and violence are harmful to a city in the same way: each is respon-
sible for the death of I:ood men [use articular inf.l
3. We begged the king to entrust these affairs to the women themselves.
4. The old men said that the women must obey the laws, while the old women
said that the men had proven themselves [use appropriate tense of yiyvo-
j.l.aL] responsible for terrible evils to the city.
UNIT TWENTY -TWO
Consonant-Declension Adjectives;
Personal Pronouns
1. Consonant-declension Adjectives with Two Endings. One of the two

major groups of consonant-declension adjectives features consonant-declen-
sion inflection in all genders. Like the vowel-declension adjectives with two
endings, these adjectives have a common masc'/fem. form and a separate
neuter, and again only the nom. acc. voc. actually show distinction between
masc'/fem. and neuter, the gen. and dat. being the same in all genders. There
are two types:
a. Stems in rT. The two nominative forms end in -y/~. -ES, and declension
is similar to that of TPL17Py/<; and YEVO~ (U15.3).
Ex. aAy/e~~. aAy/eE~, "true" stem: aAy/edrT)-
masc./fem. neuter
sing. nom. at..1]e~<; at..1]ei<;

gen. at..1]eov<; at..1]eov<;
dat. at..1]eEt at..1]eEt
acc. at..1]ef] at..1]ei<;
voc. at..1]ei<; at..1]ei<;
(dual n. a. v. at..1]eEt at..1]eEt)
(g. d. at..1]eOtV at..1]eOtv)
plur. n. v. at..1]eEt~ at..1]ef]
gen. at..1]eWV at..1]eWV
dat. at..1]eirTL(V) at..1]eirTL(V)
ace. at..1]eEt<; at..1]ef]
b. Stems in v. The two nominative forms end in -wv. -OV, and declension
is similar to that of oai}1wv (UlS.I).
161
162 UNIT TWENTY -TWO
Ex. (J"WCPPWV, (J"wcppov, "prudent" stem: (J"wcppov-

masc./jem. neuter
sing. nom. (J"wcppwv (J"WCPPOV

gen. (J"wcpPovo'> (J"wcppovo'>
dat. (J"WCPPOVL (J"WCPPOVL
acc. (J"wcppova (J"wcppov
voc. (J"wcppov (J"wcppov
(dual n. a. v. (J"WCPPOVE (J"WCPPOVE)
(g. d. (J"WCPPOVOLV (J"WCPPOVOLV )
plur. n. v. (J"WCPPOVE'> (J"wcppova
gen. (J"wcppovwv (J"wcppovwv
dat. (J"WCPPO(J"L(V) (J"WCPPO(J"L(V)
acc. (J"wcppova'> (J"wcppova
2. Consonant-declension Adjectives with Three Endings. The other ma-

jor group of consonant-declension adjectives shows consonant-declension
inflection in the masculine and neuter, but has a separate feminine with short-
alpha-declension endings. (The fern. stem consists of the masc. stem plus
suffix semivocalic iota [y], which combines with the preceding syllable in
euphonic change.) There are three main types:
a. Stems in v. The nominative endings are -v~, -ELa, -v, and declension
of the masc. and neuter is similar to that of 7Tr,XV~ and Q.(J"TV (U21.2a).
Ex. ~ov~. ~oE'ia, ~ov, "pleasant" stems: ~OV-/~OE-, fern. ~OH-
masc. fem. neuter
sing. nom. ~ov,> ~oELa ~ov

gen. ~Of.o,> ~oEf.a,> ~Of.o,>
dat. ~OEL ~oEiq. ~OEL
acc. ~ovv ~oELav ~ov
voc. ~ov ~oELa ~ov
(dual n. a. v. ~Of.E ~oEia ~Of.E)
(g. d. ~Of.OLV ~oEf.aLV ~Of.OLV)
plur. n. v. ~OEL'> ~oELaL ~of.a
gen. ~Of.WV ~OELWV ~Of.WV
dat. ~Of.(J"L(V) ~oEiaL'> ~Of.(J"L(V)
acc. ~OEL'> ~oEf.a,> ~of.a
Note that, unlike the similar nouns, these adjectives have -EO~ in the masc./
neuter gen. sing. Furthermore, in the adjectives there is no contraction in the
Consonant-Declension Adjectives; Personal Pronouns 163
gen. sing. -EO!>, gen. pI. -EWV, and neuter pI. nom. acc. -Ea. Also note that the
feminine of consonant-declension adjectives (of all types) always has the
circumflex on the gen. pI. (from -awv), thus behaving like a-declension nouns
and unlike the fern. of vowel-declension adjectives.
b. Stems in v. Various nom. forms are found, and the declension of the
masc. and neuter is generally similar to that of oaijJ.wv (UI5.1). Note that the
fern. has eta-type inflection (gen. and dat. sing.) because the stem ends in v.
Ex. jJ.EAOS. jJ.EAawa, jJ.EMw, "black"
stems: jJ.EAiiv-, fern. jJ.EAaw- (from jJ.EAiivy-)
masc. fern. neuter
sing. nom. j.l.EAaS j.l.EAaWa j.l.EAaV

gen. j.l.EAaVOC; J.l.EAaiv7J<; j.l.f.Aavo')
dat. j.l.EAaVL j.l.EAaiv"[I j.l.EAaVL
acc. j.l.EAaVa j.l.EAaWaV j.l.f.AaV
voc. j.l.EAaV j.l.EAaWa j.l.EAaV
(dual n. a. v. j.l.EAaVE j.l.EAaiva j.l.EAavE)
(g. d. j.l.EAaVOW j.l.EAaivaw j.l.EAavow)
plur. n. v. j.l.EAaVE<; j.l.EAaWaL j.l.EAaVa
gen. j.l.EAaVwV j.l.EAaWwV j.l.EAaVWv
dat. j.l.f.Aal]"L(v) j.l.EAaivaLc; j.l.EAal]"L(v)
acc. j.l.EAaVaC; j.l.EAaivac; j.l.f.AaVa
c. Stems in VT. Various nom. forms are found, and the declension of the
masc. and neuter is generally similar to that of YEPWV or yiya!> (UI4.3b).
Ex. XapiEL!>, XapiEeJ"(Ta. Xapiw, "graceful"
stems: XaPtEVT-, fern. XaptE(J"()- (from XaptEVTY-)
masc. fern. neuter
,
sing. nom. XapiELC; XapLE()()a xapiEv
,
gen. XapiWTO<; XapLE()()7J<; XaPLWTO<;
,
dat. XaPLWTL XapLE()()"[I XaPLEVTL
acc. XaPLWTa XapLE()()aV xapiEv
voc. Xapiw XapiE()()a Xapiw
(dual n. a. v. XapiEVTE XaptE()()a XapiWTE)
,
(g. d. XaptEVTOW XaptE()()aW XaptEVTOW)
, ,
plur. n. v. XaptWTE<; XaptE()()at XapiwTa
gen. XaptWTWV XaPtE()()WV XaPLEVTWV
dat. XapiE()t(V) Xaptf.()()aLC; XapiE()t(V)
acc. XapiwTa<; XaptE()()aC; XaptWTa
Note that the feminine has eta-type inflection (gen. and dat. sing.) because the
stem ends in u.
3. Declension and Use of 7TOS. A very important and common conso-

nant-declension adjective with VT-stem is 7TU~, 7Tuua, 7TUV, all. The stems are
masc.!neut. 7TUVT-, fern. 7TUU- (from 7TavTY-).
rnasc. fern. neuter
sing. nom. nos nuua nuv J

gen. naVTf), nuuY], naVTO,
, ,
dat. naVTL nauTi naVTI.
,
acc. naVTa nuuav nuv
voc. nu, nuua nuv
(dual lacking)
,
plur. n. v. nuvTE, nuuat naVTa
,
gen. nuvTwv nauwv naVTWV
dat. nuut(v) nuuat, nuut(v)
,
acc. naVTa, nuua, nuvTa
Note that the feminine has eta-type inflection (gen. and dat. sing.) because the
stem ends in u. Note also the accentuation of the masc'!neuter gen. and dat. pI.
(not following the usual rule for monosyllabic stems).
The most common use of 7TU~ is in the predicate position with a noun that
has the definite article; it then means "all" or "the whole":
7Tuua ~ 7f()A.~~ the whole city
or 7TOA.'iTa~ 7f(!WTE~ all the citizens
When used with a noun that lacks the article, 7Ta~ may mean "any" or "every"
or "all (conceivable)":
7Tuua 7TOA.~~ every city
7TaVTE~ 7TOA.'iTa~ all (conceivable) citizens
In the attributive position 7Ta~ emphasizes totality or entirety:
TO 7TUV 7T A. r,eo~ the entire multitude
~ 7Tuua ~~KEA.ia the whole of Sicily
4. Adverbs from Consonant-declension Adjectives. Adverbs are formed
from consonant-declension adjectives in the same way as for vowel-declension
adjectives (U 12.1). The ending -w~ is added to the stem as it occurs in the
masc. gen. pI., and the adverb has the same accentuation as that form.
I. The long vowel of neuter no.v is anomalous; some other dialects have the expected niiv
(ml.v), and the short alpha is sometimes seen in compound a.nav in Attic poets.
-----~--------- ~--------~
Ex. G.A1]8r,» G.A1]8w»

(Tw<ppwv (Tw<ppovw»
ry'Ov»
,
ry'OEW»,
XapLEL» xapLEVTw»
,
7fOS 7TaVTW»
5. Personal Pronouns of the First and Second Persons. For personal

pronouns in general, review U21 Prelim. The oblique cases of alJTo» serve as
the third-person pronoun in classical Attic. Here is the declension of the
pronouns of the first and second persons:
1st person 2nd person
1st person unemphatic 2nd person unemphatic
-----
' , ,
sing. nom. Eyw (TV
gen. EJ.l.OV J.l.ov (TOV (TOV
,
dat. EJ.l.OL J.l.0L (TOL (TOL
ace. EJ.l.E W (TE (FE
(dual n. a. vw (T<pw)
(g. d. V~lV (Tcf>ijlV )
Plur. nom. 1W t, VJ.l.Et,
gen. 1J.1.wV VJ.l.WV
dat. 1J.1.tV VJ.l.tV
ace. 1J.1.U, VJ.l.U,
The singular unemphatic forms (oblique cases only) are enclitic, and these are
in fact the more commonly used forms. Unemphatic pronouns tend to come
second in their clause or phrase. The nominative forms (sing. and plural) are
used only when the subject is emphatic; otherwise the personal ending of the
verb suffices.
Ex. Ti }J.OL AEtEL»; What will you say to me?
TOV }J.Ev 7faTEpa }J.OV E7fiJVE(Ja», E}J.E '0' oV.
You praised my father, but not me.
Eyw TOV 7fOL1]T1]V E7faWW, V}J.E'i» 'OE TOV pr,Topa.
l praise the poet, you praise the orator.
Note that when a personal pronoun is used in the possessive genitive, it takes
predicate position (outside the article-noun group), as in the second example
above (TO V 7faTEpa }J.OV).
1. Learn the inflectional patterns of consonant-deciension adjectives.

166 UN IT TWENTY -TWO
2. Learn the personal pronouns of the first and second persons.

VOCABULARY
noun
TVXYJ, TVXYJ'>, f. fate; chance; fortune (good, bad, or neutral);
happening, event [Tyche)
consonant-declension adjectives: sigma-stems

all. YJ8~,>, all. YJ8EI; true, genuine; truthful
aa-eEV~'>, a0"8EVE'> without strength, weak [myasthenia]
aO"cpaA~'>, aO"cpaAE'> steadfast; safe, secure; trustworthy
OVo"TVX~'>' OVO"TVXE'> unlucky, unfortunate
EVYEV~'>, EVYEVE'> well-born; noble, noble-minded [eugenics I
EVTVX~'>' EVTVXE'> lucky, fortunate
7TA~PYJ'>' 7TAr,PE'> full, full of (+ gen.)
O"acp~,>, O"acpE'> sure, reliable; clear, distinct
"'EVO~,>, ",EVOE'> lying, false, untrue [pseudonym)
consonant-declension adjectives: nu-stems with two endings

acppwv, acppov senseless, foolish
EvoaijJ.wv, EvoaLjJ.ov blessed with a good oaijJ.wv; fortunate, happy;
wealthy [eudaemonism)
of sound mind; prudent; self-controlled; temperate,
chaste
consonant-declension adjectives: upsilon-stems

pa8v'>, pa8E'ia, pa8v deep, high [bathyscaph)
papv'>, [3apELa, papv heavy [barometer)
[3paxv'>, ppaXELa, (3paxv short; small [brachylogy, brachistochrone)
YAvKv,>, YAvKELa, YAvKv sweet, pleasant, delightful [glycerine I
~ov,>, ~oELa. ~ov pleasant, welcome; glad, pleased
~jJ.tCTV~, ~}li(TEta, ijjJ.t(TV half [hemisphere]1
consonant-declension adjectives: nu-stem with three endings

black, dark [melanin]
I. ~}.I.LITV> may be used as an attributive adjective (e.g .. at 7]}.I.lITELUL v7)E> ="half (of) the ships"')
or it may be used as a substantive (with article) accompanied by the partitive genitive (e.g .. at
7]}.I.lITELaL TWV VEWV Ithe gender and number of the substantive ~}.I.LITV> are the same as those of
the word that expresses the whole)).
consonant-declension adjectives: VT-stems

7TOS, 7To.rTQ, 7To.V all, every, the whole [pantomime]
U7Ta'>, U7TarTQ, u7Tav all, the whole (strengthened form of 7To.,»
xapiH'>, Xapiw(TQ, Xapiw graceful, beautiful, elegant; clever
possessive adjectives (1st and 2nd person)l

my, mine
, , ,
(TO'>, (Try, (TOV your, yours (sing.)
~)J.ETEPO'>, ~)J.ETEpa, our, ours
~)J.ETEPOV
f i t I
V)J.ETEpO'>, V)J.ETEpa, your, yours (plural)2

V)J.ETEpOV
EXERCISES
I. Render into Greek.

1. of these weak cattle
2. a certain city (acc.) full of strife
3. toward the foolish thieves
4. for a short time
5. all women (nom.)
6. in the presence of the elegant king
7. of the blessed priest
8. of heavy misfortune
9. the entire strength (acc.) of this town
10. in accordance with the true account
II. by means of some steadfast measure
12. my unfortunate sons (nom.)
13. into a deep river full of sweet water
14. concerning your false victory
15. for ten prudent old women
16. black ships (nom.)
17. Our life is pleasant.
18. Half the soldiers died.
19. Your daughter did not arrive.
20. on our behalf
I. Use of the possessive adjective (0 f./lO~ 7raT"iJp) is stylistically more formal than use of the
possessive gen. of the personal pronoun (0 7raT~p /lou), which is informal and colloquial.
2. Hint for avoiding confusion between r,/lf'i~ and V/lf'i~ or r,/lf.TfPO~ and V/lf.Tfpo~: associate
we with the long elY], associate you with the Greek u/u.
II. Reading: Herakles at the Crossroads.

E(:30VA.E1JETO 7TOTE 0 'HpaKA.1]S' 7TEpt TOV f3iov ~OE 7TWS" "Ti x.pry 7TOLELV;
dpfwofJ.aL TryV OL' o.PET1]S' oMv, 7J [or] Tryv ETEpav:" yvvaLKES' OE ovo [two]
7TpOS' aiJTov r,Mov, i) fJ.EV [supply participle being] (Jwcppwv Kat EVYWryS', i) OE
XapiE(J(Ja 0.11.11.0. 7Tovrypa. E7THeOV OE TOV aVOpa EV fJ.EpH· aUTry fJ.Ev "EfJ.E" ECPry
"cpiA.ryv 7ToLryrTa(Jeai (TE x.pry. TryV yap i)oELav TE Kat /Jq.oiav oMv a~w (TE, Kat
TO. fJ.Ev yA.VKEa 7TaVTa E~ELS', TO. OE XaA.E7Ta 7TaVTa cpd)~'[l. " Kat 0 'HpaKA.1]S' ,,~
yvvaL, " ECPry "ovofJ.a (TOL Ti E(JTW;" i) OE "OL fJ.EV EfJ.Ot CPiA.OL" ECPry "KaA.ov(Ti fJ.E
o·
EVOaLfJ.Oviav [happy prosperity], OL aA.A.OL KaKiav [vice]. " i) 0' ETEpa yvvry
EL7TEV' "i) oMS' l}V Eyw (JE EA.E(JeaL cpryfJ.t OELV OVTE {3paXELa OVT' o.(TCPaA.ryS'
OVTE /Jq.oia. 0.11.11.' OVK E~E(Jn avopa o.A.ryewS' KaA.OV Kat o.yaeov YWE(TeaL aVEv
[without + gen.] 7TOVWV. XaA.E7Ta yap TO. KaA.a, 0.11.11.' E7TaWE(TOv(Ti (TE 7TaVTES'
OL aVepW7TOL Kat 7TaVTES' OL eWL. " TaVT'[l OE TO ovofJ.a r,v 'APETry.
1. It is necessary for all of our hoplites to exercise themselves; for this makes
them strong in hand and brave in spirit. I
2. The old women said that the man was rich, ugly, and difficult, while his
wife was graceful and pleasant.
3. The general did all these good deeds to the city, but he was put to death by
you because of the wicked orators who made false accusations against him.
I. Hint: for in hand and in spirit review U 17.

UNIT TWENTY -THREE
MI-Verbs: Present System
1. p..L- Verbs. In classical Attic a limited number of basic verbs form the
present and/or aorist systems by adding personal endings directly to the tense
stem without intervening theme vowel or tense vowel. These verbs form the
second major conjugational class in Greek (alongside the w-verbs) and are
called athematic ("without theme vowel") verbs or p..L-verbs (from the primary
personal ending of the 1st person sing.). You have already learned two p..L-
verbs which feature slightly irregular inflection: Eip..i (U 10) and <p1]p..i (U20).
2. Personal Endings. The personal endings are readily apparent in p..L-

verbs, and those used in the active are slightly different from those you have
learned for the thematic conjugation, while the middle or middle/passive per-
sonal endings are exactly the same.
MI-VERB PERSONAL ENDINGS
primary primary secondary secondary

active middle/passive active middle/passive
sing. 1st -}It -}lat -v -fJ.7]V

2nd -, --{]"at -, -(TO
3rd --{]"t(V) -Tat -TO
(dual 2nd -TOV --{]"Bov -TOV --{]"Bov)
(3rd -TOV --{]"Bov -TT)V --{]"BT)v)
plur. 1st -}lEV -wBa -}lEV -}lEBa
2nd -TE --{]"BE -TE --{]"BE
3rd -am(v) -VTat --{]"av -VTO
The active infinitive ending for p..L-verbs is -vaL (with the accent always on the
syllable preceding -vaL); the middle infinitive ending is -(TeaL (with the accent
on A in the present and on P in the aorist).
3. The Major p..L- Verbs. The four most common p..L-verbs are Tie1]p..L.
L1]p..L. L(TT1]p..L. and oiowp..L. All have present stems derived from the verb root
169
170 UNIT TWENTY -THREE
with iota-reduplication (defined in UI9.7b). It is also characteristic that the

present stem of these verbs has two forms: a strong. long-vowel form in the
singular of the active. and a normal. short-vowel form in the other forms
(plural ofthe active. all middle/passive forms; infinitive and participles).
verb root present stem 1
.
E-
n(}YJ-, n(}E-
iYJ-, iE-
(TTa- irrTYJ- [non-Attic-Ionic irrT(l-], irrTa-
00- ow-, 00-
PARADIGMS
TI.(}YJjJ.t, "place" pres. act. info n(}EVat pres. mJp info TI.(}Err(}at
pres. act. pres. m/p imperf act. imperf m/p
s. 1st TI.(}YJjJ.t TI.(}EjJ.at hi(}YJv En(}EjJ.YJv

2nd TI.(}YJe; TL(}Errat hl.(}Ete; hl.(}Erro
3rd TL(}YJrrt(v) TL(}ETat hi(}Et hi(}ETO
(d. 2nd TL(}ETOV TI.(}Err(}ov hi(}ETOV hi(}Err(}ov)
(3rd TI.(}ETOV TI.(}Err(}ov En(}ETYJv En(}Err(}YJv)
pl. 1st Ti(}EjJ.EV n(}EjJ.E(}a hl.(}EjJ.EV En(}EjJ.E(}a
2nd Ti(}ETE TI.(}Err(}E hl.(}ETE hi(}Err(}E
3rd n(}EQm(v) TI.(}EVTat hi(}Errav hi(}EVTO
Note: the 2nd and 3rd sing. imperf. act. are explained as from *hi(}EEe;, *hi(}EE, with
endings borrowed from w-conjugation and contracted.
LYJjJ.t, "let go, throw" pres. act. inf. iEVat pres. mJp info LErr(}at
pres. act. pres. m/p imperf act. imperf m/p
s. 1st LYJjJ.t "tEjJ.at "lYJV

.lEjJ.YJV
,
2nd "lYJe; "lErral "lEte; LErro

3rd LYJrrl(V) LETal "lEt "lETO
(d. 2nd "lETOV LErr(}ov "lETOV LErr(}ov)
(3rd "lETOV LErr(}ov ihYJv iErr(}YJV)
pl. 1st "lEjJ.EV iEjJ.E(}a "lEjJ.EV iEjJ.E(}a
2nd "lETE LErr(}E "lETE LErr(}E
3rd iurrl(v) "lEVTal "lErrav LEVTO
1. n8€- from *8L8€- by Grassmann's law (U19.7d); the original root OfL1)}J.L was *y€-, which
became *h€-, forming *(h)L(h)€-; itTTa- is from *(tT)LtTTa-.
MI-Verbs: Present System 171
Note: the 3rd pI. pres. act. is a contraction of *LEQ.(]'L(V); the 2nd and 3rd sing. imperf.
act. are explained as from *LW'. *LEE , with endings borrowed from w-conjugation and
contracted. In Attic the initial iota is usually long in the present (and of course always
long when augmented in the imperfect); in Homeric Greek the initial iota is short,
unless augmented.
LG'T1)}.J.L, "make stand" pres. act. inf. LG'TavaL
pres. act. pres. m/p imperj act. imperj m/p
s. 1st "LG'T1)}.J.L "LG'TajJ.aL LG'T1)V ( t) LG'TajJ.1)V ( t)

2nd "LG'T1)<; "LG'TaG'aL "LG'T1)<; LG'TaG'o
3rd LG'T1)G'L(V) LG'TaTaL "LG'T1) "LG'TaTO
(d. 2nd LG'TaTov LG'TaG'8ov "LG'TaTOV LG'TaG'8ov)

, ,
(3rd "LG'TaTOV LG'TaG'8ov LG'TaT1)V LG'TaG'81)v)
pl. 1st "LG'TajJ.EV LG'TajJ.E8a "LG'TajJ.EV LG'TajJ.E8a
2nd LG'TaTE LG'TaG'8E LG'TaTE LG'TaG'8E
3rd LG'TQG'L(V) "LG'TaVTaL "LG'TaG'av LG'TavTo
Note: the 3rd pI. pres. act. is a contraction of *LG'TaQ.G'L(v).
OLOWjJ.L, "give" pres. act. info oL06vaL pres. m/p inf. oLooG'8aL
pres. act. pres. m/p imperj act. imperj m/p
S. 1st OLOWjJ.L oLoojJ.aL EOLOOVV EOL06jJ.1)v

2nd OLOW<; oLooG'aL EOLOOV<; EOLOOG'O
3rd OLOWG'L(V) OLOOTaL EOLOOV EOLOOTO
(d. 2nd OLOOTOV oLooG'8ov EOLOOTOV EOLOOG'8ov)
3rd OLOOTOV oLooG'8ov EOL06T1)v EOL06G'81)v)
pI. 1st OLOOjJ.EV oL06jJ.E8a EOLOOjJ.EV EOLoojJ.E8a
2nd OLOOTE oLooG'8E EOLOOTE EOLOOG'8E
3rd oL06aG'L(v) oLoovTaL EOLooG'av EOLOOVTO
Note: the sing. imperf. act. forms are explained as from *EOLOOOV, *EOLOOE<;. *EOLOOE,
with endings borrowed from w-conjugation and contracted.
4. Verbs in -VVjJ.L Another group of jJ.L-verbs has present stem with suf-
fix vv (or vvv after a vowel) and shows no reduplication: for example, OELKVV-
jJ.L (OELK-). P~YVVjJ.L (p1JY-), KEpavvvjJ.L (KEpa-). Note that in these verbs the v
is long in the singular present active and imperfect active forms, short in all
the other forms (compare the major jJ.L-verbs).
Ex. OELKVVjJ.L, "show" infinitives: OELKV1JVaL, OELKVV(J"eaL

pres. act. pres. mlp imperj act. imperj mlp
s. 1st OEiKVV/lL oEiKVV/laL EOEiKVVV EOHKVV/lT/V

2nd oEiKVV<; oEiKvvO"aL EOEiKVV<; EOEiKVVO"O
3rd OdKVVO"L(V) OEiKVVTaL EOEiKVV EOEiKVVTO
(d. 2nd oEiKVVTOV oEiKVV(J"$OV EOEiKVVTOV EOEiKVVO"$OV)
(3rd OdKVVTOV oEiKVVO"$OV EOHKVVTT/V EOHKVVO"$T/V)
pl. 1st OdKVV/lEV OHKVv/lE$a EOEiKVV/lEV EOHKVV/lE$a
2nd oEiKVVTE oEiKVVO"$E EOEiKVVTE EOEiKVVO"$E
3rd oHKvvom(v) OdKVVVTaL EOEiKvvO"av EOEiKVVVTO
5. ELjJ.L, "to go." The Greek verb "to go" has slightly irregular jJ.L-verb
inflection. The stems used in the present are EL- (augmented ELE- n-),
(augmented nE-), L-, and LE-. The present active infinitive is LEvaL.
pres. act. imperj act.
1st
-. -. or "
s. H/lL '(Ia !lEW
-.
2nd H ~HO"$a or "
!lW;
3rd EiO"L(V) "
'(lEW or "
!lH
(d. 2nd LTOV ~TOV)

(3rd LTOV ~TT/V )
pl. 1st L/lEV ~JlEV
v 9
2nd LTE '(ITE
3rd LiiO"L(V) ~O"av or ilEO"av
In Attic prose ELjJ.L and its compounds normally have a future meaning in the
present indicative (and in indirect discourse transformations of the present
ind.): ELjJ.L = I am going, /' II go. In the imperfect indo and in the other moods
the tenses of ELjJ.L have normal meaning. The most commonly used forms to
express to go (simple verb and compounds of it) in Attic are thus: present
EPX0jJ.aL, imperfect va, future ELjJ.L, aorist 11 A.eo V .'
Note that some forms of ELjJ.L can be confused with similar or identical
forms of ELjJ.L or LYJjJ.L unless close attention is paid to breathing, accent, and
presence or absence of iota subscript: LEvaL = to throw vs. LEvaL = to go; ELO"t =
they are vs. EL(J"L = he'll go; l1(J"av = they were vs. V(J"av = they went; the form EL
may be either you (s.) are or you (s.) will go (context will usually make clear which
translation to use).
I. Imperfect r,Px0p.T/V in Attic prose is always from apxw rather than EPX0P.Ut; the future
EAEvCTop.at is much rarer than EI.P.L.
MI- Verbs: Present System 173
6. Other Tenses of Jl.L- Verbs. Verbs that have athematic conjugation in

the present system have ordinary w-conjugation in the future, as is obvious
from the future principal parts; in the aorist some have athematic conjugation
and some have regular weak aorist in -era. You must learn the principal parts
to know what kind of aorist each verb has. Athematic aorist conjugation will
be treated in the next unit (for now, simply learn the principal parts).
1. Learn the inflectional patterns of the Jl.L-verbs presented above.

VOCABULARY
J.L,.verbs
oiow/.J.L. OWlJw. EOWKa give; (pres. + imperf.) offer; grant, allow [antidote,
apodosis]
a:Trooiow}J-t (a7To) give back, return; pay; (mid.) sell
}J-f:TaOiOW}J-L (}J-Ha) give a part of, give a share of (+ gen. of thing
shared)
7Tapaoiow}J-t (7Tapa) give over, hand over; surrender, deliver over
7TpOOLOW}J-t (7TpO) give in advance; (more commonly) give up, betray,
abandon
Z1]}J-t. ~lJw. -ryKa I let go; throw, hurl; utter (words); (mid.) hasten, rush
acpi1]}J-t (a7To) send forth, send away; release, set free; leave
alone, neglect
send on, against; let go, yield; (mid.) command,
give orders; (mid.) aim at, long for (+ gen.)
let come to; (more commonly mid.) let come to
oneself, admit
lIJT1]}J-t. IJT~IJW. EIJT1]lJa and (act and 1st aor., transitive) make stand. set up;
EIJT1]V cause to stand, stop. check
(pass. and 2nd aor., intrans.) be placed, be set up.
stand; stand still, halt [hypostasis, rheostat]
(trans.) put out of the way; cause to revolt;
(intrans.) keep (oneself) away from, apart from;
revolt from (+ a7To + gen.)
I. The hyphen indicates that this fonn occurs only in compounds in Attic prose (the simple
fonn is found in poetry).
(trans.) set upon, set in charge of; cause to stop;

(intrans.) stand upon, by, against; be in charge of
(+ dat.)
(trans.) set down; set in order; appoint; establish;
(intrans.) set oneself down, in order; settle;
become; be established
set, place, put; set up, establish; bring to pass; make,
cause [thesis, hypothesis]
ava Tl.eTJ}J.L (ava) set up as an offering, dedicate [anathema]
f:TnT l.eT/J.J.L (E7T d place upon; add to; (mid.) make an attempt upon,
attack (+ dat.) [epithet]
put down; pay down; (mid.) lay aside, store up; put
an end to; put away in a safe place
put together; (mid.) make an agreement with (+
dat. of person), agree on, conclude (a pact, etc.)
[synthetic J
OEI.KVV}J.L, OEl.tw, EOEtta show, point out [deictic J
a7TOOEI.KVVjJ.L (a7TO) display, make known; appoint, proclaim, create
[apodeictic, apodictic J
exhibit, display; show, point out, prove
[epideictic I
(EVYVVjJ.L, (EVtw, E(EVta yoke, join together [zeugmaJ
pr,YVVjJ.L, p~tw, EPPTJta I break, shatter [hemorrhage]
c,'
EtjJ.L go, will go [ion]
G.7TEtjJ.L (a7TO) go away
EtEtjJ.L (EK) go out
EXERCISES
I. Translate the following fonns precisely, and for any ten give a complete
identification.
I. hnoEt:tw 10. "wT17eH 19. "LP.EV
' ,
2. 7TapaOlOWI} II. oweTEw 20. EPP17yvVTO
3. acp~CTovcH 12. aVETieH 21. a7TEoElKVVCTO
4. ECPlHI} 13. (EVYVVVTaL 22. OElKVVI}
' , ' ,
5. a7TLEVaL 14. EPP17YvV 23. Ka Ta8~CTETE
6. Ka8lCTTaTo IS. EtVECTav 24. 7Tapaoloop.EV
7. acpLEvaL 16. E7TLTl8Ep.aL 25. EcplEp.aL ,
8. '"
HCTL 17. 7TpooLooaCTL 26. KaTaCTT17CTOVCTL
9. p.ETaolooTE 18. EOlOOVI} 27. p.ETaOiowCTL
I. Verbs which begin with rho double the rho when augmented with epsilon (ipp-).
MI-Verbs: Present System 175
28. "L7]'iJ 33. acpi(TTa}J-aL 38. ECPL(TTU(TL

29. Ecpi(TTa(TaL 34. Ti()7]'iJ 39. (TVVT i()w()aL
30. 7fpoDi'oo(T()aL 35. EDLOO}J-7]V 40. EtLTE
,
31. 7fPO(TLWTO 36. "LWTaL 41. E(EVYVVV
32. a7fo'OiDo(T()aL 37. DLDW'iJ 42. E7fETi()H'iJ

1. they will go 13. it was being yoked
2. we were setting free 14. she is admitting
3. you (s.) pay down 15. I revolt from
4. to shatter (pres.) 16. you (pI.) attack
5. it was being set up 17. they prove
6. you (pI.) are betraying 18. you (s.) were breaking
7. about to make an agreement 19. you (s.) will go away
8. to shatter (aor.) 20. we aim at
9. they were giving a share of 21. we hurl
10. we are yoking 22. it is being placed
11. he appoints 23. I was selling
12. to go away (pres.) 24. they cause to stand
III. Reading.
1. Ot }J-EV (Tv}J-}J-axoL acpi(TTaVTaL acp' ~}J-wv, Ot DE 7fOAE}J-WL E7fLTieWTaL TaL'iJ
TEiXE(TW ~}J-wv, Ot '0' ~}J-ETEpOL (TTpaT7]YOt 7fpoDLOOa(TL TOS 7fOAH'iJ, aAA'
V}J-EL'iJ Ot 7fOALTaL ov 7fPO(TiE(T()E mv'iJ 7fEpt Tl1'iJ ELpryV7]'iJ ayyEAOV'iJ.
2. Ot }J-EV acppoVE'iJ ad EVTVXEL'iJ E(TE(T()aL ~yOVVTaL, Ot DE (TWCPpOVE'iJ TO. TWV
av()pW7fWV OV7fOT' a(TcpaAi] vO}J-i(ov(Tw.
3. 6 87]pa}J-EV7]'iJ aVf.7fryD7](TW [jumped up] E7ft TOV (3w}J-ov [altar] Kat El7fw'
"EyW, ;;; aVDpE'iJ, ~yov}J-aL DELv }J-7] T0 KPLTiq. EtELvaL E}J-E a7fOKTELVaL,
aAAo. KaTo. TOVTOV TOV vO}J-ov QV OlJTOL Eypa"'av 7fEpt TWV EV T0
KaTaAoy~ !register (of citizens)] Kat V}J-LV Kat E}J-Ot T7]V Kpi(TW [legal
judgment] ELvaL. Kat TOVTO }J-EV O1]AOV E(TTW, on [that] ovDEv [adv., not at
all] }J-E WCPEAry(TH oDE 6 (3w}J-O'iJ, aAAo. (3ovAO}J-aL Kat TOVTO E7fLDELtaL, on
[that] OlJTOL ov }J-ovov [only] EL(Tt 7fEpt av()pw7fOV'iJ aDLKoL, aAAo. Kat 7fEpt
()WV'iJ aVO(TWL. " ,
UNIT TWENTY -FOUR
MI -Verbs: Athematic Aorists
1. Aorist 0/ fU- Verbs. The aorist systems of the Iu-verbs that you have
learned contain forms derived from various origins. (1) Some forms are
straightforwardly athematic forms (called strong aorist or "second" aorist);
that is, secondary J..tL-verb personal endings are added directly to the simplest
form of the verb root (with augment added in the indicative): for example,
E(J"TTfV (from (J"TTf-), info (J"T11vaL In many cases, athematic aorists of this type
have intransitive or quasi-passive meanings (e.g., E(J"TTfV, I stood, E{3TfV, I
walked, EaA.WV, I was captured). (2) Some forms (in Attic, normally the
singular active forms only) have weak-aorist a-endings added to a stem that
has the suffix K (e.g., E8TfKa, I placed, EOWKa, I gave). (3) Some forms are true
weak (first) aorist forms with suffix (J" (e.g., E(J"TTf(J"a, I caused to stand [from
(J"TTf- + (J"-], info (J"T11(J"aL; EOELta, I showed).
2. Aorist o/the Major J..tL- Verbs

(SECOND) AORIST ACTIVE
Ti81]J.l.L L1]J.l.L OiOWJ.l.L "UTT1]J.l.L

"place" "let go" "give" "stand"
stems: 8E-, 81]K- E-, 1]K- 00-, OWK- (J"T1]-

infinitive: 8El.VaL cicpELvaL OovvaL (J"Tr,vaL
s. 1st E81]Ka cicpr,Ka EOwKa "

EUT1]V
2nd E81]Ka<; cicpr,Ka<; EOwKa<; "
HTT1]<;
3rd E81]Kdv) cicpr,KE(V) EOWKdv) "
HTT1]
(d. 2nd E8ETOV ciCPEl.TOV EOOTOV EUT1]TOV)
(3rd E8h1]v ciCPE i T1]V E06T1]v Eu"T~T1]V)
pl. 1st E8EJ.l.EV ciCPEl.J.l.EV E00J.I.EV EU"T1]J.l.EV
2nd E8ETE ciCPEl.TE EOOTE Eu"T1]TE
3rd E8EU"av ciCPE l.U"av EOoU"av EUT1]U"av
176
MI- Verbs: Athematic Aorists 177
(SECOND) AORIST MIDDLE
TieT)}J.L "LT)jJ.L OiOWjJ.L

"place" "let go" Hgive"
stem: eE- E- 00-

infinitive: eEaeaL ac/>faeaL ooaeaL
s. 1st EeEjJ.T)V ac/>EijJ.T)v EOOjJ.T)V

2nd f!eov l ac/>Elao EOOV
3rd Eeno ac/>ElTo EOOTO
(d. 2nd EeWeOV ac/>ELaeOV EooaeOV)
(3rd EeEaeT)V ac/>EiaeT)v EOOaeT)V)
pl. 1st EeEjJ.Eea ac/>EijJ.Eea EOOjJ.Eea
2nd f!eweE ac/>ELaeE EooaeE
3rd EeWTO ac/>ELvTo EOOVTO
Notes: (I) In Attic LaTT)jJ.L has no athematic aorist middle (see next paragraph). (2) The
aorist of LT)jJ.L is shown in a compound since the simple verb is not used in the aorist in
Attic prose; recall that the accent cannot precede the first preverb (augment [UI6.3, at
end]), hence the accentuation of ac/>i]Ka, etc.; the EL of the aor. indo represents aug-
mented E (recall that a consonant has been lost from this root). The aor. act. inf. of LT)jJ.L
differs from the pres. act. inf. of EtjJ.i only in the breathing: contrast ac/>ElvaL = to let go
(aor.) with a7TElvaL = to be absent (pres.). (3) The aorist active infinitives of TieT)jJ.L,
LT)jJ.L. OiOWjJ.L are derived from forms with alternative ending -EvaL, with contraction.
3. The Two Aorists ojLarl}lu. The verb L<rTI}IU and its compounds have
two aorists: 2 a transitive weak (first) aorist, causative in meaning, sharing the
transitive meanings of the present, imperfect, and future active; and an intran-
sitive strong (second) aorist, sharing the intransitive or quasi-passive meanings
of the present, imperfect, and future middle/passive.
Ex. TOVTOV KaTE<Tnj<rap.EV KpLnjv. (trans. 1st aor.)
We appointed this man judge.
(We caused this man to be established as judge.)
OlJTO~ KPLTry~ KaTf.<rTy].
(intrans. 2nd aor.)
This man became (was appointed, was established as) judge.
I. From *Eet{CT)O, with contraction; likewise EOOV from *EOO(CT)O.

2. Note that the 3rd pI. aor. act. indo forms of i'ITT1)}J.L are identical in appearance, though
derived from different combinations of elements: I st aorist ECTT1)CTaV from augment E- plus tense
stem CTT1)CT- (= root ITT1)- + weak aorist suffix CT) plus tense vowel a plus personal ending v; 2nd
aorist ECTT1)CTaV from augment E- plus tense stem ITT1)- plus personal ending CTav.
178 UNIT TWENTY -FOUR
-------------------------- -------
There is no second aorist middle, but the first aorist middle is found:
oi 'AeTJvaZo~ TOV tlTJfJ.O(JBEVTJ KaTHTT~(JavTo (JTpaTTJYov.
The Athenians appointed Demosthenes as general for themselves.
4. Other Athematic Aorists. A few verbs which are w-verbs in the pre-
sent system have athematic (second) aorist conjugation (in the active only, no
middle). The secondary personal endings are added to the simplest form of the
verb root, with augment added. These aorists, like E(JTTJV, are usually intran-
sitive or passive in sense (but EYVWV is transitive).l Four aorists of this kind are
found in Attic prose:
,
ar...i(JKOjJ.aL paivw YLYVW(JKW OVw
"be captured" "go, walk" "get to know " "enter, sink"
aor. stem: ar...w- 1317- yvw- oiJ-

aor. infin.: ar...wvaL f3r,vaL yvwvaL ovvaL
s. 1st Ear...wv Ef3l7V "

qvwv EOUV
2nd Ear...wS' Ef3l7S' EyVWS' EOUS'
3rd Ear...w Ef3l7 "
qvw EOV
(d. 2nd Ear...wTov Ef31JT OV "
EYVWTOV EOVTOV)
' ,
(3rd Ear...wTl7V Ef3r,Tl7V qVWTl7V E01JTl7v)
pl. 1st Ear...wjJ.Ev Ef3l7jJ.EV "
qVWjJ.EV EOVjJ.EV
2nd Ear...wTE Ef3l7 TE "
EyvwTE EOUTE
3rd Ear...w(Jav Epl7(Jav "
Eyvw(Jav Eou(Jav
Note that the aorist of aAi(JKOfJ.a~ has a passive translation in English, I was
captured, etc., despite the active personal endings. There are also forms of this
aorist with the initial syllables contracted: 7]AWV, 7]AWS', etc.
1. Learn the aorist inflections presented above.

I. There is also a transitive 1st aorist of ovw

found in Attic prose (EouCTa, caused to enter or
sink); in poetry and outside Attic one may also meet transitive 1st aorists Et31/CTa, caused to 110,
and (ciV)EyvwCTa. caused to realize.
MI- Verbs: Athematic Aorists 179
VOCABULARY
nouns
[3acnAEia. [3acnAEia>, f. kingdom, dominion; kingship, monarchy
i.AEveEpia. i.AEveEpia>, f. freedom, liberty
~(J"vxia. ~(jvxia>, f. quiet, rest, calm
adjectives
7](J"vxo>. 7](J"vxov quiet, calm, inactive [Hesychast]
, , ,
7rLKPO>. 7rLKpa. 7rLKpOV sharp, pungent; bitter, painful; spiteful, mean
[picrate]
verbs
aAi(J"KOjlaL. aAw(J"OjlaL. be captured, be seized [used as passive of aipEw]
EaAwv (or 7]AWV)
j:3aivw. -j:3~(J"OjlaL. -Ej:3.,.,V walk, step, go [basis]
ava(3aivw (ava) go up; board (a ship), mount (a horse); go inland
[anabasis]
ow(3aivw (ow) step across; go over, cross [diabetes]
Kamj:3aivw (Kam) step down; dismount; go down to the sea from
inland [katabasis]
napa(3aivw (napa) go beside; overstep, transgress, violate
[parabasis I
come together; come to an agreement, come to
terms; (impersonal) come to pass, happen
aVaytYVW(J"KW (ava) read (aloud), recite (from a written document)
OWYLYVW(J"KW (ow) know apart, distinguish; determine, decide (a suit)
[diagnosis]
OVw (poetic OVVW). -ov(J"w. (intrans. and non-causal, including 2nd aor.) enter;
-Eov(J"a and EOVV [v in all get into (clothes, armor); sink into the sea, set (of
three stems] sun, stars)
(trans. and causal, including 1st aor.) cause to enter,
cause to sink (more commonly in compounds)
[ecdysiast]
anOOVW (ano) (act. and 1st aor.) strip off (someone else's armor
or clothes)
(mid. and 2nd aor.) take off (one's own clothes),
undress
(intrans. and 2nd aor.) set (of sun); plunge into
(causal 1st aor.) cause to sink (ships)
180 UNIT TWENTY -FOUR
EXERCISES
I. Translate precisely.
I. (JLE/3rwav 15. EtiacH 29. 7TPOELVTO
2. a:7f'EooaBE 16. E<pEaBa~ 30. jJ.ETEOOTE
3. hneEaBa~ 17. avayvwva~ 31. "
1]O'"av
4. a 7TEovO'"aS' 18. "~TE 32. aVEe1]KaS'
5. a7Tooovva~ 19. aAwva~ 33. oHKv{1Va~
,
6. E<P17KE 20. 7Tapa/3~O'"EO'"eaL 34. yvwO'"ovTa~
7. O'"V jJ. /3 17 va ~ 21. a7TEowKaS' 35. O'"VVeELva~

' ,
8. E7TEO'"T1]O'"aTE 22. KaeiO'"T1] 36. ~AWTE
,
9. KaTEe1]Ka 23. O'"vvE/3aLVov 37. KaTE O'"T1] O'"a jJ.EV
' ,
10. a7TEovS' 24. aAiO'"KOVTa~ 38. E7TEO'"T1]
,
11. Ka TEO'"T1]V 25. 7TapE/31]S' 39. E7TEeOV
12. O~EYVW 26. "
EyvwO'"av 40. 7TapEooTo
13. a 7TOO'"T17O'"a~ 27. KaTEov 41. o~EY~ yVWO'"KOjJ.EV
14. EaAwjJ.Ev 28. E7TEe1]KE 42. O'"VVeEO'"ea~

I. Seven ships sank. 10. you (s.) were attacking
2. We sank ten triremes. 11. they boarded
3. you (pI.) attacked 12. you (pI.) read aloud (aor.)
4. to betray (aor.) 13. we handed over
5. we became [give two versions] 14. you (s.) caused to revolt
6. they were being captured 15. They were all captured.
7. to let come to oneself (aor.) 16. he transgressed
8. you (pI.) will cross 17. The king' s wife undressed.
9. That young man aimed at being 18. we did not recognize
chaste.
III. Reading.
I. EV EKEivV? T<{; 7TOAEjJ.v? aAAa TE oHva EYEVETO EV TaLS' jJ.axa~S' KaL 'AAKaLOS"
6 7TO~1]TryS' ainoS' jJ.EV EtE<pVYE, I TryV 0' aO'"7Tioa EAt7TEV, oi 0' 'Ae1]VaLO~ av-
TryV EAa/3ov KaL TOLS' eEOLS' avEeEO'"av.
2. OZOE jJ.EV EK 7TavToS' TP07TOV [by every conceivable means] /3ovAovTai jJ.E
TfJ OiKTl aAwva~, VjJ.ELS' 0' ov 7TapayEO'"eE TOLS' "'EVOEO'"~ AOyO~S' aAA' ad (1]-
TELTE otayvwva~ TOVS' aA1]eWS' o~KaiovS' Kat TOVS' aoiKovS'.
3. KaTa/3~O'"EO'"ea~ jJ.EAAW, (J; avopES' o~KaO'"Tai, aAAG. 7TPOTEPOV (3ovAojJ.a~
oAiya [a few (words)] EKaTEpmS' EL7TELV, TOLS' T' Et aO'"TEWS' Kat TOLS' EK
I. Compound of EK-: guess the meaning.

MI-Verbs: Athematic Aorists 181
nELpa~w'i" I EA:rr/{w yap Vj.l.U'i' 7rapaof.iYj.l.aTa [as examples] Etf.W Ta'i'

(J"vj.l.cpopa'i' aL' Vj.I./'v o~a TOVTWV EYEVOVTO Kat TiJV trycpov o~Kaiw'i' Kat
(J"OCPW'i' or(J"f.LV" OL j.l.EV Et Q.(J"Tf.W'i' XaAf.7rW'i' r,PXf.(J"8f. V7rO TOVTWV Kat o~a
TOVTOV'i' aOf.Acpo/''i' [brothers] Kat VLE(J"~ Kat 7rOAi Ta~'i' 7rOAf.j.l.OV E7rOAf.-
j.l.f./'Tf.. 2 OL O· EK nf.tpa~W'i' Etf.7rE(J"f.Tf. 3 EK Try'i' 7raTpioo'i' Kat OV j3paxvv
xpovov EOf./'(J"8f. 7raVTWV, Kat xprJj.l.aTWV Kat cpiAWV, aAAa TEAO'i'
KanjA.8f.Tf. 4 Ei'i' TiJV 'ATTLK~V.
4. OVX 01JTOL TOV'i' Tf. 7roAf.j.l.iov'i' i(J"Xvpov'i' 7rOWV(J"L Kat TOV'i' cpiAOV'i' 7rPOO~
OoaCTLV, 0L' EX8pov'i' [enemies] KWAVOV(J"~ 7rOAAOV'i' [many, numerous] 7r0~
f./,(J"8a~, aAAa EKf./'VO~, 0L' aOiKW'i' Tf. xp~j.l.aTa acpa~povvTa~ [take away: a7ro
+ aipEw] Kat TOV'i' o~Kaiov'i' a7roKTf.ivOV(J"Lv.
1. Peiraieus, nHpUL~V,>. gen. n€LpULW,>. was and is the port town of Athens. In 404/3 the
Athenians were forced into civil war by the actions of the "Thirty Tyrants," right-wing
extremists who were installed as a puppet regime by the Lacedaemonians at the end of the
Peloponnesian War (referred to in this adapted extract of an oration of Lysias as "these men").
The two sides in the strife eventually held Peiraieus and the town (Athens) respectively.
2. 7TOA~J.l..f.W = wage war with + dat.
3. Compound of ~K-: guess the meaning.
4. Compound of KUTU-: guess the meaning.
UNIT TWENTY -FIVE
Adjectives with Variant Stems;

Numerals; Reflexive and Reciprocal
Pronouns; Result Constructions
1. Adjectives with Variant Stems. Two frequently used adjectives are in-
flected in Attic with two different stems, one using consonant-declension end-
ings (in rnasc. and neut. nom. and acc. sing.), the other using vowel-declension
endings (in fern. and all other cases of rnasc. and neut.).
a. 7fOAV'i. 7fOAAr,. 7fOAV, "much. many" stems: 7fOAV-. 7fOAA-'

mase. fern. neut.
sinf.:. nom. TrOAV'> TrOAA~ TrOAV

gen. TrOAAOU TrOAA.Tj'> TrOAAOU
dar. TroM(;,; TrOMfi TrOAA(;,;
ace. TrOAVV TroM~v TrOAV
(no dual)
plur. nom. TrOAAOt TroAAat TrOAA.Q.
f.:en. TrOAAWV TrOAAWV TrOAAWV
dar. TrOAAOt'> TroAAat'> TrOAAOt'>
ace. TrOAAov,> TrOAA.QS TroMa
b. jJ.Eya'i. fJ.EyaAYJ. jJ.Eya, "great. large" stems: jJ.Eya-. fJ.qaA-

mase. fern. neut.
,
sing. nom. wya,> J.tEYaA1] J.tEya
f.:en. J.ttyaAov J.tEYaA1]'> J.tEYaAov
dar. J.tEYaA<r J.tEyO.A-[7 J.tEyaA<r
, ,
ace. J.tEYav J.tEyaA1]v J.tEYa
I. In poetry forms from both stems are found in all cases (the consonant stem has alternative
form 7rOAE-; cf. t3apu<;); in Ionic all the forms are vowel-declension: 7rOAAlj." 7rOAA..q. 7rOAAOV.
182
Adjectives with Variant Stems; Reflexive; Result Constructions 183
mase. fem. neut.
(dual n. a. JJ.qai\w JJ.qai\a JJ.EYai\w)

(g. d. JJ.qai\ow JJ.Eyai\aw JJ.Eyai\ow)
plur. nom. JJ.qai\ot JJ.Eyai\at JJ.EYai\a
gen. JJ.qai\wv JJ.Eyai\wv JJ.EYai\wv
dar. JJ.EYai\ot> JJ.Eyai\at> JJ.EYai\ot>
ace. JJ.Eyai\ov> JJ.Eyai\a> JJ.Eyai\a
2. Numerals. The cardinal numbers one, two, three, four are inflected as
adjectives; the remaining cardinal numbers (through 200) are indeclinable, that
is, they are used in all the cases and genders with no variation in form. Cor-
responding to each cardinal is an ordinal adjective (first, second, third, etc.);
all of these have vowel-declension inflection -0" -1/, -ov (except lkunpo"
which has alpha-feminine oEvTEpa). There are also numerical adverbs (once,
twice, thrice, four times, etc.); from four times on these all have the suffix
-aKt" found also in 7rOAAaKt" many times, often, and oALyaKL,,few times,
rarely.
cardinal ordinal adverb
one " JJ.w. EV

Wi', 1st 71'PWTO> once Q,7I'at
two ovo 2nd OEVTEPO> twice oi>
,
three TpEL>, Tpia 3rd TPtTO> thrice Tpt>
, , ,
four TETTapE>. 4th TETapTO> 4 times TETpaKt>
,
TETTapa
, ,
five 71'EVTE 5th 71'E JJ.7I'TO > 5 times 71'EVTaKt>
six Et
, ,
6th EKTO> 6 times Etam
' ,
seven E7I'Ta 7th EpOOJJ.O> 7 times E7I'TaKt>
' , ' ,
eight OKTW 8th oyooo> 8 times OKTaKt>
' , ' ,
nine EVVEa 9th EvaTO> 9 times EVaKt>
ten OEKa 10th oEKaTo> 10 times oEKaKt>
eleven EvoEKa 11th EvoEKaTo> 11 times EvoEKaKt>
twelve owoEKa 12th owoEKaTo> 12 times owoEKaKt>
The declension of the first four cardinals is as follows:
"one": masc.!neut. stem EV-; short-vowel fern. stem jJ.L-
masc. fem. neut.
,-
sing. nom. "
E(> JJ.W EV
, , ' ,
gen. EVO> JJ.tu> EVO>
, ,
dat. EVt JJ.t~ EVt
acc. Eva JJ.WV "
EV
184 UNIT TWENTY -FIVE
"no one": a compound of OVDE and Er~, sometimes found written sepa-
rately; the accent of the compound is the same as that of simple E r~
except in nom. sing. masc.; masc.!neut. stem OVDEV-; short-vowel fern.
stem OVDEjJ.L-.
mase. fem. neut.
sing. nom. OVOEL~ OVOEfJ.La OVOEV

gen. ovow6~ OVOEfJ.la~ ovow6~
dat. OVOWL OVOEfJ.l9: OVOWL
ace. ovoEva OVOEfJ.LaV OVOEV
Exactly similar is the declension of jJ.7]DE[~, used in clauses and phrases

which require negative jJ.-ry instead of ov.)
"two": nom. acc. Mo, gen. dat. declined Dvotv or indeclinable Dvo; used
with both dual and plural nouns.
"three"
mase·lfem. neut.
,
plur. nom. TPEIS Tpta
gen. TplWV TplWV
dat. TPl(J'L(V) TPl(J'L(V)
,
ace. TPEI.~ Tpta
'jour "2
mase.lfem. neut.
, ,
plur. nom. TETTapE~ TETTapa
gen. TETTClPWV TETTapwv
dat. TETTap(J'l(v) TETTap(J'l(v)
,
acc. TETTapa~ TETTapa
3. Reflexive and Reciprocal Pronouns

a. A reflexive pronoun is one which refers back to the subject of its
clause. Because of this relationship with the subject, the reflexive pronoun it-
self occurs only in the oblique (objective) cases, never in the nominative (sub-
jective) case. The English reflexive pronouns are myself, ourselves. yourself,
yourselves. himself, herself, itself, themselves (the same forms as those used as
intensive pronouns in apposition to noun or pronoun).
I. Plural fOnTIS are occasionally found (cf. English nobodies); OVO~VH, OVOEVWV, OVO~ITt,
ovo~va<;; }J:'10EVE<;, J.L1/o~va>.
2. The non-Attic and Koine fonn is Tf.ITITapE<;, Tf.ITITapa.
Ex. She talks to herself out loud.

You should be ashamed o/yourselves.
In Greek, what is translated into English as a reflexive action may often be
expressed by the middle voice (UIU); for instance,
r,YEjJ.ova aiJTov ELAOVTO.
They chose him as leader for themselves.
But Greek also has reflexive pronouns, and reflexive actions may be expressed
with an active verb and reflexive pronouns. In Attic there is both a direct re-
flexive (one which has the subject of its own clause as antecedent) and an indi-
rect reflexive, that is, a reflexive within an indirect statement or subordinate
clause that refers back to the subject of the main clause of the complex sen-
tence. Because of a difference of idiom, the Greek indirect reflexive will
normally appear in English as a plain personal pronoun:
Ex. They thought that the general would give them the prizes.
The commonest reflexive, normally used directly and occasionally indi-
rectly, consists of personal pronoun stem (or pronoun, in 1st and 2nd person
plural) strengthened by emphatic aiJTo~.
first person: "myself, ourselves " second person: "yourself, yourselves"
mase. fem. mase. fem.
s. g. Ej.J.aVTOV EjJ.avTr,,> CTEaVTOV (O'aVToi)) CTEa VTr,'> (O'a VT71')

d. EjJ.avTo/ EjJ.avTfI CTEaVTo/ (O'aVTer) CTEaVTfI (O'avTii)
, , , ,
a. EjJ.aVTOV EjJ.aVT'l)V CTEaVT()V (O'aVTOV) CTEaVT~V (O'avT~v)
pl. g. ~jJ.wv alJTWV ~jJ.wv alJTWV vjJ.wvalJTWV vjJ.wvalJTWV

d. ~jJ.LV ainoL" ~jJ.LV ainaL" VjJ.LV alnoL" vjJ.LvalnaL"
a. ~jJ.u,> avwu,> ~jJ.u" avn:ls vjJ.u" avwu" vjJ.u,> avn:ls
third person: "himself, herself, itself, themselves"

masc. fem. neuter.
sing. gen. EaVTOV (alJToi)) EavTr,,> (alJT71') EaVTOV (alJToi))

dat. EavTo/ (alJTi{J) EavTfI (alJTii) EavTo/ (atJTi{J)
acc. EaVTOV (alJT()v) EavT~v (auT~v) EaVTO (aUTO)
pI. gen. EaVTWV (aUTWV) EaVTWV (aUTWV) EaVTWV (aiJTwv)

dat. EavToL,> (auTOl,) EavTais (aUTaL,) EavToL'> (auToL,)
ace. EavTov,> (auT01),) EavnJs (auTel,) favn). (auTel)
The alternative, contracted fonns for the second person singular and third
person singular and plural reflexives are shown in parentheses. Note that the
contracted fonns a1JTOU, etc., are distinguishable from the oblique cases of
aVT(5~ only by the breathing sign.! The third plural reflexive may also be
expressed by a combination of the third plural personal pronoun (TCPEIs (rare in
classical Attic) with aVTo~: gen. (Tcpwv aVTwv; dat. (Tcpi(TW aVToL~ or avmL~;
acc. (Tcpa~ avTOv~ or aVTOS; neuter (TcpEa avnl.
Ex. 7rPO~ EavTov AEyEt .. .
He says to himself . . .
OVTW~ WCPEA~(TETE V}1a~ avTOv~.
In this way you will help yourselves.
mum TO. xp~}1am ry}1LV aVTOL~ OLEOO}1EV.
We distributed this money among ourselves.
The indirect reflexive of the third person is sometimes expressed in Attic
by the old personal pronoun of the third person, which survived in other
dialects and in poetry, but was replaced by oblique cases of aVTo~ in classical
Attic. The fonns are as follows (enclitic fonns in parentheses):
sin/? plur. mase.lfem. plur. neuter
'i'
gen. OV (ov) O"epwv O"epwv
'i'
dat. at (aD O"epLO"L(V) (O"epLO"dv]) O"epLO"L(V) (O"epLO"dv])
ace. "
E W O"epa, (O"epa,) O"epf.a kepEa)
Ex. 6 t:J.apELo~ EPOVAETO Ot TOV~ 7raLOa~ 7rapELVaL.

Darius wanted his sons to be with him( self).
b. A reciprocal pronoun is used to refer to the persons involved in a re-

ciprocal action, that is, one in which one person or group acts upon another
person or group and is in turn acted upon by that other person or group. In
English the compound pronouns each other and one another serve this func-
tion. In Greek a reciprocal action may be conveyed simply by the middle voice
(UII.2), but there is also a reciprocal pronoun, aAA~Awv. This pronoun is
ultimately derived from a compound phrase in which aAAo~ appeared twice,
both in the nominative and in an oblique case. The reciprocal pronoun is
declined only in the (dual and) plural and only in the oblique cases, as shown
on the next page.
I. Note also the difference between nom. ai)T(j~ or aim] and aVT(j~. the same man (from 6
ai)T(j~ by crasis). or aVT~.
the same woman (from ~ aVT~ by crasis). and ailT1/. this woman.
RECIPROCAL PRONOUN
masc. fern. neut.
(dual gen., dar. ci.A,\:ryAOW ci.,\,\~Aaw ci.,\,\~AOW)

(acc. ci.AA~Aw ci.AA~Aa ci.,\,\~AW)
plural gen. ci.AA~AwV ci.AA~Awv ci.,\,\~AWV

dar. ci.,\,\~AOt" ci.,\,\ ~ Aat" ci.AA~AOt"
acc. ci.AA~AOV" ci.AA~Aa" a'\'\y/Aa
Ex. Q.A.A.7}A.ovS' ciCnKOf)(TLv.
They are wronging each other.
4. Result Constructions. A result construction expresses one (subordi-

nate) action as the result of another action (the main action, which expresses
the cause or antecedents of the result). In English a result is normally ex-
pressed by an infinitive phrase introduced by so as to, in such a way as to,
enough to, sufficient to, or the like, or by a that-clause, usually anticipated in
the main clause by the use of so or such.
Ex. They are so foolish as to expect a miracle.
They are foolish enough to be tricked by anyone.
They are so foolish that everyone tricks them.
They are such fools that everyone can trick them.
In Greek there are two kinds of result contructions:
a. Actual result construction: W(TTE (or wS') with the indicative (or some-
times another finite verb form, such as imperative). When the result is empha-
sized as an actual event, it is expressed in a clause, normally containing the
indicative and introduced by W(TTE = and so, and thus, so that, and often antici-
pated in the antecedent or main clause by the use of oiJTW (or [KavaS', suffi-
cient, or the like). An actual result clause in Greek mayor may not be
separated from its main or antecedent clause by a comma or semicolon; in the
English translation there may be no punctuation, or a comma or period,
depending on how closely the resulting action is tied to the antecedent action.
Ex.
OVTWS' acppovES' E(TTE, W(TTE EA.7Tf{ETf TOV <l>iA.L7T7TOV cpiA.wV YfV7}(Tf(jeat.
You are so foolish that you (actually) expect that Philip will become
friendly.
OVTWS' aOLKoL EYEVOVTO, W(TTE 7TOA.iTaS' Q.7rEKTfWaV Q.KpiTOVS'.
They proved to be so unjust that they put citizens to death without a trial.
}J-Eya ovvaTat 6 paCHAEV'l' WCJTE (YJTELTE [imperative] 7rELam a1JTOV v}J-U'l

WcpEAELV.
The king has great power. So seek to persuade him to aid you.
The negative in actual result clauses is normally ov:
XaAE7rO'l f(TTW' W(TT' OVK f7rEi(Ta}J-EV aVTov T?JV 7rOAW wcpEAi](TaL
He is a harsh man, and thus we did not persuade him to aid the city.
b. Natural result contruction: W(TTE (or tV'l) with the infinitive. When the
result is emphasized as a potential or natural consequence of the cause or ante-
cedent action instead of as an actual event, it is expressed by W(TTE with the
infinitive. The subject of the infinitive of result is in the acc. if it differs from
the subject of the finite verb of the sentence and is left unexpressed if it is the
same. The negative with the infinitive of result is }J-ry. In this construction the
cause and the result are very tightly connected and the greater emphasis falls
on the antecedent action or state of being, stressing that it is one that is likely
to have a certain consequence (thUS punctuation in Greek is either absent or a
comma and in English is usually absent). The infinitive of result does not
assert that the result actually took place on any specific occasion, although
actual occurrence is often implied by the context. Actual occurrence would in-
stead be asserted by the indicative in the actual result construction.
Ex.
01JTW'l acppoVE'l f(TTE W(TTE pq.oiw'l aOtKEL(T8at V7rO 7raVTwv.
You are so foolish that you are easily wronged by everyone.
[note omission of subject of aOtKEL(T8at, same as that of f(TTE]
OVTW xaAE7roi €l(TW Ot 'A8YJvaLOt W(TTE }J-ry7rOTE pq.Oiw'l 7rEi8w8at TOL'l
ayyEAOL'l.
The Athenians are so difficult that they never easily trust messengers.
[note negative }J-ry7rOTE 1
6 pryTwp f(TTL }J-Eya'l, W(TTE 7ravTa'l iOELV TrJV KEcpaAryv.
The speaker is tall enough so that everyone sees his head.
[note 7ravTa'l subject acc. of iOELV 1

I. Learn the declension and use of the adjectives. numerals, and pronouns
presented above.
2. Study result constructions.
3. Learn as vocabulary the numerals and pronouns presented above as well as
the words given below.
VOCABULARY I
nouns
wpaA:rj. KEcf>aAi}>, f. head [encephalitis]
adjectives
aKpno>. aKpLTov undecided; unjudged, without trial
jJ.Eya>. jJ.Eya.A-l/. jJ.Eya large, tall; great, mighty [megalomania, megabyte]
AaKEoaLjJ.ovw>. -jJ.ovLa. Lacedaemonian [official term for the inhabitants of
-jJ.ovwv Laconia, the chief city of which was Sparta;
sometimes loosely translated as Spartan]
OL AaKEoaLjJ.ovwL the Lacedaemonians, the Spartans
DALYO>, DALYI/, DALYOV little, small; few [oligarchy]
OL DALyOL oligarchs, oligarchical party
DALyaKL> few times, rarely, seldom
7roAV>. 7TOAA~. 7TOAV much, many [polychromatic]
OL 7TOAAOL the multitude, the greater number [hoi polloi]
7ToAAaKL> often, many times
verbs
OWOLOWjJ.L (ow) hand over; distribute
ovvajJ.aL. OVV~rTOjJ.aL 2 be able, be strong enough (+ inf.); have power
(frequently with internal acc., e.g., jJ.Eya OVVarT8aL.
to have great power)
conjunctions
WrTTE so as, so that, that (of result)
w> so that
EXERCISES
I. Reading.
1. OV7TOTE (Unj>aA.'r, TO. J.i.EYaA.a.
2. 7TPWTO\;3 T]vpOV TaVTT]V T1JV TLJ.i.~v.
3. a<!>pwv EO'TI.V OVTO\;, 8\; EavT0 bOKEL 7TaVTa Mvad3aL.
I. Note the many English derivatives of Greek numerals: e.g .. hendiadys. deuterium.
Deuteronomy. tritium. triad. tetrahedron. tetralogy. pentagon. hebdomadal. hendecasyllabic.
Dodecanese.
2. This verb is a passive deponent ilL-verb; for present-system conjugation (similar to L(},TallaL)
see Appendix 3: Paradigms. The aorist (passive) will be learned later.
3. In Greek idiom. when 7TPWTO, agrees with the subject of a verb X. the sense is "be the first to
X."
4. 6 nHo-LITTpaToS' f:3ao-~AEa TWV 'AeYJvaLwv TPI.S' EavTov KaTEo-TYJo-E' 01.S' yap

EtE7fEo-EV. I aAAa TEAOS' o~a jJ..EyaAwv 7rOVWV KVPWS' [having power over +
gen.] Q.7raVTWV KaTEo-TYJ.
5. 7rOAAOVS' ALeOVS' Ef3aAAov OL f3apf3apo~. Wo-T' EOH EKao-Tov TWV 'EAAry-
vwv cpvAaTTWeW Kal. imEp Tr,S' KEcpaAr,S' T~V ao-7rLOa avEXHV. 2
6. 6 jJ..EV 7raT~p CPLA~OS' TE Kat XaPLHS' .ryv Wo-e' imo 7raVTWV cp~AE~o-ea~. TWV
OE OVO VEWV EKaTEpoS' EKaTEpov 7rOAAa KaKa AEYH Wo-e' V7rO jJ..YJOEVOS'
E7raWE ~o-ea~.
7. 6 jJ..EV ~WKAr,S' ov oLKawv -ryyE~o-ea~ ECPYJ TOVS' AaKEoa~jJ..ovLoVS' f3ao-~AELaS'
Kae~o-Tava~ ELS' TaS' 7rOAHS'. OL o· aAAo~ 7ravTES' 7rpWTOV jJ..EV Elxov EV -ryo-v-
o·
XLa, EavTOvS'. E7rHTa a7raS' TtS'3 aVTwv cpwv~v EPPYJtE [let loose his voice
= broke into speech] Kal. ilpE~TO T~V EKELVOV yvwjJ..YJv. Kal. 01.JTwS' EKEAEVOV
OL o-vjJ..jJ..axo~ TOVS' AaKEoa~jJ..ovLoVS' jJ..YJOEV 7rO~E~V OHVOV 7rEPI. 7rOAW
'EAAYJV~KryV.
8. 6 'Ap~o-TocpavYJS' aEI. E7rOA~TEVETO Kal. TtjJ..r,S' EcpLETO. Wo-TE TOTE jJ..ETa
EvvojJ..ov vYJi' a7rr,AeEV ELS' T~V ~~KEALav' ijA7r~(E yap 7rE~o-a~ TOV LlWvv-
o-wv [Dionysius, tyrant of Syracuse] KYJOEo-T~V [kinsman by marriage] jJ..EV
yEVEo-ea~ Evayopa, [Euagoras, ruler of Cyprus]. 7rOAEjJ..WV OE AaKEoa~
jJ..OVLO~S'. CPLAOV OE Kal. o-vjJ..jJ..axov Tfl 7rOAH Tfl VjJ..ETEpa,. Kal. 7rOAAOI.
KLVOVVO~ [dangers] .ryo-av 7rpoS' T~V eaAaTTav Kal. TOVS' 7rOAEjJ..LOVS'. aAAa
ojJ..wS' [nevertheless] TQfJTa E7rpaTTE. Kal. TEAOS' E7rHo-E Llwvvo-wv jJ..~
7rEjJ.."'a~ Tp~ryPHS' as TOTE 7rapEo-KEVao-aTO AaKEOa~jJ..ovLo~S'.
1. Will the thieves be clever enough to conceal any of their many unjust
deeds from the others?
2. Wise men say that human beings ought to help one another, and so we do
this.
3. We seem to ourselves to be so virtuous that no one surpasses us.
4. By the fact that [use articular infinitive] you fled, fellow soldiers, you
made the battle bitter for yourselves and sweet for the enemy.
5. For four days the sailors were able to prevent the hoplites from boarding
(the ship), but on the fifth day a few fell ill, so that it was necessary for
them to surrender themselves.
I. EK- compound: guess the meaning.

2. ava- compound: guess the meaning.
3. The idiom 7TU, H,
or D.7Ta, H,
is a strengthened form of 7TU,. meaning "every single one (no
matter who)."
UNIT TWENTY -SIX
Participles: Formation and Declension
PRELIMINARIES
A participle is a verbal adjective and is one of the non-finite fonns of the

verb. Like such finite fonns as the indicative, the participle has such features
as tense and voice and the ability to govern objects and be modified by ad-
verbs. Unlike finite fonns, however, the participle carries no distinction of
person and cannot fonn the predicate of a clause. As an adjective, a participle
modifies (and in inflected languages agrees with) a noun or pronoun,
expressed or implied.
In English, participles vary according to tense and voice. There are two
simple fonns, the active in -ing and the (past) passive, which ends in -ed for
regular verbs and is otherwise fonned for irregular verbs (the third principal
part of an English verb is its past participle). English supplies other participles
by using compound fonns with the auxiliaries being, having, and been.
present active: seeing, helping
present passive: being seen, being helped
past active: having seen, having helped
past passive: seen, having been seen; helped, having been helped
In Greek, participles, like infinitives, may be fonned from any tense stem in all
available voices. For the tenses you know so far, therefore, one can fonn pre-
sent active, present middle/passive, future active, future middle, aorist active,
and aorist middle participles.
I. Active Participles. Most active participles (and the aorist passive par-
ticiple, to be learned later) are fonned by the addition of the consonant-stem
suffix VT to the tense stem plus theme vowel or tense vowel, if any. The masc.
and neuter fonns have VT-stem declension, but (as in consonant-declension ad-
jectives with three endings) the feminine has an additional suffix (semivocalic
iota =y, leading to euphonic changes) and short-alpha declension.
191
192 UNIT TWENTY -SIX
a. w-Verb Participles in -WV, -OV(Ta, -ov. In the present active, future

active, and strong aorist active, -VT- is added to tense stem plus theme vowel
o. The masc'!neuter stem thus ends in -OVT- and the declension is like that of
yEpWV (UI4.3b). Euphonic changes produce a fern. stem ending in -OV(T-.
Since participles are adjectives, their accent is persistent, not recessive. For the
present and future, the accent is persistent on the final syllable of the tense
stem, but in the strong aorist, by contrast, the accent is persistent on the theme
vowel that precedes the participial suffix (cf. the treatment of strong aorist
infinitives: ayaYELv vs. present ayuv). In present or future stems with -EW
contraction, the E of the stem contracts with the theme vowel 0 to form OV,
except in the nom. sing. masc., where -EWV produces -wv.
masc.!neut.
verb tense stem participle part. stem
,
ayw pres. ay- "
aywv, "
ayovIJa "
ayov "
ayovT-
fut. at- atwv, atovIJa atov atovT-
,
2nd aor. ayay- ayaywv, ayayovIJa, ayayov ayayovT-
,
jJ.EVW pres. jJ.EV- jJ.EVWV, jJ.EvOVIJa, jJ.EVOV jJ.EVOVT-
fut. jJ.EVE- /lEVWV, /lEVOVIJa, /lEVOVV /lEVOVVT-
7ro~EW pres. 7rO~E- 7rO~WV, 7rotOvIJa, 7rOtOVV 7rOtOVVT-
,
fut. 7rO~ r]lJ"- 7rO~ ~IJWV, 7rO~ ~IJOV(Ja, 7rotf]lJ"ov 7rO~ YJIJOVT-
ELOOV 2nd aor. io- iowv, ioovIJa, ioov iOOVT-
DECLENSION: PRESENT OR FUTURE, UNCONTRACTED
masc. fern. neut.
sing. n. v. aywv "

ayovIJa "
ayov
g. ayovTO'l ayovIJYJ'l "aYOVTO,
' ,
d. ayovTL ayovIJ!1 aYOVTL
a. "
aYOVTa ayovIJav "
ayov
' ,
(dual n. a. v. ayovTE ayovIJa ayovTE)
' , , ,
(g. d. ayovToLV ayovIJaLV ayovToLV )
plur. n. v. "
ayovTE'l "
ayovIJa~ "
ayovTa
, , ' ,
g. ayovTwv ayovIJwv ayovTwv
d. ayovIJ~(v) ayovIJa~'l ayovIJ~(v)
a. ayovTa'l ayovIJaS' ayovTa
Participles: Formation and Declension 193
DECLENSION: PRESENT OR FUTURE, CONTRACTED
mase. fern. neut.
sing. n. v. jlEVWV jlEVofHJ"a jlEVOVV

,
g. WVOVVTO'> jlEVOV(J7]'> jlEVOVVTO'>
,
d. jlEVOVVTL jlEVOV(JT! jlEVOVVTL
a. jlEVOvVTa jlEVov(Jav jlEVOVV
,
(dual n. a. v. jlEVOVVH jlEVOV(Ja jlEVOVVH)
,
(g. d. jlEVOVVTOW jlEVOV(Jaw jlEVOVVTOW)
plur. n. v. jlEVOVVH'> jlEVov(Jat jlEVOVvTa

, ,
g. jlEVOVVTWV jlEVOV(JWV jlEVOVVTWV
,
d. jlEVOV(Jt(V) jlEVOV(Jat'> jlEVOV(Jt(V)
,
a. jlEVOVvTa,> jlEVov(Ja,> jlEVOvvTa
DECLENSION: STRONG AORIST ACTIVE
mase. fern. neut.
sing. n. v. At7TWV At7TOV(Ja At7TOV

g. At7TOVTO'> At 7TOV(JTf'> At7TOVTO,>
d. At7TOVTL At7TOV(JT! At7TOVTL
a. At7TOVTa At7TOv(Jav At7TOV
(dual n. a. v. At7TOvH At7TOv(Ja At7TOVH)

(g. d. At7TOVTOW At7Tov(Jaw At7TOVTOW)
plur. n. v. At7TOVH'> At7Tov(Jat At7TOVTa

g. At7TOVTWV At7TOV(Jwv At7TOVTWV
d. At7TOV(Jt(V) At7TOv(Jat'> At7TOV(Jt(v)
a. At7TOVTa'> At7TOv(Ja'> At7TOVTa
b. Weak Aorist Active Participles in -0.5", -Q.(Ja, -avo In the weak aorist
active, -VT- is added to tense stem plus tense vowel a. The masc.lneuter stem
thus ends in -aVT- and the declension is like that of yiyQ.~ (U14.3b). Euphonic
changes produce a fern. stem ending in -Q.(J"-. The accent is persistent on the
final syllable of the tense stem.
masc.!neut.
verb tense stem participle part. stem
AVw AV(J- AV(JU'>, AV(Ju(Ja, AV(Jav AV(JavT-

7TEjl7TW 7TEjl"'- 7TEjl"'U,>. 7TEjl",u(Ja. 7TEjl"'aV 7TEjl"'avT-
,
jlEVW jlEW- jlEtVU,>. jlEtVu(Ja. jlEtVaV jlEwaVT-
DECLENSION: WEAK AORIST ACTIVE
rnase. fern. neut.
sing. n. v. AVrTOS AVrTQrTa AVrTaV

g. AVrTUVTOr; AV(J(1.rT1Jr; AVrTUVTOr;
d. AVrTUVn AV(J(1.rTTI AVrTUVn
a. AVrTUVTa AVrTUrTaV AVrTUV
(dual n. a. v. AVrTUVTE AV(J(lrTU AVrTavTE)
g.d. AVrTaVTOW AVrTarTaW AVrTaVTow)
plur. n. v. AVrTUVTEr; AVrTUrTU~ AVrTUVTa
g. AVrTaVTWV AVrTUrTWV AVrTaVTWV
d. AVrTQrT~(V ) AVrTarTa~r; AVrTQrT~(V )
a. AVrTUVTar; AVrTarTar; AVrTaVTa
c. Jl.~- Verb Participles: in Jl.~-verbs the participial suffix is added directly

to the tense stem, which already ends in a vowel. Euphonic changes in the
fern. produce stems endings in -a(J"-, -(t(J"-, -OV(J"-, -VrT-. The accent of athe-
matic participles is persistent on the final vowel of the stem. Full declensional
patterns for participles of these kinds are given in the Appendix 3: Paradigms.
present active part. o~oovr;, O~OOVrTU, o~06v
masc.!neut. stem o~06vT-; dat. pI. O~OOVrT~(v)
aorist active part. oovr;, OOVrTU, oov
masc.!neut. stem OOVT-; dat. pI. OOVrT~(v)
"~rTT1JIJ.L present active part. irTTar;, irTTUrTU, irTTaV
masc.!neut. stem irTTaVT -; dat. pI. irTTUrT~(V)
aorist active part. rTTar;, rTTUrTU, rTTaV
masc.!neut. stem rTTaVT -; dat. pI. rTTUrT~(V) I
present active part. neELr;, neELrTU, neEV
masc.!neut. stem neEVT-; dat. pI. neELrT~(V)
aorist active part. eELr;, eELrTa, eEV
masc.!neut. stem eEVT-; dat. pI. eELrT~(V)
"~ 1J1J.L present active part. idr;, iELrTU, iEV
masc.!neut. stem iEVT -; dat. pI. iELrT~(V)
(compounds aorist active part. (acp)ELr;, (acp)ELrTU, (acp)Ev
only) masc.!neut. stem (acp)EvT-; dat. pI. (acpMrT~(v)
OELKVVIJ.L present active part. oHKvvr;, OHKVVrTU, OHKVVV
masc.!neut. stem OHKVVVT-; dat. pI. OHKVVrT~(V)
I. Similar is poetic present active part. of cp7]J.d: cpas, cpnCTu, cpa.v, stem cpa.VT-, dat. pI. cpnCTL(v);
but in prose the participle cpa.CTKWV from cpa.CTKW is used instead.
, , " .,. 'I'

Et}.(t present active part. WV. overa. ov
masc./neut. stem OVT-; dat. pI. o~crt(v)
,.
Et}.(t present active part. iwv, tOl}(TU, i6v
masc./neut. stem iOVT-; dat. pI. iovert(v)
f3aivw aorist active part. f3a.r;.paera. f3cw
masc./neut. stem f3avT-; dat. pI. f3aert(v)
uAierKo}.(at aorist active part. UAOV~. UAovera. UAOV
masc./neut. stem UAOVT-; dat. pI. UAOVert(V)
ytyvwerKw aorist active part. yVOV~. yvovera. yvov
masc./neut. stem YVOVT-; dat. pI. yvovert(v)
ovw aorist active part. OV~. overa. ovv
masc./neut. stem OVVT-; dat. pI. ovcrt(v)
2. Middle/Passive Participles. All middle/passive or middle participles

have the suffix -J.l.EVO~, -J.l.EV1) , -J.l.EVOV. This is added to the tense stem plus
theme vowel 0 in present, future, and strong aorist; to tense stem with tense
vowel a in weak aorist; or directly to the tense stem in J.l.t-verbs. In contract
verbs in -EW the final E of the stem contracts with theme vowel 0 to produce ov
before the suffix. The accent is persistent on the syllable preceding the suffix.
The declension of middle/passive participles is like that of eta-feminine vowel-
declension adjectives such as ayaea~. -ry. -avo
verb tense and voice participle
,
pres. mid./pass. 7TE}.(7TO}.(EVO~. -1], -OV
fut. mid. 7TE}.("'O}.(EVO~. -1]. -ov
weak aor. mid. 7TE}.(",a}.(EVo~. -1]. -ov
, ,
"
ayw pres. mid./pass. ayo}.(EVo~. -1]. -ov
fut. mid. , c'
ac;o}.(EVo~. -1]. -ov
, ,
strong aor. mid. ayayo}.(EVo~. -1]. -ov
ayyEAAw pres. mid./pass. aYYEAAo}.(EVO~. -1]. -ov

fut. mid. aYYEAov}.(EVO~. -1]. -ov
weak aor. mid. ayyEtAa}.(EVo~. -1]. -ov
,
7TOtEW pres. mid./pass. 7TOWV}.(EVO~. -1]. -ov
fut. mid. 7TOt1]ero}.(Evo~. -1]. -ov
weak aor. mid. 7TOt1]era}.(EVo~, -1]. -ov
pres. mid./pass. ot06}.(EVo~. -1]. -ov

fut. mid. owero}.(EVo~, -1]. -ov
aor. mid. 06}.(EVo~, -1]. -ov
terT1]}.(t pres. mid./pass. ~erTa}.(Evo~. -1]. -ov
,
fut. mid. erT1]ero}.(EVo~. -1]. -ov
,
weak aor. mid. erT1]era}.(EVO~. -1]. -ov
,,
pres. mid./pass. LEjJ.EVO>. -1/. -ov
fut. mid. 1/CT0jJ.EVO>. -1/. -ov
(compounds) aor. mid. (acp)EjJ.EVo>. -1/. -ov
pres. mid./pass. nBEjJ.EVO>. -1/. -ov
fut. mid. B1/CTOjJ.EVO>. -1/. -ov
aor. mid. BEjJ.EVO>. -1/. -ov
pres. mid./pass. OHKVVjJ.EVO>. -1/. -ov
fut. mid. OH~OjJ.EVO>. -1/. -ov
weak aor. mid. OH~cljJ.EVO>. -1/. -ov
3. Identification of Participles. When asked to identify a participial

fonn, the student should supply seven items: case, number, gender, tense,
voice, the word participle, and the first principal part of the verb from which
the fonn comes. For example, a complete identification of fJ.aXHTafJ.EVov> is
acc. pI. masc. aor. mid. participle of fJ.clXOfJ.aL
I. Study the fonnation and declension of participles.

VOCABULARY
w-verbs
ap7Tcl(w. ap7TclCTojJ.aL. snatch away, carry off; seize [Harpy]
1/p7TaCTa
ECTBiw, fut. EOojJ.aL. Ecpayov eat [esophagus, anthropophagy]
Kaiw or KclW. KavCTw. EKavCTa kindle; set on fire, bum [caustic]
Kpivw Ill. KpLVEW. EKplva pick out, choose; decide, judge [crisis]
7Tivw I [ I, fut. 7TiojJ.aL or drink [symposium]
7TLEojJ.at I LI. E7TLOV
CTTpEcpW. CTTpE",W. ECTTpE",a tum, twist [strophe, catastrophe]
TEjJ.VW. TEjJ.EW. ETEjJ.OV (or cut [anatomy, atom]
poetic hajJ.ov)
TpEcpW. BpE",W. EBpE"'a J bring up, rear (children); nourish, maintain; cherish
[atrophy, dystrophy]
I. The root is 8PECP-, and Grassmann's law (U 19.5) operates in the present stem to produce
TpEcp-.
lnrwxvEO/.l.aL, v7TocrxrWO/.l.aL, undertake (to do, + compl. inf.); promise, profess (+

V7TEcrx0J.I.YJV 1 indirect discourse inf.)
EXERCISES
I. Give the three nominative singular forms of the participle of the indicated
tense and voice:
1. fut. mid. of j1QXOj1aL 7. aor. act. of EK~),VW
2. aor. act. of (3aAAw 8. fut. act. of vOj1i(w
3. pres. mJp of (3ovAOj1aL 9. pres. mJp OfE</>iYJj1L
4. pres. act. of 7TapaTi8Ylj1L 10. pres. act. of EtELj1L
5. aor. mid. of E7TLOEiKVVj1L 11. fut. mid. of 7Tapa(3aivw
6. fut. act. of VO()EW 12. aor. mid. of E7TL Ti8Ylj1L
II. Write the designated form of the participle of the indicated verb.
1. nom. s. m. fut. mid. of ap7Ta(w 17. nom. s. m. fut. mid. of r,YEOj1aL
2. gen. s. f. aor. act. of TEj1VW 18. gen. s. f. aor. act. of (J.7T08Vil()KW
3. dat. s. m. pres. m/p of TpE</>W 19. acc. pI. m. aor. act. of (J.7TEXW
4. acc. s. m. fut. act. of OWOiOWj1L 20. acc. s. m. fut. act. of (3 Aa7TTw
5. nom. pI. f. aor. mid. of yiyvOj1aL 21. acc. pI. m. aor. act. of ow(3aivw
6. gen. pI. n. pres. act. of /njyvVj1L 22. gen. pI. n. pres. act. of OiKEW
7. dat. pI. m. fut. mid. of 7Ta()xW 23. dat. pI. m. fut. mid. of a</> [Ylj1L
8. acc. pI. f. aor. act. of K07TTW 24. acc. pI. f. aor. act. of ELOOV
9. nom. s. n. pres. m/p of E7TawEw 25. nom. s. n. pres. m/p of yiyvOj1aL
10. gen. s. m. fut. act. of KaAEw 26. gen. s. m. fut. act. of a7TOKTELVW
II. dat. s. f. aor. mid. of j1aXOj1aL 27. dat. s. f. aor. mid. of Ka8[()TYlj1L
12. acc. s. n. pres. act. of OOKEW 28. acc. s. n. pres. act. of vOj1i(w
13. nom. pI. m. fut. mid. of ayw 29. nom. pI. m. fut. mid. of Eij1i
14. gen. pI. f. aor. act. of apxw 30. gen. pI. f. aor. act. ofTi8Ylj1L
15. dat. pI. n. pres. m/p of ypa</>w 31. dat. pI. n. pres. mJp of 7TOLEW
16. dat. s. n. pres. mJp of 7TVV- 32. nom. pI. f. aor. mid. of
8aVOj1aL 7TapaKEAEvOj1aL
III. Identify completely the following participial forms.

' , ,
1. E()Oj1EVYl 7. 7TOWVVTWV 13. V7TWXVOVj1EVTl
2. </>EvtOj1EVaL() 8. EVEYKOV()a 14. </>ayovTa
3. EtLOVTL 9. TL8Ej1EVa 15. KaV()OV()wV
,
4. ()7TEwaj1Evov 10. OV()L 16. E</>wTaVTL
,
5. TaTTOV()L 11. 7TEL()OV 17. EpOVVTa()
6. a</>EVTa 12. (3aAOV()L 18. "
OVTa
I. The present stem of this deponent is a byform of (Xu;: stem oX- has iota-reduplication and
nasal suffix added, *O"LOXVE- -> *iO"XVE- -> iO"XVE- (again by Grassmann's law).
-------
, ,
19. 7TapayayoVTt 23. (TTaVTa~ 27. a<ptKojJ.EVOV
,
20. (JXOVTO~ 24. f...EitoV(TaV 28. <ptf... ry(Ja ~
,
21. w<pE f... ry(JavTa 25. (JT1J(Ja(Jat 29. a7TooojJ.wat
22. oov(J"(';;v 26. f...af3ovTE~ 30. 7Tv80jJ.EVOV~
IV. Reading: The fifth-century historian Herodotus discusses theories on the

flooding of the Nile (adapted passage).
af...f...· 'Ef...f...ryvwv jJ.EV TWE~, oi' E7Ti(J1]IJ.Ot EPOVf...OVTO YEvE(J8at (Jo<piav,
Ef...Etav 7TEPL TOV voaTo~ TOVTOV TPEL~ ooov~, ;:;v TOS jJ.Ev ovo OVK atwv Ei7TELV
Eipil Ota f3paxEwv. TOVTWV 1] ETEpa jJ.Ev TOV~ Q1](Jia~ avEjJ.ov~ <P1J(JLV ELVat
aiTiov~ T0V 7Tf...1]8vHV TOV 7TOTajJ.OV (KWf...VHV yap TOV~ avEjJ.ov~ Ei~ 8af...aTTaV
EKPELV TOV NELf...OV). 7TOf...f...aKt~ o· h1J(Jiat jJ.Ev OVK E7TvEv(Jav, 0oE NELf...o~ TO
aVTO 7TOtEL. 1] o· ETEpa aVE7Tt(JT1]gOVE(JTEpa E(JTiv, ~ a7TO TOV 'QKEayov <P1J(Jt
pELvaVTOV, TOV O· 'QKEaVOV 7TEpL7TQ.(Jav }ii.l!. pELV. 1] OE TpiT1J TWV OOwv 7TOf...V
E7TtEtKE(JTaTJl E(JTiv, af...f...a tEVOry~' f...EYH yap Ovo' aVT1J OVOEV' TOV yap
NELf...Ov <P1J(Jt PELV a7TO T1]KO/J.EV1]~ ~.vo~.
af...f...· E7Td OEL T~V EjJ.aVTOV YVWjJ.1JV 7TEPL TOVTOV a7T00Eita(J8at, f...Etw
Ota Ti jJ.Ot OOKEL 7Tf...1J8vEW 0 NELf...O~ imo TO 8EPO~' T~V XftgEPW?W wpav 0
1]f...W~ EK TfJ~ apxaia~ ooov 1mo TWV Xftgwv~!!.. a7TEf...aVVETat KaL EPXETat 7TPO~
TO. avw TfJ~ Atf3V1]~. KaL 0 NELf...O~ govo~ OVTW~ E'f...KETat 1mo T0V 1]f...iov W(JTE
TOVTOV TOV xpOVOV Of...iyCJ? voan pELV. TO OE 8EPO~ jJ.ETa 7TaVTWV TWV af...f...WV
7TOTajJ.WV L([91' E'f...KETat KaL 7Tf...EOVt voan pEL.
Underlined Words
Q.VE7WJTy/jJ.OVE(JTf.PM = less 8EPO>, 8EpOV>. n. = summer
scientific L(TO>, L(Ty/, L(TOV = equal (here neuter
avw = (adv.) upward; TO. avw = the acc. as adv.)
inland parts AL(3Vy/, ALPVy/>, f. = Africa
Q.7TEAavvw = drive away jJ.ovo>, jJ.ovy/, jJ.()VOV = alone
yi], YlJ>, f. = earth 000> = (here) way of explaining
Ei jJ.ri = except, ifnot 7TAEOVL = dat. s. neut. more
{KPEW =flow out 7TAY/8Vw = be full, become full
f'AKw = draw, (here) cause to 7TVEW, aor. t7TVEV(Ta = blow
evaporate pEW = flow
{7TEl. = since Ty/KOjJ.EVO> = melting
{7TLELKE(JTaTO~ = most reasonable XELjJ.EPWO>, -rio -ov = stormy
(7Tl.(Ty/jJ.O> = notable XELjJ.wv. XELjJ.wvo>, m. = (winter)
ETy/(Tl.aL, -wv, m. = Etesian (annual) storm
winds (blowing from north to XLWV. XLOVM, f. = snow
south in the Aegean and eastern wpa. wpa>, f. = season
Mediterranean) '.!:lKwvo>, -ov, m. = Ocean
UNIT TWENTY -SEVEN
Uses of the Participle I
1. Tenses of the Participle. The Greek participle is found in all four of

the major tense-systems: present, future, and aorist (presented in U26), and the
perfect (to be learned in U37). In most constructions, the participle (like the
infinitive) conveys by its tense a distinction in verbal aspect (U20) rather than
a distinction in time. Again like the infinitive, the participle does have time
meaning when it is used in an indirect discourse transformation representing
an indicative of direct speech (U28.2).
The present participle conveys the aspect of the present stem, that is,
continuous or repeated action. In practice, it most often refers to an action
contemporaneous with the action of the main verb of the sentence and is
usually translated in English by a present participle (Xing, being Xed). But in
the proper context, the present participle may refer to an action antecedent to
or subsequent to that of the main verb; for example, a Greek present participle
may be translated into English as an imperfect:
TOV~ n)TE 7Tap6vTa~ ov7Tapaow()"Et.
He will not surrender those who were present at that time.
The present participle may also have conative force (U20.2).
The future participle conveys will or intention or purpose and so looks to
the future. Just as the future indicative stands outside the aspect system of the
present, aorist, and perfect, so does the future participle.
The aorist participle conveys the aspect of the aorist stem, that is, simple
occurrence or completion of an action. In practice, it most often refers to an
action antecedent to that of the main verb of the sentence and is usually trans-
lated in English by a past participle (having Xed, having been Xed). In the pro-
per context, however, the aorist participle may refer to an action contempo-
raneous with or subsequent to the action of the main verb. The aorist participle
sometimes has ingressive force (U20.3).
The perfect participle conveys the aspect of completed action with per-
manent result in the present. The difference between aorist and perfect is seen
in the contrast between 01. (l7TOeaV6VTE~ EV Tfl jJ.aXTI = those who died in the
199
200 UNIT TWENTY -SEVEN
battle (referring to a particular occasion) and 01. TE8vy/KOTE~ (perfect part.) =

those who have died, the dead (in general). Consider also OELtw a1JTOV owpa
EiAy/cpom (from AajJ.(3avw) = I'll show that he is guilty of having taken bribes
(more or less, has taken bribes and is now in the state of having done so).
2. Attributive Participle. There are three broad classifications of the uses

of the Greek participle. The first to be considered is the attributive use. Like
any other adjective form, the participle may be used as an attribute of a noun,
that is, as a modifier that helps identify or qualify the noun without (primarily)
asserting something about the noun. In English the attributive use of the parti-
ciple is somewhat limited, and in English idiom attributive relative clauses
(those not set off by commas) are usually the equivalent of an attributive
participle:
the dancing women
the expended cartridge
the man who came into the room (clause instead of participle) I
In Greek the attributive participle is very common (more common than the
relative clause). The participle falls within the article-noun group and agrees
with the noun in gender, number, and case:
ai. 0PxovjJ.EVaL ypa.E~
the dancing old women, the old women who are dancing
6 av~p 6 Ei(JEMwv
the man who came in
6 7Tp0(J8EV apta~ (JTpaTy/yo~
the general who held office previously
3. Attributive Participle as Substantive. Like any other adjectival form,
the attributive participle may be used without an expressed noun as a sub-
stantive. The article (which is usually present, but may be absent in poetry or
when the substantive is indefinite) and the participle itself convey gender,
number, and case, so that the person or thing referred to is clear to the listener
or reader. The substantival use of the attributive participle is extremely com-
mon in Greek, and many attributive relative clauses in English are most idiom-
atically rendered into Greek as article and participle:
~ Ei(JEMov(Ja the woman who came in
, "
° apxwv the ruler, the officeholder
TO. AqojJ.EVa the things that are said
I. Contrast the equivalent German idiom, with the attributive participle: der in das Zimmer
kommende Mann = the man who is coming into the room.
Uses of the Participle I 201
6 CPEVYWV [T1]V OiK1)vl the defendant (the man fleeing the suit)
6 OLi.VKWV [Tr]V OLK1)vl the plaintiff (the man pursuing the suit)
OL EV rfl7ToAEL 1.J7TO TWV TpLaKOVTa a7To8avovTE~
those who were put to death in the city by the Thirty Tyrants
4. Circumstantial Participle. The other two main uses of the participle

involve its use in predicate position, outside the article-noun group. In this
position, the participle asserts something about the noun it modifies and is
therefore equivalent to a (subordinate) clause containing a finite-verb predi-
cate. The main predicative use of the participle is called circumstantial
because, in modifying its noun, the participle describes the circumstances
under which that noun is involved in the action of the main verb of the
sentence. The circumstantial participle may agree with the subject, the direct
or indirect object, the object of a preposition, or any other noun or pronoun ex-
pressed or implied in the sentence. In English it is often more idiomatic to use
a dependent clause (temporal, concessive, causal, conditional, etc.) or a prepo-
sitional phrase with a gerund (verbal noun in -ing) than to use a circumstantial
participle; but Greek idiom often favors the circumstantial participle over an
equivalent subordinate clause. Note the following examples:
a. temporal (expressing time)
EKmVE TOV OLKa(TT1]V EtEPX0}J.EVOV.
He struck the juryman as (when, while) he was coming out.
cpvywv TOV~ !3apf3apov~ 1.J7TO TWV 'A(1)vaiwv EaAw.
Having fled from (after fleeing from) the foreigners, he was captured by
the Athenians.
b. concessive (Greek participles with concessive force are often, but not
always, marked as such by the use of the particle Kai7TEp preceding the
participle or participial phrase.)
Kai7TEP vO(J"wv xaAE7T~v vO(J"ov Ei~ T~V ayopav r,ME.
Although he was ill with a serious disease, he came to the agora.
c. causal (Greek participles with causal force are often, but not always,
marked as such by the use of the particle W~ preceding the participle or
participial phrase.)
TOV YEPOVTa W~ 7TPOOLOOVTa T~V 7TOAW EtEpaAov.
They drove the old man into exile because he was trying to betray the
city.
d. conditional
a(J"7Tioa~ }J.EYaAa~ EXOVTE~ pq.oiw~ }J.axov}J.E8a.
Having large shields (if we have large shields), we'll fight easily.
Choosing which kind of meaning to give to a circumstantial participle when

translating it into English requires close attention to the context: in the proper
context, the example just given could be causal (Because we have large
shields, we'll fight easily). In some cases the exact force may be uncertain.
5. Absolute Participle Constructions. Occasionally, in English, Greek,

and other languages, the noun with which the circumstantial participle agrees
has no grammatical function in its sentence (it is not subject, object, or any-
thing else). In such a case, the noun-participle phrase forms an absolute con-
struction (absolute because the noun is free of grammatical connection).
The f:eneral having fled, the soldiers surrendered themselves to the king.
This being the case, they made a truce.
(Compare Latin ablative absolute: His rebus factis nuntios mittunt.)
In Greek the most common form of absolute construction is the genitive
absolute: both the noun (the subject of the participial action) and the circum-
stantial participle are in the genitive case, the genitive has no other function in
the sentence, and the phrase may have temporal, concessive, causal, or condi-
tional meaning. The most idiomatic English translation is often a subordinate
clause.
TOV (JTpaTTJYov ¢VYOVTO), Ot (JTpanWTaL EavTov) T0 pa(TLII.E/; 7TapE-
oO(J"av.
After the general fled, the soldiers surrendered themselves to the king.
TOVTWV OVTW) EXOVTWV E(J"7TEL(J"avTo.
This being the case, they made a truce.
TWV yvvaLKwv EV T0 (J"TpaTo7TEoCfJ oV(J"wv Ot avopE) Kall.w) jJ.axovvTaL.
If the women are in the camp, the men willfight well.
Less common than the genitive absolute is the accusative absolute. This
is the normal construction when an impersonal expression is involved: the
participle of the impersonal verb appears in its neuter singular form, and the
subject substantive of the phrase is usually either an expressed or implied
infinitive or a noun clause (rarely a neuter pronoun).
OEOV 7TELOE(J"OaL TO/;) (J"O¢O/;) TWV a¢povwv aKOVOV(J"W.
It being necessary to obey the wise, they pay heed to the fools.
(or Although they ought to obey the wise, they pay heed to the fools.)
OVOEL) TO KaKOV atpry(J"ETaL EtOV TO ayaOov.
No one will choose the bad when it is possible to choose the good.
(note that infinitive atpE/;(J"OaL or EII.E(J"OaL is understood with EtOV.)
aAAO TL oo~av 6 f:ly/jJ.O(J-efVy/~ TO (TTpaTEVjJ.a a:rrr,YE.

Something else having been decided (having seemed best), Demosthenes
led the army back.
A second use of the accusative absolute is with noun and personal-verb parti-
ciple introduced by W~ or W(rTrEP = as if, in the belief that.
vjJ.a~ E~aLnkovTaL, W~ EKELVOV 7T'OAAWV aya8wv aAA' ov 7T'OAAWV KaKwv
" ,
aLTWV yEVOjJ.EVOV.
They will beg you for a pardon, just as if that man had been responsible
for many good things and not for many evils.
6. Future Participle Expressing Purpose. The principal use of the future

participle (apart from indirect discourse: U28.2) is as a circumstantial parti-
ciple expressing purpose or intention. In this use the participle is often
introduced by w~.
L7T'7T'fa~ ayyEAOVVTa~ Tr]V VLKy/V.
E7T'EjJ.tav
They sent cavalrymen to announce the victory.
OVK ijMojJ.Ev W~ TI{> pa(TLAEL 7T'OAEjJ.ry(J"OVTE~.
We have not come with the intention of waging war against the king.
7. Negation of Participles. Participles are negated by either ov or jJ.ry,

usually with a clear distinction in meaning.
The negative ov is used when the participle refers to a fact, a specific
event, or an actual occurrence, for example, with participles that have causal or
concessive meaning and attributive participles used as substantives when a
definite person or thing is meant.
OVK EXWV xpryjJ.aTa 6 yfpwV owpa OVK or(J"EL.
Because (in fact) he does not have money, the old man will not bring
gifts.
E7T'Tlvf(J"ajJ.EV wv~ ov cpvyOVTa~ EV Tfi jJ.aXTl·
We praised those who did not (in fact) flee during the (specific) battle.
The negative jJ. ry is used when the participle refers to an action that is
conditional or generic, for example, with participles that have conditional
meaning and attributive participles used as substantives when an indefinite
person (thing) or a class of people (things) is meant.
jJ.~ EXWV xpryjJ.aTa6 yfpwV owpa OVK or(J"EL.
If he doesn't have any money, the old man will not bring gifts.
OL jJ.~ CPEVyOVTE~ EV Tfi jJ.aXTl KaAoL 7T'OALTaL Ei(J"w.
Those who do not flee in (any) battle are fine citi-::.ens.
6 jJ.~ VO(J"WV
any man who is not sick, whoever is not sick
1. Study the uses of the attributive and circumstantial participle.

VOCABULARY
noun
, ,
(J"TpaTEV}J-a, -EV}J-aTO" n. anny
numerals
EtKOC)"L(V) twenty [icosahedron]
TptaKOVTa thirty
TETTapaKOVTa forty
7rEVT~KOVTa fifty [Pentecost]
Et~KOVTa sixty
Er300}J-~KOVTa seventy
oyoo~KovTa eighty
EVEV~KOVTa ninety
haTov hundred [hecatomb, Hecatompedon, hectoliter]
adverbs/particles
Kai7rEp (usually with participle) although
w, (with participle, marking causal or purposive
meaning) as, as if, in the belief that, on the ground
that
as, as if, just as if
(of place) before, in front of (occasionally governs
gen. like a preposition); (of time) before, fonnerly
verbs
OL£.oKW, oLwto}J-aL or rarely pursue, chase, drive; (law) sue, prosecute
OLwtw, Eoiwta
EtaLTEw (h) ask for from (+ double acc.); (mid.) demand for
oneself; (mid.) beg off, appeal for pardon
EXW + adverb be in a certain condition or state
Kat..w, EXW be well
KaKw, EXW be in bad shape, feel bad [cachexia]
OVTW, EXW be in this state, be this way
oPXEo}J-aL, opx~(]"o}J-aL, dance [orchestra]
wPX17(]"(lWIV
71'apEL}.l.l (71'apa + EijJ./J be by, be present

TO 71'apov that which is at hand, the present circumstance or
time
Ta. 71'apovTa present circumstances, the present state of affairs
Q.71'ELjJ.L (0.71'0 + EijJ./J be away, be distant, be absent
71'OAEjJ.EW, 71'OAEjJ.~UW, make war, make war against (+ dat.)
E71'0AEjJ.T/Ua
EXERCISES
I. Render into Greek. Use participles wherever possible instead of relative

clauses or temporal clauses.
\. At the command of the general [use absolute participle construction],
everyone marched along the river, keeping on guard.
2. Those who killed my father will pay the penalty [idiom: oiKYJV (nOOva~ 1.
3. Having left town, she went down to the sea.
4. He who is not willing to learn is sick in the soul.
5. Although he made all these promises, he did nothing.
6. Turning about [use middle1, the army came to a halt.
7. A deep sleep held those who drank a lot.
8. While we were pursuing those who had crossed the river, the Athenians
burned the tents and seized the horses.
9. We believe the foreigner, although he is reporting many terrible things.
10. They will be unable to equip triremes because they are not rich.
II. Reading.
1. 01. acppovE~ TWV av8pw71'wv TO. 7fapOVTa acpEVTE~ TO. a7fOVTa (JLWKOVUW.
2. TWV apxovTwV 7fEL80VTWV, 01. 7fOA'iTa~ Eipryv,!v E7fO~rycmvTo 7fpa~ TOV~
CPE1)yOVTa~.
3. Kai7fEp 7fOAAWV 1.7f7fEWV Emn8Ep.EvwV, TOV~ a7f08avovTa~ aVELAop.E8a. I
4. lJ7fE(JXETO TaUTa 7fO~ry(TEW 6 t::.'!P.O(J-eEV,!~, tEVOW~ AEywV.
5. OEOV TPECPELV Tav 8pEtaVTa E7ft yrypw~, 01. 7fOAAOt OVK E8EAOVCJ"LV.
6. Ti~ ovvry(J"ETa~ ViK,!V CPEPEW EV T0 aywVL, P.?] p.Eya~ Kat i(Jxvpa~ wv;
7. 6 f3a(J"LAEV~ Kupov (}VAAap.paVEL 2 W~ a7fOKTEVwv.
I. Compound of ava- (and what verb?); the meaning here is take up (hodiesi/or burial.
2. Compound of (J"vv- (and what verb?); the meaning here is arrest.
8. [Parody of a funeral epigram, ascribed to Simonides] 1

7rOAAa 7rLWV Kat 7rOAAa cpaywv Kat 7rOAAa KO.K' El.7rWV
aVepW7rOV~ KE'i}laL TL}lOKPEWV 'Poow~.
9. EYW OE, (;; avopE~ 'Aeryva'ioL, ov T7W aVT7]V yvw}lryv EXW 7rEpt EKaTEpwv'
TO{JTOV~ }lEV, ot' EAEVeEpia~ Kat TOV OLKaiov E7rLeV}lOVVTE~ Kat TOV~ VO}lOV~
iaxvEw [to be strong, to be valid] f3ovAO}lEVOL Kat TOV~ aOLKOVVTa~
}lL<TOVVTH [hating] TWV V}lETEPWV KWOVVWV [dangers] }lETE<TXOV [had a
share of, + gen.], ov 7rovrypov~ vO}li(w EivaL 7roAiTa~' EKEivwv OE, oi'
KaTEMovTE~2 EV ory}lOKpaTiq. TO }lEV V}lETEPOV 7rAiieo~ aOLKOV<TL, TOV~ OE
l.Oiov~ [personal, own] OrKOV~ [households] EK TWV V}lETEPWV }lEYG..AOV~
7rOWV<TL, }lG..Aa l.<TXvpw~ OE'i KaTryyopE'iv, W<T7rEP TWV TPLG..KovTa.
I. KaK' in the first line is KaKQ. elided; it is conventional to place an acute accent on P when a
final vowel with a grave is elided. K£L}laL in the second line is (here) I lie (buried). TL}loKpf.WV is
a man's name (nom. case); 'PaoLO> is a proper adjective, Rhodian. of Rhodes. The epigram is
written in the elegiac couplet: the first line is a dactylic hexameter (the meter used in Homer);
the second line is actually two shorter dactylic units. Greek meter is quantitative, that is, based
on the length of syllables. The scheme of this couplet is
2. Compound of Kara- (and what verb?); the meaning here is return from exile (to one's native
city).
UNIT TWENTY -EIGHT
Uses of the Participle II; olaa
1. Supplementary Participle. The third major use of the Greek participle

is its supplementary use. With certain verbs, a participle in predicate position
agreeing with the subject or direct object completes the idea of the verb, which
would otherwise be vague or incomplete. The supplementary participle is
found with several well-defined classes of verbs.
a. with TVYXo.VW, A.av8o.vw, </>8o.vw. In sentences containing TVYXo.VW

(happen, be just now), A.av8o.vw (escape notice, be unobserved), or </>8o.vw
(anticipate, be before [someone or something/) the important word is the sup-
plementary participle agreeing with the subject. Note that English translations
of these constructions must often be other than literal in order to convey the
meaning of the Greek.
, , ,
ETvyxavE 7TWWV.
[Lit.: Drinking, he happened to be.]
He happened to be drinking or He was by chance drinking
or He was just then drinking.
0PXOVfJ-WaL ETVXOV.
[Lit.: Dancing, the women happened to be.]
The women happened to be dancing
or The women were just then dancing.
6 KA.~nfr EA.a8EV ap7To.CTaIJ TO. xpryfJ-aTa.
[Lit.: Having snatched the money, the thief escaped notice (was unseen).]
The thief snatched the money without being seen.
G.7TEA.ewV EA.a8E TOVIJ </>VA.aKaIJ.
[Lit.: Going away, he escaped the notice of the guards.]
He went away without being noticed by the guards
or The guards didn't notice him go away.
EA.av8o.v0fJ-EV r,fJ-aIJ aVTOvIJ (J'O</>OL QVTEIJ.
[Lit.: Being wise, we escaped our own notice.]
We didn't realize that we were wise
or We were wise without realizing it.
207
208 UNIT TWENTY -EIGHT
cp8aVOV(H TOV~ 7TOAEjJ.iov~ Aa(3ovTE~ TO aKpOV.

[Lit.: Having captured the summit, they anticipate the enemy.]
They captured the summit ahead of the enemy.
b. with verbs meaning begin, continue, cease, or the like:

ap~ojJ.aL TOV~ 7TaTEpa~ f.7Tawwv.
I'll begin (by) praising our fathers.
oi yEpovTE~ jJ.av8avovTE~ OLajJ.EVOV(HV.
Old men continue learning (or continue to learn).
7Tav(J"ojJ.aL AEywV.
I'll stop talking.
TOlJTOV E7Tav(J"av 7TpooLoovm T7JV 7TOAW.
They stopped him from betraying the city
or They stopped his betraying the city.
c. with verbs of emotion:

Xaipw TalJTa aKovwv.
I enjoy hearing these things.
oi CPLAO(J"OCPOL aE/. jJ.av8avovTE~ ryoovmL.
Lovers of wisdom take pleasure in constantly learning.
aOLKovjJ.EVOL oi av8pw7ToL opyi(ovTaL.
People get angry at being treated unjustly.
d. with verbs meaning do well, do ill, behave rightly, behave wrongly,

surpass, be inferior, or the like:
KaAw~ f.7ToirWEV OVTW TEAEVTr7(J"a~ TOV f3iov.
He did well in ending his life thus.
G.jJ.apTavETE vOjJ.i(OVTE~ TOlJTO KaAOV.
You err in believing that this is a noble thing.
e. with verbs meaning permit, endure, put up with, or the like:

OUK aVE~E(J"8E mum aKovovTE~.
You will not endure hearing these things
or You won't put up with listening to this.
TOV~ (J"vjJ.jJ.axov~ ou 7TEpwtojJ.E8a aOLKovjJ.EVOV~.
We will not (watch without concern and) permit our allies to be wronged.
2. Supplementary Participle Expressing Indirect Discourse. The second

of the Greek indirect discourse constructions (U20.6-7) to be learned employs
the supplementary participle, either in agreement with the object of a verb or
Uses of the Participle II; o?oa 209
in agreement with the subject of the verb if the subject of the indirect state-
ment is the same as the subject of the main verb.
Verbs meaning know, be ignorant, learn, remember, forget, show, prove,
announce, appear, or the like may take the supplementary participle to express
indirect discourse. (Most of these verbs may also take a noun clause, the
construction to be learned in U33.) In this construction the participle always
has the same tense (or tense stem: present part. for imperfect indo of direct
discourse) and same voice as the verb of the direct statement.
direct 6 aYYEAo~ acpitETaL
The messenger will arrive.
indirect 'i!.yvw(J"av TOV aYYEAov acpLtojJ.EVOp.
They realized the messenger would arrive.
direct TafJTa El7fEV (; (J"TpaTYJYo~.
The general said these things.
indirect ayvoE~TE TafJTa Ei7foVTa TOV (J"TpaTYJYov;
Don't you know that the general said these things?
direct (; <l>iAL7f7fO~ ~jJ.a.~ aOLKE~.
Philip wrongs us.
indirect oEitw TOV <l>iAL7f7fOV ~jJ.a.~ aOLKOVVTa.
I'll show that Philip is wronging us.
Note that in the above examples the subject of the direct form becomes the
accusative direct object and the finite verb becomes the participle of same
tense and voice agreeing with the accusative noun. In the following examples,
the main verb is passive or consists of copula and predicate adjective: the
subject may be unexpressed, and the participle is in the nominative, agreeing
with the subject. Greek idiom favors personal verbs in these constructions, but
English idiom prefers an impersonal verb with it followed by a that-clause.
direct 6 <l>iAL7f7fO~ ~jJ.a.~ aOLKE~.
Philip wrongs us.
indirect (; <l>iAL7f7fO~ EOEiKVVTO ~jJ.a.~ aOLKwv.
Philip was being shown to be wronging us
or It was being shown that Philip wrongs us.
direct OL ' AeYJva~oL EviKYJ(J"av.
The Athenians won.
indirect OL 'AeYJva~oL aYYEAAOVTaL vLK-,](J"avTE~.
The Athenians are reported to have won
or It is reported that the Athenians won.
direct E7fLPovAElJOjJ.EV T0 pa(J"LAE~.
We are plotting against the king.
\
indirect cpavEpoL ry}J.EV E7TLPOVAdJOVTH T0 paCTLAEL.

It was obvious that we were plotting against the king.
[Lit.: We were obvious, plotting against the king.]
3. Supplementary Participle with Verbs of Perception. Verbs meaning

see, hear, learn of, or the like may take either a supplementary participle
expressing actual perception or a supplementary participle of indirect dis-
course. When the physical act of perception is denoted, the English translation
cannot accurately use a that-clause, and some of the verbs of perception
(a.Kovw, 7Tvv8avo}J.aL, and sometimes aLG'8avo}J.aL) take a genitive rather than
accusative object.
EtOOV TOV G'TpaT1JYov a7To8vr7G'KOVTa.
They saw (with their own eyes) the general dying.
ryKovG'aTE E}J.OV AEyOVTO~ TaVTa.
You heard (with your own ears) me saying this.
When indirect discourse is denoted, it is the proposition rather than the action
that is perceived: the English translation is then a that-clause, and the verbs
aKovw and 7Tvv8avo}J.aL take an accusative object.
ryKovG'aTE aVTov EL7TOVTa TaVTa.
You heard (via the report of others) thfl1. he said this.
aKovo}J.EV TOV ~wKpaT1JV G'ocpov DVTa.
We hear that Socrates is wise.
E7TV8oVTO TOV~ 7TAdG'TOV~ a7TocpvyoVTa~.
They learned that most had escaped.
4. Negation of Supplementary Participles. The principle described in

U27.7 applies to supplementary participles as well. Most supplementary parti-
ciples refer to an actual event and use the negative oV. Thus ov is used with
supplementary participles expressing indirect discourse and with those accom-
panying verbs of emotion, where the participle may be considered to express
cause.
5. Predicate Nouns and Adjectives after Participles. Since the participle

is a verb form, it may have any of the complements found with the other forms
of the verb, including (for the copula and verbs of similar meaning) predicate
noun or predicate adjecti",e. As usual, the predicate noun or adjective must
agree with its "subject" noun, and in a participial phrase this "subject" may be
in any case.
Uses of the Participle 1/; oiba 211
OUK ayvow xaAt7To~ wv.

I am not unllware that I am obstinate.
[suppl. part. indo disc. with same subject as main verb: nom.]
oi 7T At LO"TOL TWV OOKOlJVTWV O"o<pwv t tvaL
the mlljority (if those who seem to be wise
[attrib. part. as substantive: gen. I
7TtLOOVTaL T~ 61]}J.00"eEVH W~ o"TpaT1]y~ ovn.
They obey Demosthenes because he is general.
[circumstantial part.: dat.I
6. The Verb oloa. From the same root as the aorist tloov there exists the
irregular verb otoa. which is perfect in form but present in meaning (know).
The stem appears in several forms. including OLO-. tLO- (augmented ?Jo-), LO"-,
and augmented ?JO"-' The infinitive is tLOEvaL, the participle t LOW~.1 The plu-
perfect is equivalent to an imperfect in meaning. Here is the conjugation in the
indicative:
perfect plllperfect
sing. 1st oioa ?1"01] (fjOEW)

2nd oirTea fjo1]rTea (fjom)
3rd oLodv) fjOH(V)
(dllal 2nd (rTTOll fjOETOV)
(3rd (rTTOV ~OEr1]V )
plllr. 1st (rT}J.W '.
fjOE/J.EV or ?1rT}J.EV
2nd (rTTE '.
fjOETE or ?1rTTE
3rd l(T(lrT(v) "
fjoErTaV or ?1rTav
The two singular pluperfect forms in parentheses are found in Attic from about
350 B.C.E. on.
I. Study the uses of the supplementary participle.

2. Study the conjugation of oloa.
I. Declension of perfect participles to be learned later. in U37.

VOCABULARY
verb
E7TL(30VA.EVW (hrd plot against (+ dat.)
verbs that sometimes take a supplementary participle

, , , , , ,
ayvoEw. ayvorww. 1)yvorWa not perceive, be ignorant, be unaware of [agnostic]
ajJ.apTavw. ajJ.apT~IJojJ.aL. miss the mark, fail of hitting or having (+ gen.); err,
"
1)jJ.apTov make a mistake (+ part.) [hamartia]
CWEXW (<iva) hold up; (intrans.) rise up; (mid.) bear up, endure, put
up with (+ part.)
OWjJ.EVW (ow) continue, persist, last
OWTEA.EW. OWTEA.EW. continue; persevere, live
OLETliA.ElJa (ow)
EA.EyXW. EA.EytW. ~A.EYta cross-examine; put to the test; prove; refute
[elenchus]
EtEA.EyXW prove; convict, refute
E7riIJTajJ.aL. E7rLIJT~IJojJ.aL (a know how to (+ inf.); know, understand
deponent jJ.L-verb)I [epistemology]
~oojJ.aL enjoy, take pleasure (+ dat. or + part.)
A.avGavw. A.~IJw. EA.aeOV escape notice, be unobserved [Lethe]
oloa (inf. EioEvad. fut. EtIJojJ.aL know
opyi(ojJ.aL. 0pYLEojJ.aL grow angry, be (made) angry (sometimes + dat. of
person or thing)
(rare) opyi(w. (no fut. make angry
act.), wpyLIJa
7ravw, 7ravIJw. E7raVIJa stop (someone else or something); (mid.) stop
(oneself), cease [pause]
7rEpWpaw. 7rEpLotojJ.aL. look over; overlook; look on while doing nothing,
7rEPLELOOV 2 (7rEpd permit
Tvyxavw. TEvtojJ.aL. ETVXOV happen to be (+ part.); happen (of events); succeed;
meet with, hit upon (+ gen.); obtain (+ gen.)
cpeavw. cpG~IJojJ.aL. EcpeaIJa anticipate, be ahead of (+ part.)
or Ecpe1)V 3
adjective
" " ~
topmost, outmost, inmost; highest [acrostics,
aKpo,. aKpa. aKpov
acrophobia]
I. Conjugated in present system like OVVaf1.aL (cf. Appendix 3: Paradigms).

2. Conjugation of the present system will be learned in the next unit.
3. Conjugated like f(3Y/V. f(TTy/V. In this verb there is no difference in meaning between the
strong and the weak aorists.
Uses a/the Participle II; ol:ba 213
TO aKpOV peak, summit; farthest point

clKp07TOt..t,. upper city, citadel, acropolis
clKP07TOt..EWS. f.
EXERCISES
I. Sentences for reading.

1. KaKw, E7rOO]rTaTE 7TEPL'iOOVTE, mvm') {J7TO TWV aAAwv yvvaLKwv aOLKov-
,
fJ.Eva').
2. TIS </>07}aUaL TOV') (3ap(3apov') avaj3a') E7Tt T~V aKpo7ToAW;
3. mum Et7TwV OVK afJ.apT7}rT'[l.
4. 6 vEavia') KaKW') EXH' OV7TOTE yap aVEXETaL OEVTEPO') wv.
5. mum TO. xp7}fJ.am Kpv"'avm aVTOV PCfoiw') EAEytW.
6. ETVXE YVfJ.Va(OfJ.EVo') EKEivT/ Tfl r,fJ.EPCf.
7. OVK oi(JOa TOV OavaTov 7TaV(Jovm Kat TOV') KaAW') 7TpaTTOVTa') Kat TOV')
,
fJ.rJ;
II. Reading: Lysias, in praise of Athenians who died in war, cites examples of
just and brave behavior from legendary history (adapted passage).
'Aopa(JTov Kat nOAVVEiKOV') TaL') 0ri3aL,) E7TLOEfJ.EVWV Kat OV KaAW')
7TpatavTWV EV Tfl fJ.aXT/, TWV 0.JJi:1g.ijJJ~ KWAVOVTWV Oa7TTEW TOV') VEKPOV'), O[
'AOYJvaLOL, r,YYJ(JafJ.EVOL EKEiVOV') fJ.EV a7TOOaVOVTa') OiKYJV [Kavizv OouvaL,
TOVTOV') 0' EtagaPTaVHV El') TOV') OEOV'), 7TpWTOV fJ.EV 7TEfJ."'aVTE') aYYEAOV')
EOEOVTO aVTWV OouvaL TWV VEKPWV ~vaipE(JW' OV OVVafJ.EVOL OE TOVTWV
TVXELV E(JTpaTEV(Jav E7T' aVTOV'), OVOEfJ.LaS owcpopn') 7TPOTEPOV 7TPO,) 0YJf3ai-
ov') OV(JYJ'), r,YOVfJ.EVOL OELV TOV') a7ToOavovm') TWV VOgL(OgEVWV TVXELV. TO OE
OiKaWV EXOVTE') (JVfJ.fJ.axOV ~iKWV fJ.axOfJ.EVOL Kat 7Tn(JL T~V EaVTWV apET~V
E7TEoEitavTO.
V(JTEP<t> OE xpO V<t> , L7TEt 'HpaKA1]') a7TEOavEV, O[ TOVTOV 7TaLOE,) </>EVYOV-
TE,) EvpV(JOEa EWaVVOVTO V7TO 7TaVTWV TWV 'EAA7}VWV, at(JxvvogEVWV fJ.EV
TOL') EPYOL'), </>0(30VfJ.EVWV OE T~V EVPV(JOEW') OVvafJ.w. aqnKOfJ.EVWV TWV

7TaiOwv El') T7}VOE T~V 7TOAW Kat EtaLTOVfJ.EVOV alJTov') EVPV(JOEW'), o[
'AOYJvaLoL OVK ryOEAYJ(Jav 7Tapaoouvat. ~7TI.(JTpaTEvovTwV OE TWV '~~~frYEiwv,
OVK l)l.l/~i2l TWV OEWWV YEVOfJ.EVOL gFEyvw(Jav, aAAG.. T~V aVT~v yvwfJ.YJv
Eixov Kat OEVTEPOV EviKWV fJ.axOfJ.EVOL.
Underlined Words
"AOpa(TTOr;, -OV, m. = Adrastus, Evpv0"8Evr;, -Ewr;, m. = Eurystheus,
king of Argos who helped his son- king of Tiryns and Argos, who
in-law Polynices (son of Oedipus) persecuted Heracles and H.'s
mount the campaign of "the Seven children
against Thebes" against P.' s iKavc)r;, -ry, -av = sufficient (here
brother Eteocles with OtKYJV = penalty)
aicrxvVO/laL =feel ashamed at (+ 8a7!"Tw = bury
dat.) 0iJpaL, -wv, f. = Thebes
Q.vatpEG"Lr;, -EM, f. = pickinR up (of 8YJpaLOL, -wv, m. = Thebans
bodies) /lETa yL yVWo"KW = chan!?e one's mind
'ApyELOL, -WV, m. = Argive.l· vEKpar;, -oi!, m. = dead body
owcpopa, -iir;, f. = disagreement VO/lL(O/lEVWV (neut. part. as
Eyyvr; = (adv.) near, close to (+ gen.) substantive) = the customary
EVtKwV = they were victorious (3rd (funeral) rites
pl. imperfect act. of vLKaw) OOAvvEiKYJr;, -ovr;, m. = Polynices
Eta/lapTaVw = commit a sin (JTpaTEVW = RO on a military
EtEAavvw = drive out campai!?n
hTEt = when, after
E7TL(JTpaTEVW =!?O on campaiRn
a!?ainst
UNIT TWENTY -NINE
Contract Verbs in -aw and -ow;

Further Uses of the Genitive and
Dative
1. Verbs in -aw. Recall that in Attic there are three kinds of w-verbs that
show contraction in the present system (U 13.1). Verbs in -aw and -ow are less
common than those in -EW, which the student learned in U 13. The Attic con-
tractions which are relevant to the present system of verbs in -O.w are:
a + E->a a+o->w a +w->w

a + H(gen.) -> q. a+ov(sp.)->w
a + H (sp.) -> a
Fuller general schemes for contraction are set out in Appendix 1. The dis-
tinction between "genuine" and "spurious" H is based on linguistic history
(explained in Unit 1, page 10, footnote 2): the H of the 2nd and 3rd singular
active ending is "genuine" (and so the iota continues to appear in the
contracted form); the H of the active infinitive ending is "spurious" (the result
of contraction), and so the iota does not appear in the contraction with a. I
In the paradigm of opaw (= see: stem opa- + 0/ E) shown on the next page,
the uncontracted form is illustrated in parentheses next to the contracted form
which results from it in Attic. The augmented stem for the imperfect of opaw
is unusual in that it has double augmentation: both the addition of initial E and
lengthening of 0 to w, yielding the imperfect stem Ewpa- + 0/ E. Other verbs in
-aw have normal augmentation (e.g., imperfect stem EHJ.la- from HJ.law). To
understand the accentuation, review the rule given in U 13.2 for accentuation
of contracted verbs.
I. In the sequence a + E + E, contraction takes place first between a and the first t. producing a
+ E, which yields 0..
215
216 UNIT TWENTY -NINE
PRESENT SYSTEM OF VERBS IN -O.w
pres. active indo pres. middle/passive indo
sing. 1st (opaw) opw (opao}J.ad opw}J.aL

2nd (opam) op~c; (opan) op~
3rd (opaEd op~ (opanad OpUTaL
[dual 2nd (opanov) °PUTOV (opaw'8ov) 0pu(T8ov]
[3rd (opanov) °PUTOV (opaE(T8ov) 0pu(T8ov]
plur. 1st (opao}J.w) opw}J.w (opao}J.E8a) opw}J.E8a
2nd (opaEH) opun (opaw8E) opuaBE
3rd (opaov(n) opwaL(v) (opaovTad OPWVTaL
present act. info opuv; present mlp inf. opuaBaL

present act. participle opwv. opw(Ta. opwv, mIn stem OPWVT- [dat. pI. 0PW(TL(V)]
present mJp participle OpwjJ.Evo<;
imperJ active indo imperJ middle/passive indo

, ,
sing. 1st (Ewpaov) EWPWV (Ewpao}J.7]v) EWpW}J.7]V
2nd (EwpaE<;) Ewpac; (Ewpaov) EWPW
3rd (EwpaE) Ewpa (Ewpano) EWPUTO
[dual 2nd (Ewpanov) EWPUTOV (EwpaE(T8ov) Ewpua8ov]
, ,
[3rd (EwpaEr7]v) EwpaT7]v (EwpaE(T87]v) Ewpa(T87]v]
plur. 1st (Ewpao}J.w) EWPWjJ.EV (Ewpao}J.E8a) Ewpw}J.E8a
2nd (EwpaEH) Ewpun (EwpaE(T8d Ewpu(T8E
,,
3rd (Ewpaov) EWpWV (EwpaovTo) EWPWVTO
2. Verbs in -Ow. The Attic contractions which are relevant to the present
system of verbs in -Ow are as follows:
O+E->OV(Sp.) O+O->OV(sp.) o +w->w

0+ EL (gen.) -> O~ o + OV (sp.) -> OV (sp.) O+[l->O~
o + EL (sp.) -> OV (sp.)
Fuller general schemes for contraction are set out in Appendix 1. The
distinction between "genuine" and "spurious" ov is based on linguistic history
(explained Unit 1, page 11, footnote 2): the ov of the 3rd plural active ending
is "spurious" (the result of compensatory lengthening), as is that of the 2nd
singular middle (the result of contraction). In the case of genuine and spurious
EL, the iota again appears in the contraction only when the EL is genuine (2nd
Verbs in -aw and -ow; Further Uses afthe Genitive and Dative 217
and 3rd sing. active; not in the infinitive).l In the following paradigm of ~r"'Aow
(= reveal: stem ~r"'Ao- + olE), the uncontracted form is illustrated 10
parentheses next to the contracted form which results from it in Attic.
PRESENT SYSTEM OF VERBS IN -Ow
pres. active indo pres. middle/passive indo
sing. 1st (c)'T/Aow) cJ'T/Aw (oT]Aoo}J.ad oT]Aov}J.aL

2nd (OT]AOELS') oT]Ao'iS' (OT]AoTl) OT]AOL
3rd (OT]AOEL) OT]AOL (oT]AonaL) OT]AOVTaL
[dual 2nd (oT]Aonov) OT]AOVTOV (oT]AoHJ"80v) oT]Aov(]"80v]
[3rd (oT]Aonov) OT]AOVTOV (oT]Aof.(]"80v) oT]Aov(]"80v]
plur. 1st (OT] AOo}J.w ) OT]AOV}J.EV (OT]Aoo}J.f.8a) oT]Aov}J.E8a
2nd (oT]Aonf.) oT]Aovn (oT]Aow8f.) oT]Aov(]"8f.
3rd (OT]Aoov(]"d OT]Aov(]"L(v) (OT]AoovTad OT]AOVVTaL
present act. info OT]AOVV; present mJp inf. oT]Aov(]"8aL

present act. participle OT]AWV, oT]Aov(]"a, OT]AOVV, min stem OT]AOVVT- [dat. pI.
OT]Aov(]"L(v) I
present mJp participle OT]AOV}J.EvoS'
imperJ active indo imperJ middle/passive indo
sing. 1st (Eo~Aoov) EO~Aovv (EOT]Aoo}J.T]v) EOT]Aov}J.T]V

2nd (Eo~AOf.S') EO~AovS' (EOT]Aoov) EOT]AOV
3rd (Eo~AOf.) EO~Aov (EoT]Aono) EOT]AOVTO
[dual 2nd (EoT]Aonov) EOT]AOVTOV (EoT]Aow8ov) EOT]Aov(]"80v]
[3rd (EOT]AOf.TT]v) EOT]AOVTT]V (EoT]AoE(]"8T]v) EOT]Aov(]"8T]v]
plur. 1st (ioT]Aoo}J.w) EOT]Aov}J.w (EOT]Aoo}J.f.8a) EOT]Aov}J.f.8a
2nd (ioT]Aonf.) EOT]Aovn (EoT]Aow8f.) EOT]Aov(]"8f.
3rd (Eo~Aoov) EO~Aovv (EOT]AoovTo) EOT]AOVVTO
3. Futures in -aw.
A few verbs whose stems end in a lose the suffix (]" in
the future and have a-contraction in the future conjugation, with endings and
accentuation exactly like those of presents such as opaw. Like the futures in
-EW (VO}J.LEW, KaAEw), these futures in -aware called "Attic futures" (U 18.6).
Futures \'/ith a-contraction are found for EAavvw (fut. indo EAW, EA~S', etc.; fut.
info EAUV, fut. part. EAWV, EAw(]"a, EAWV) and for all verbs in -avvv}J-L (e.g.,
I. In the sequence a + f + f, contraction takes place first between a and the first f, producing av
(sp.) + f, which yields av (sp.).
(J"KEoaVVVjJ.t = scatter, fut. indo (J"KEOW, fut. info (J"KEOUV, fut. part. (J"KEOWV; like-
wise for KpEjJ.avvvjJ.t = hang, 7rETavvvjJ.t = spread).
4. Further Uses of the Genitive Case (Review U 10.5 for basic uses of
the genitive.)
a. Genitive Limiting Nouns (cf. possessive, partitive, subjective, ob-

jective)
(I) Genitive of Quality or Description. A genitive phrase in the pred-
icate may describe, or denote the quality of, the subject.
mvm 7roAAwv 7rOVWV E(J"Tiv.
These things require much toil.
[Lit.: These things are of much toil.]
6 yEpwV xaAE7rOV TP07rOV WV ...
the old man, being of a harsh disposition, ...
(2) Genitive of Material. The genitive may denote the material or con-
tents of which a noun is composed.
KprWr] ~OEO,) voaTo')
a spring of sweet water
(3) Genitive of Measure. The genitive may denote the size or degree of
a thing.
OKTW (J"moiwv TELXO')
a wall eight stades long, a wall of eight stades [in length]
7rEVTE ~jJ.EPWV (J"tTia
food for five days
b. Genitive with Verbs

(I) The partitive genitive is used with verbs when the action affects only
a part of the object. The partitive genitive is especially common with
verbs of sharing (often compounds of jJ.ETa-):
jJ.ETaOtOOVat TWV (J"t Tiwv
to give a share of the food
jJ.ETEXEW Try') TtjJ.ry')
to have a share of the honor
verbs of touching or holding:
fXE(J"8at Try') XEtPO,) a1JTOV
to hold on to his hand
Verbs in -aw and -ow; Further Uses of the Genitive and Dative 219
verbs of filling:
OVK Ej.l.7TA7}(J"ETE T7JV eaAaTTav TPL7}pWV;
Will you not fill the sea with ships?
verbs of aiming at or desiring:
E7TLeVj.l.ELV TWV ayaewv
to desire what is good
verbs of reaching or obtaining:
(J"7TOVOWV hvxov.
They obtained a truce.
verbs of remembering,jorgetting, or neglecting:
pOVAOj.l.aL vj.l.ur;; avaj.l.VfwaL TWV 7TapovTwv 7Tpayj.l.aTwv.
I want to remind you of the difficulties at hand.
verbs of ruling or being leader of
6 'E.Epf,.,r;; TWV pappapwv pa(J"LAEvH.
Xerxes is king of the foreigners.
(2) Genitive of Separation. With verbs meaning cease, release,fail, be
distant from, lack, be in need oj, and the like, the genitive denotes
separation.
a7TEX0j.l.EV T~r;; 7ToAEwr;; OVO (J"Taoia.
We are two stades distant from the city.
7Tav(J"avTEr;; aVTov T~r;; (J"TpaTYlyiar;;
having removed him from the office of general
, " 1
xpYlj.l.aTWV OVK a7TopYl(J"Oj.l.EV.
We shall not be at a loss for money
or We shall not lack money.
(3) The genitive may express price or value.
a7TEooTo T7]V L7T7TOV ovo TaAaVTwv.
He sold the mare for two talents.
(4) The genitive of cause is used with many verbs of emotion, especially
those meaning wonder at, admire, praise, blame, or the like.
CYlAW aiJTov T~r;; apET~r;;.
I admire him for (because of) his virtue.
(5) The genitive of distinction or comparison is used with verbs meaning
differ, surpass, be inferior as well as with comparative adjectives and
adverbs (to be learned in the next unit).
OWCPEPH TWV UAAWV.
He differs from (is superior to) the others.
220 UNIT TWENTY-NINE
(6) Genitive with Compound Verbs. The genitive is used with com-
pounds of a7To-. 7TpO-. V7TEP-, E7TL-. and KaTa- when the compound
verb has the meaning of the simple verb plus the preposition sepa-
rated from it: for instance, Ka TryyOpEw = speak against + gen.,
iJ7TEpjJ.aX0jJ.a~ = fight on behalf of + gen.
c. Genitive with Adjectives. The genitive may also depend on various

adjectives corresponding in meaning to verbs which take the genitive.
xwpa 6rypiwv 7TA~pry, a land full of wild beasts
~vr,}1WV TWV 7TOVWV mindful of the toil
d. Genitive of Time Within Which. The genitive denotes the time within
which an action takes place.
, ,
ryjJ.Epa, during daytime, by day
mum otw·6E y~yvojJ.f.Va oEKa -ryjJ.EPWV.
You will see these things happening within ten days.
The distinctions between the three time constructions in Greek may be clari-
fied by thinking of a time line: the dative identifies a single point on the line
(or else views a stretch of the line as a single unit); the accusative identifies a
particular stretch of the line and emphasizes its extent from a beginning to an
end; the genitive identifies a stretch of the line but refers indefinitely to some
point or points between the indicated limits.
5. Further Uses of the Dative (For basic uses of the dative case, review
UIO.6).
a. The dative is used with a wide variety of verbs and adjectives having
meanings of the following kinds:
(I) Help, injure. please, displease. be friend!.v, be hostile, and the like:
mum apE(J"KH T0 7TA~6H.

These things please the multitude.
EjJ.Ot opyi(ovm~. They are angry at me.
<pD\Lo~ T0 pa(J"~AEL friendly to the king
(2) Meet, approach, yield:
a7T~vTry(J"av aiJTOL, OL (J"TpaTryyo[.
The generals came up to them (met them face to face).
(3) Obey. serve, trust:
7TEiOE(J"6a~ T0 apxovTL to obe.v the ruler
T0 pa(J"~AEL OOVAEVHV to be a slave to the king
---- ---------- --
(4) Be like, be equal:

(JTpaTEvjJ.a rCTOV T0 TWV 'AeYJvaiwv
an army equal to that of the Athenians
b. The instrumental dative is used with expressions of comparison (in-

cluding comparative adjectives) to denote the degree of difference (by how
much?).
OAiYO? CTOcpWTEpO) EyEVETO.
He became a little wiser (wiser by a little).
c. The instrumental dative of an abstract substantive may express manner

or accompanying circumstance (dative of manner).
7rOAAfi t30fi with loud shouting
Tfi aA YJeEiq. in truth
CT7rOVOfi in haste or zealously
EPYO? AOYO? in deed, in word
d. The comitative dative is used to denote the persons or things which ac-
company or take part in an action.
( I) Dative of ( Friendly or Hostile) Association
cnaAEyt:CTeaL aAA1]AOL) to converse with each other
to fight with (against) many
(2) Dative of Military Accompaniment
Ef,t:AavvH T0 CTTpaTEvjJ.an 7ravTi.
He marches forth with his entire army.
e. Locative Dative. Place or position is normally denoted in prose by the

dative with a preposition; in poetry the dative alone may be used. In prose the
dative (or surviving locative case) of a proper name may be used without a
preposition to indicate place.
'AOYJVYJCTL. nveo'i. LaAajJ.'ivL
at Athens. at P.vtho (= Delphi). at Salamis
f. Dative with Compound Verbs. The dative is often used with verbs
compounded in CTVV-. EV-. f.7rL-. 7rapa-, 7rt:PL-. 7rPOCT-. or imo- when the
preposition in the compound conveys a sense which normally governs the
dative.
E7rL Tiet:CTeaL TO'i) 7roAt:jJ.ioL)
to attack the enem. . . (to place oneself upon. against the enemy)
-------------- - -----
a-vvaCnKEI.V TOI.') aAAO~,)

to commit wrong together with the others
g. Dative of Agent. This use is confined to passives of the perfect stem
or the passive verbal adjective, both to be learned later (U37.7, U42.6).

I. Learn the inflection of verbs in and -aw -ow.
2. Study the uses of the genitive and dative.
VOCABULARY
Vocabulary-building Hints. Note that many verbs in -aw and -aware de-
nominatives, that is, formed from noun or adjective roots. Thus TLjJ.aw from
the a-stem noun TLjJ.r" v~Kaw from ViKYJ, TEAEVTaw from TEAEVTr,; OYJAOW from
the o-stem adjective oflA.o'), (YJAOW from the o-stem noun (flAO,).
Also note that in forming the future and aorist (and other) principal parts
of such verbs, the vowel of the stem is lengthened before the tense suffix (as
was true of most verbs in -EW): TLj.J.r,a-w (Attic YJ for ii in TLjJ.aa-w), Eor,Awa-a.
nouns
KprWf} , KP~VY/', f. well, spring [Hippocrenej
aho" (JLTOV, m. (sing. only); grain; bread; food, provisions [parasite j
pI. (Jim, (JLTWV, n.
, ,
(JtTWV. (JlTWV, n. grain, bread; food. provisions
(J7TOVO~. (J7TOVO~" f. drink-offering; (pl.) truce. treaty
TuAavTov, TaAuvTov,n. balance. weighing scale; unit of weight (talent), and
hence a sum of money (gold or silver)1
adjectives
., " "
l(JO" l(Jy/. l(JOV equal [isosceles, isobar]
l(JW, equally; probably, perhaps
}1V~}1WV, }1V~}10V (gen. mindful. remembering. unforgetting [mnemonic I
}1V~ }1ovo,)
I. The standards of weight and monetary units in ancient Greece varied according to locale. In
classical Athens. weight and money were measured in obols (opo'\oi). drachmas (opaX}lai: the
drachma is the unit of modern Greek currency). minae (j.Lva'il. and talents (Ta'\aVTa). with 6
obols = I drachma; 100 drachmas = Imina; 60 minae = I talent. The Attic drachma was 4.37
grams.
Verbs in -aw and -OW; Further Uses of the Genitive and Dative 223
- - - - ~- - - ~-------- -------~
verbs
, 1 ~ I • I
U7r0PEW, U7rOprWW, YJ7roprwu be without means or resources; be at a loss, be in

doubt; lack [aporia, aporetic]
pucnAcuw, j3urnAEl)O"w, be king; (inceptive aor.) became king
EpuO"iAEVO"U
oYJAow, oYJAwO"w, Eo~AwO"u render manifest; reveal, disclose, show
(YJAow, (YJAwO"w, E(~AwO"u vie with, emulate; admire, praise (+ acc. of person +
gen. of cause) [zealot]
j1ETEXW (j1ETa) partake of, have a share of or in (+ gen.)
j1Lj1ViJO"KW or j1LI.W~o"KW, remind, call to mind (+ acc. of person + gen. of
j1V~o"w, Ej1VYJO"U (poetic in thing); (mid./pass.) remember (+ gen. or + acc.),
active) make mention of (+ gen.) [amnesia, amnesty]
, , , ,
UVUj1Lj1VYJO"KW or V7r0j1Lj1VYJ-
O"KW (used in prose instead
of simple verb)
vLKaw, VtK~o"W, EviKYJO"U [L I Win; conquer
opaw, O"'Oj1UL, ELoov see [panorama]
7rij17rAYJJ1L or Ej17rij17rAYJj1L, fill (+ gen. of thing)
Ej17rA~O"w, EVE7rAYJO"u I
o"KEoaVVVj1L, -O"KEoaw, scatter, disperse
-EO"KEoaO"a 2
TEAEvTaw, TEAEVT~o"W, accomplish; bring to an end; end one's life, die;
ETEAclJTYJO"u (pres. act. part. agreeing with subject of sentence,
as if an adverb) finally
Ttj1aw, TLj1~O"W, hij1YJO"u ILI honor, esteem
cpuivw, CPUVEW, ECPYJVU bring to light, reveal; show forth, display; (pass.)
come to light, appear; (with inf.) appear (seem) to
be doing X; (with suppl. part.) be clearly,
obviously, openly doing X [phenomenon]
CPEPW + adverb bear, endure in a certain manner
xuAmw> CPEPW bear with difficulty, be annoyed (+ suppl. part.)
EXERCISES
I. Identify completely and translate precisely each fonn.

,
1. ETEAEVTW}J.EV 4. EWPW}J.EV 7. ~E~aO"XYJ(TEw
2. E(y]AOVVTO 5. ax Eoav vvacn 8. aVE}J.vY]O"a~
, ' ,
3. H}J.WVTaL 6. H}J.W(}aLC;; 9. ava}J.vY]O"ac;;
---~--
I. Outside the present, the compound is preferred in prose; conjugated in the present system
like tUTryj.l.L.
2. Outside the present. compounds such as DWrTKEOO.VVVj.l.L are preferred in prose.
' , VLKa,TE
10. EVLKa 20. U7TOPOVVH 30.
11. opa,aBaL 21. TEAEvTw)J.EVov 31. opw
12. ' , EVE7Ti)J.7T Aa)J.EV
E)J. 7Ti)J. 7T A'1(J"L 22. EH)J.WV 32.
13. (J"KEOWV 23. EO'lAOV 33. (J"KEOW)J.EV
14. ' ,
EACf'; 24. ap7Ta(J"T1 34. TEAEVT77(J"EW
15. EVE7Ti)J.7T A'I'; 25. f.7ri(J"Ta(J"eaL 35. <pr,vaL
16. "L(J")J.EV 26. O'IAOL 36. "
H(J"OVTaL
17. <pavEL 27. H)J.a,V 37. {(J"ovTaL
' ,
18. 7TEpLotweE 28. '17TOpH 38. opywv)J.EvaL';
19. ('1 Aov(J"eaL 29. ('1 Aov)J.EvoL 39. E7Tav(J"aTo
II. Write in Greek.
1. to emulate (pres. & aor.)
2. to bring to an end (pres. & aor.)
3. masc. dat. pI. pres. act. part. of "win"
4. the things being made manifest (nom.)
5. they used to fill
6. we are being emulated
7. you (s.) were seeing
8. gen. s. fern. pres. mJp part. of "honor"
9. to scatter (pres. & aor.)
10. acc. pI. masc. fut. act. part. of "have a share of"
11. you (pI.) remembered
12. they were emulating
13. to be conquered
14. you (s.) used to see
15. we are being honored
16. we'll march
17. she gave a share of
18. I had a share of
19. about to suffer
20. to drink (pres. & aor.)
III. Reading.
1. TPL(J"L o· 1])J.EpaL'; V(J"TEPOV TrJV EavTwv UPETr]V aVeL'; EoryAw(J"av w<pE-
AOVVTE<; TOU'; U7TopovvTa,; (J"LTiwv.
2. OU )J.Vry)J.OVE'; OVTE';, (J; avopE<; (J"TpaHWTaL, <paivE(J"eE OVTE TWV TOTE yEVO-
)J.EVWV OVTE TWV VVV )J.EAAovTWV YEVry(J"WeaL.
3. OVTW OEWO'; AEYHv 17v OiJTO'; 0 7TOV'IPO'; W(J"TE <paivE(J"eaL atw,; ELvaL
upXr,,;·
4. 7TpWTOV )J.f.V 1](J"vxiav 17YEv 0 yEpwV TaVTa opwv 7TpaTTo)J.EVa imo TWV
E7TL{3ovAEvovTwv TOL'; apxov(J"w, TEAEVTwv of. TOL'; 7TOAiTaL'; 7TQ.VTa U7TE-
OHtEV £.0,; 7Tav(J"wv Tr]V (J"TQ.(J"W.
5. TWV GIJf3aiwv OVK E;EPXO/lEVWV 1 d5> /laXlJv. Ot 'A8IJvaLo~ CJLETEAOVV

TfLX05> /laKpwV Ai8wv nowvvTf5>. TETTapa (TTaOLa anEXov TWV TOV
aOTEW5> TfLXWV.
6. Ot TOV j3aCTLAEW5> CTTpaTLWTa~ TO /lEV nAT/805> rITo~ ELITt TOL5> "EAAIJIT~. T~V
0' apf.T~v ov. 2
7. OU pq.oiw5> ijVEyKw 6 OW8EV5> aKOl)WV naITa5> TOS yvvaLKa5> TOV ano Tr,5>
Avoia5> [Lydia (a country in Asia Minor)] EMoVTa 8EOV TL/lwITa5>.
8. npoTfpov /lEV EVO/l~(ov E;ELva~ Tip POVAO/lEV<{J. iwvxiav aYOVTL. /l~Tf
OiKa5> EXEW /l~Tf npaY/laTa' vvv OE naVTa ITV/lf3aivH nap' EAnioa Kat d5>
OfLVOV aywva Ka8iITTa/lat.
9. ayvow Tiv~ nOTE 3 yvw/lTl xpw/lWO~ [making use of, + dat.] Ot AaKE-
oa~/lovw~ KaW/lEVIJV T~V 'EAAaoa nEpWpWITW. iJYE/lOVE5> OVTH TWV
'EAA~VWV OVK aOiKW5> Kat o~a T~V EJlCPVTOV [inborn] apf.T~v Kat o~a T~V
TWV np05> TOV nOAE/lOV En~ITT~/lIJV [knowledge, expertise].
1. Compound of hi E~; guess the meaning.

2. Note that a proc1itic receives an acute accent when it precedes a pause at a mark of
punctuation, as here.
3 When ?Ton is attached to an interrogative. it adds emphasis: Ti~!Ti ?Ton; = who/what in the
world?
UNIT THIRTY
Comparison of Adjectives and

Adverbs
1. Comparison of Adjectives. Recall that adjectives have three degrees

(U7, Prelim. A): the positive, the comparative, and the superlative. The Greek
comparative adjective may be translated in English as "more X" or simply
"rather X" or "quite X." The Greek superlative may be translated in English as
"most X" or simply "very X."
There are two methods of forming comparatives and superlatives in
Greek, as in English. One is to modify the positive form of an adjective with
the comparative and superlative adverbs flaAAOV = more or flaAuTTa = most.
These adverbs must be used with most participles and may be used with other
adjectives:
</nAWV flaAAOV CP~AWV flaAUTTa CP~AWV
loving more loving most loving
EVEA7n~ flaAAOV EVEA7n~ flaA~(TTa EVEA7n~
hopeful more hopeful most hopeful
2. Comparison with Suffixes. The second method of forming compar-

atives and superlatives is by adding suffixes to the adjective stem (just as is
done in English with -er and -est). There are two sets of suffixes in Greek.
a. -TEpO~ and -TaTO~. Most vowel-declension adjectives and many con-

sonant-declension adjectives use the comparative suffix -TEpO~ and the super-
lative suffix -TaTO~. For vowel-declension adjectives, the suffix is usually
added to the stem plus masc.!neut. stem vowel o. If the previous syllable is
metrically light (contains a short vowel followed by no consonant or by only
one consonant), then the stem vowel is lengthened to w before the suffix. (This
occurs because Greek tends to avoid a long succession of short or light
syllables.) For consonant-declension adjectives, the suffix is usually added to
the masc.!neut. stem. The comparative and superlative are declined like
normal three-ending vowel-declension adjectives (fern. sing. in a for com-
226
Comparison of Adjectives and Adverbs 227
parative, in 1] for superlative). The accent of comparative and superlative is

persistent on the syllable preceding the suffix.
7TOV1]PO,) 7TOV1]POTEPO,) 7TOV1]pOTa TO')
(long vowel 1]: omicron retained)
7TLKPO,) 7TLKPOTEPO,) 7TLKpOTa TO')
(short vowel L, but two consonants: omicron retained)
a~w') G.~U;)TEPO,) G.~U;JTaTO,)
(short vowel L, no consonant: omega as link vowel)
xaAE7To') xaAE7TwTEpO') xaAE7TWTaTO')
(short vowel E, one consonant: omega as link vowel)
G.A1]8~')
(stem G.A1]8HT-) G.A1]8ECTTEPO,) G.A1]8ECTTaTO,)
(3apv') (stem (3apv-) (3apvTEpo,) (3apVTaTO')
Some adjectives form comparative and superlative from a modified stem: for
instance, YEpaLo') = aged produces YEpaiTEpo'), YEpaiTaTo'); and EvoaijJ.wv pro-
duces EvoaLjJ.ovECTTEPO'), EvoaLjJ.ovECTTaTO'). The student will become familiar
with such irregularities only through experience in reading Greek texts and
through use of a good lexicon.
b. -LWV and -LCTTO'). Some adjectives of both declensions and many ad-
jectives with irregular comparison (due to use of different roots or different
forms of a root in the different degrees) use the comparative suffix -[WV
(neuter -Lov, gen. sing. -Lovo'); no separate fern.) and the superlative suffix
-LCTTO,), -1], -ov. An alternative form of -LWV features semivocalic iota instead
of vowel I.: thus the suffix is -ywv, which produces phonetic changes that
eliminate the semi vocalic iota. The adjective stem used with these suffixes
often loses its final vowel or an adjectival suffix like -po-. The accent falls as
far back as the length of U permits: thus masc. KaAAiwv, EAaTTwv, but neuter
KaAAwv, (AaTTov.
Here are the major adjectives using these suffixes:
positive comparative superlative
~ov> (~o-) ~o[wv, ~owv ~OLCTTO>. -1/. -ov

TaXv> (TaX-) 8aTTwv. 8aTTOV 1 TaXW"To>
aiG)(po> (aitTX-) "
aWXLwv. "
aLtTXwv aLaxwTo>
EX8po> (EX8-) EX8[wv. EX8wv EX8HTTO>
I. Non-Attic ()urrrrwv. ()urrrrov. Note that the T ofmxv> is due to dissimilation by Grassmann's
law (just as in TpEtJ>W vS. ()pE"Ij;W). ()UTTWV derives from a form of the root in which initial ()
remains and phonetic changes produce TT and compensatory lengthening of a.
228 UNIT THIRTY
ayaeoS' =good. brave. a}J.tLvwv. UJlEWOV UPWTOS'I

capable. excellent
a yaeoS' =good. virtuous {3EfI.TLWV. {3EATWV {3EA TL(TTOS'
ayaeoS' =good. mighty. KpELTTWV. KPELTTOV 2 KpaTL(TToS'
strong
,
KaKOS' = bad KaKLwv. KaKwv KaKl(TTOS'
,
KaKOS' = bad. lowly. mean XELpWV. XELPOV XElPl(TTOS'
KaKOS' =bad ijTTWV. r,TTOV 3 = inferior. (ijKl(TTOS' [ rare])
weaker; less,fewer
KaAOS' KaAALwv. KaAAwv KaAAl(TToS'
,
}J.EyaS' (}J.Ey-) WL(WV. }J.E'i.(OV JlEYl(TTOS'
,
}J.lKP0S' = small }J.lKpOTEP°S' }J.lKpoTaToS'
}J.lKP0S' = small. few f.AaTTwv. EAaTTov 4 f.AaXl(TToS'
OALyOS' OAEL(WV. OAEl(OV OALYl(TTQS'
7rOAVS' 7rAELWV or 7rAEWV. 7rAEOV 5 7rAEL(TTOS'
/J4owS' (Prt- or pa.-) /J4wv. pq.ov Prt(TTOS'
' A
3. Declension of Comparatives in -twV or -wv. These are declined like

normal nu-stems, such as (J'wcppwv (U22.1 b), but in the acc. sing. masc.lfem.
and the nom. and acc. pI. of all genders there are alternative forms. These
shorter forms are based on a stem that lacks the v (as in the dative plural), and
the 0 of the stem contracts with the case ending (the acc. pI. m.lf. form is
borrowed from the nom.). The shorter forms are more colloquial than the
regular forms. Here is the declension of Kar..r..iwv as an example:
masc.ljem. neuter
sing. nom. KaAALwv KaAAwv

gen. KaAALovoS' KaAALovoS'
dat. KaAALovl KaAALovl
acc. KaAALova or KaAALw KaAAwv
voc. KaAAwv KaAAwv
(dual n. a. v. KaAALovE KaAALovE)
(g. d. KaAAlovoW KaAAlovoW)
I. The superlative is from the same root seen in a.pH~.

2. Non-Attic KPEI.(]'(]'WV; the root is a byform of KpaT-. as in KpaTos and KpaTfw; again phonetic
changes produce TT and compensatory lengthening (H).
3. Non-Attic 7juuwv.
4. Non-Attic f.haUuwv.
5. There is an alternative form 7ThElV for the neut. sing. nom. acc. 7ThfOV.
masc.lfem. neuter
plur. n. v. KuA.A.iovE'> or KuA.A.iov<; KuA.A.iovu or KuA.A.iw

gen. KUA.A.lOVWV KUA.A.lOVWV
dat. KuA.A.ioUl(V) KuA.A.ioUl(V)
ace. KuA.A.iovu<; or KuA.A.iov<; KuA.A.iovu or KuA.A.iw
4. Comparison of Adverbs. As we have seen in U 12.1 and U22.4, the

positive degree of most adverbs has the ending -WS'. The comparative adverb is
supplied by the neuter singular accusative of the comparative adjective (an in-
stance of the adverbial accusative: U 17 .3e). The superlative adverb is supplied
by the neuter plural accusative of the superlative adjective.
7rtKPW<;, bitterly 7rtKpOTEPOV, more bitterly 7rtKPOTaTa, most bitterly

/JCfoiw<;, easily Mov, more easily MUTa, most easily
7roA.v, much 7rA.EOV, to a greater 7rA.ELUTa, to the highest
degree, more degree, most
JJ.cJ.A.u, very JJ.Q.A.A.ov, more JJ.cJ.A.lUTU, most
5. Comparative Expressions
a. With 11 = than. The Greek equivalent of English than is 11. Like than,
~ introduces (in theory) a comparative clause, most of which may be sup-
pressed, leaving the items compared in the same construction (that is, in the
same case).
Ex. 6 ~1Jp..O(J"8EV1JS' KpEiTTwV 7] 6 ~wKpaT1JS'.
Demosthenes is stronger than Socrates (is) [strong].
6 (J"TpaT1JYO,) 8aTTOV ECPVYEV 7] o[ aA.A.oL.
The general fled more quickly than the others (fled).
Vp..LV PCfoV 7TL(J"TEl)(J"OV(J"w 7] T]p..LV.
They will trust you more readily than (they will trust) us.
Vp..LV /Jifov 7TL(J"TEV(J"OV(J"W EKELVOL 7] T]p..EL').
They will trust you more readily than we (will) [trust you].
b. With the genitive of comparison (cf. U29.4b5). The second element

of comparison may, in most cases, be expressed in the genitive case without 11.
Ex. 6 Li1Jp..O(J"8EV1J') KpEiTTwv TOV ~wKpaTov,).
Demosthenes is stronger than Socrates (is) [strong].
6 (J"TpaT1JYO,) 8aTTOV TWV aA.A.wv ECPVYEV.
The general fled more quickly than the others (fled).
230 UNIT THIRTY
TOV Ol.KaWV jJ.UAAOV T01) aOl.KOV hraww.

I praise the just man more than the unjust man.
The genitive of comparison is on the whole more common than the use of 17,
but it is avoided in contexts where the presence of other genitives would cause
ambiguity or an unpleasant piling up of genitive forms:
oi OVCTTVXEl:~ 7rAw5vwv E1JEPYECTLWV 17 oi EljTVXEl:~ OEOVTaL.
The unfortunate need more benefactions than the fortunate.
[ElJEPYECTLWV is gen. with OEOVTaL, so gen. of compo is avoided]
TWV xpy/jJ.aTwv jJ.UAAOV 17 Tr,~ njJ.f]~ E7rL8vjJ.El:.
He craves money more than honor.
[xpy/jJ.aTwv is gen. with E7rL8vjJ.El:, so gen. of compo is avoided]
6. Degree of Difference. Recall (from U29.5b) that the degree of differ-

ence with a comparative expression may be expressed by the dative.
7rOAA<{J CTOCPWTEPO~ wiser by far (by much)
6 f3aCTLAEv~ TPLCTLV ~jJ.EpaL~ VCTTEpOV T01) aYYEAov acpl.KETo.
The king arrived three days later (later by three days) than the
messenger.
Some common adverbial modifiers of comparatives are, however, adverbial
accusatives of neuter adjectives or pronouns:
7rOAV CTOCPWTEpO~ much wiser (wiser by far)
OVOEV KaAALWV no more beautiful, not at all more beautiful
7. Partitive Genitive with Superlatives. The partitive genitive (UlO.5b)

is often used with a superlative to express the class among which the noun
excels:
OEWOTaTO~ AEYEW TWV 'A8Y/val.wv
most clever at speaking among (of) the Athenians
8. Strengthened Superlative. A superlative may be strengthened by plac-

ing W~ or on in front of it, producing the meaning "as X as possible." This
usage results from ellipsis of the verb "is possible" in a clause introduced by
W~ or on. (The same function is occasionally served by relative adverb or in n,
poetry by OCTOV or 07rW~.)
on TaXLCTTa as swiftly as possible
(3ovAojJ.E8a W~ apLCTToL ywECT8aL.
We want to prove ourselves to be as brave as possible.
9. Identification of Comparative or Superlative. To identify a compar-
ative or superlative adjective fully, give its gender, number, and case, its
nominative forms, the word comparative or superlative as appropriate, and the

nom. sing. masc. of the positive adjective from which it comes, and tell what
noun it modifies.
1. Study the comparison of adjectives and adverbs.

2. Study the inflection of comparatives in -LWV or -wv.
3. Learn as vocabulary for this unit both the comparatives and superlatives
presented in 2b above and the remaining words listed below.
VOCABULARY
adjectives
yEpa~o<;, yEpaUl., yEpa~ov old, aged; revered
(comp. YEpaLTEp0<;, sup.
YEpaLTaTo<;)
dJEA7T~<;, dJEA7TL hopeful, cheerful
(stem EVEA7TLO-, m.lf. acc.
sing. EVEA7TLV)
EXepO<;, Exepa, EXepOV hated, hateful; hostile
6 EXepO<; enemy (in personal or interstate relations)
7TaAa~o<;, 7TaAa~a, 7TaAa~ov old, ancient [palaeontology, palaeolithic]
(comp. 7TaAaLTEp0<;, sup.
7TaAaLTaTo<; [less often
7TaAa~oTEpo<;, -OTaTO<;])
TO 7TaAa~ov (adv. acc.) in the old days, formerly
7TaAa~ (adv.) long ago
TaXV<;, TaXELa, TaXV swift, quick [tachygraphy]
Taxa (adv.) quickly; perhaps
xpry~TO<;, xpry~T~, xpry~TOV useful, serviceable; good, honest, worthy
[chrestomathy]
adverb
}laAa; compo }laAAOV, sup. very; more; most
}laA~~Ta
conjunction
ry" or; than
ry" ... ry" •.. either ... or ...
232 UNIT THIRTY
verbs
OOVAElJW, OOVAElJUW, be a slave or servant; serve (+ dat.)
EOOVAEVUU
7rlUTEVW, 7rlUTEVUW, trust, put faith in (+ dat.)
E7TLUTEVUU
UTPUTEVW, UTPUTEVUW, carry out a military campaign, wage war; (mid.) carry
, ,
EUTPUTEVUU out a campaign, march (on campaign)
xpG.w, xprww, ExpYJUU I (of a god) proclaim an oracle; (mid.) (of a person)
consult an oracle
xpG.OP.UL, XP~UOP.UL, use, employ (+ dat.); experience (a condition) (+
EXPYJUG.P. YJV dat.)
EXERCISES
I. Write in Greek.
1. with better judgment 9. of the wisest teacher
2. in the worst manner 10. of a certain wealthier man
3. more easily 11. most clearly
4. the uppermost parts (dat.) 12. more money (nom.)
5. from the truer account 13. the largest city (dat.)
6. to the worthiest women 14. as useful as possible (neut. n. s.)
7. the safer way (acc.) 15. the sweetest thing (acc.) of all
8. the most unjust (acc.) ofeyrus's 16. more shamefully, most
soldiers shamefully
1. We are not unaware that young men are swifter than old men.
2. It is reported that you are angry at many of the orators, but most of all at
Demosthenes.
3. The thieves did not notice that the ship they had snatched was becoming
filled with water.
4. Upon deliberation, it seemed better to the Greeks to send the strongest part
of their army toward the sea so as to conceal their number [= multitude]
from the foreigners for as long a time as possible.
I. Despite the dictionary form, this verb is actually treated in Attic as a contract verb with TJ in
n
place of a (and in place of Cf). For example, the present active is conjugated xpw, xp8'>, xp8,
etc.; the middle (which is far more common, in the sense use) is xpwp.al, xp8, xpTJTal,
xpwjlEOa, XPTJITOE, XPWVTaL For a full paradigm of the present system, see Appendix 3:
Paradigms.
III. Reading: Xenophon, Anabasis 5.5.7-10 (slightly adapted): Having

escaped from the midst of the Persian king's territory and reached the coast of
the Black Sea, the army of Greek mercenaries is still having difficulties and
uses force in order to obtain food and supplies. Representatives of the natives
come to protest.
EV TOlm{J EPxovTaL EK ~LVW7Tnl) 7TPErT3ELI), cj>0j30Vj1.EVOL 7TEpt TWV
KOTVWPLTWV Ti)l) TE 7TO'\EWI)1 (7]V yap EKEtVWV Kat cj>opOV EKEtVOLI) Ecj>EPOV oi
KOTVWptTad Kat 7TEpt Ti]l) xwpal) (~KOVOV yap aiJT~v 0'[l0VgEVy/V). Kat
EMOVTEI) ELI) TO rTTpaT07TEOOV E,\EYOV (7TPOy/YOPEL OE 'EKaTwVVj1.0l) OEWOl)
VOj1.L(Oj1.EVOl) EivaL '\EYEW)' "E7TEj1.tEV T,j1.U I) , ~ avopEl) rTTpanWTaL, T, TWV
~LVW7TEWV 7TO'\LI) E7TaWErTOVTClS TE Vj1.UI) on
VLKUTE "E'\'\1JVEI) OVTEI)
j3apj3apovI), E7TELTa oE Kat 2 rTvvy/rTey/rTogEvovI) on
OLa 7TO'\'\WV TE Kat OEWWV,
wI) T,j1.Etl) ~KOVrTaj1.EV, 7TpaYj1.aTWV rTErTCfrTgEVOL 7TapErTTE. atwvgEV OE,
"E'\'\1JVEI) OVTEI) Kat ailToL. vcj>' Vj1.WV OVTWV 'E'\'\~vwv ayaeov j1.EV n
7TarrxELV, KaKOV OE j1.1JOEV· OVOE yap T,j1.Etl) Vj1.UI) OVOEV 7TW7TOTE v7TriptagEV
KaKWI) 7TOWVVTEI). KOTVwptTaL OE OVTOt ELrTW T,j1.ETEPOL ~7rOLKOL, Kat TrJV
xwpav T,j1.Etl) aVTOtl) TaVT1JV 7TapEOOj1.EV j3apj3apovI) ackE,\ogEVoL. "
Underlined Words
atL()w = think proper, expect (+ 7TW7TOTf = ever yet
complem. inf.) (Tf(T<tJ(TJ.l.f.VOL = perf. mid. part. having
G.7TOLKOL = colonists, emigrants from a saved yourselves, having safely come
mother city through
acjJfAOJ.l.fVOL = a7To- compound (of ~LVW7TfL>, --f.WV, m. = people of Sinope
what verb?); here take away (+ ~LVW7T1], -1]>, f. = Sinope, a Greek city
double acc.) on the Black Sea
rt[low = plunder (Tvv1](Te1](TOJ.l.f.Vov> = fut. pass.
KOTVWPLTaL, -WV, m. = inhabitants of (deponent) part. rejoice with (+ dat.
Kotyora (a subject colony of Sinope) of person, you, understood)
on (here) = because iJ7Tapxw = take the initiative, begin (+
7Tpf.a/3H>, -fWV, m. = ambassadors suppl. part.)
,
7TP01]YOpf.W = be spokesman w> =as
I. 7I'OAEW, is the object of 7I'Ept and KOTVwptTwV is possessive gen. with 7I'OAfW,; as H shows,
xwpa, is also the object of 7I'fPt. but the preposition is redundantly repeated before it because of
the intervening parenthetic clause.
2. Note that f7l'HTa DE: Kat answers the H after f7l'aWfaOVTa,; this is less formal, but more
expressive than H . . . H . . . or H . . . Kat . ..
UNIT THIRTY -ONE
The Subjunctive
I. The Subjunctive Mood. Recall (from U8 Prelim.) that Greek has four
finite moods. So far, we have dealt exclusively with the indicative mood,
which is for assertions of fact and appears in most independent clauses and in
some dependent clauses. In this and the next two units, the two subordinate
moods, the subjunctive and optative, are presented. The subjunctive expresses
mere assumption or possibility (as opposed to assertion) and is more often
used in subordinate-clause constructions than in independent clauses (hence its
name in Greek, lJ7rOTaKTLKry, and Latin, subiunctivus, "subjoined"). The Greek
subjunctive occurs in the three tense systems which express aspect (the
present, the aorist, and the perfect) and always has aspect meaning rather than
time meaning. In all its tenses the subjunctive has the same primary personal
endings (like those seen in the present and future indicative), but in Attic it is
distinguished from the indicative by the use of lengthened theme vowel w/ TJ
(in place of 0/ E of the indicative). When the primary endings are added to the
lengthened theme vowel, the following subjunctive endings are produced:
----~
sing. 1st -w -wjla~
2nd -[I'> -?1 [from -l1(CT )a~ 1

3rd -'[I -l1Ta~
(dual 2nd -l1TOV -l1a-8oV)

(3rd -l1TOV -l1a-8oV)
plur. 1st -WjlEV -wjlE8a
2nd -l1TE -l1CT8E
3rd -WCT~(V ) -WVTa~
2. Conjugation of the Subjunctive

a. Present Active Subjunctive. The active personal endings are added to
the present stem (e.g., ay-). If the present stem ends in E (e.g., 7rOLEW or
Ti8TJ!J.L), the E disappears in contraction, but the accent falls on the resulting
234
The Subjunctive 235
contracted vowel. If the present stem ends in a (e.g., opaw), the contractions of
a with the lengthened theme vowel turn out to be the same as those in the
indicative (so -aw verbs look the same in indicative and subjunctive). If the
present stem ends in 0 (e.g., 01JAOW), the resulting contractions are 0 + w - >
n
w, 0 + 1J -> w, 0 + -> O~ (so -Ow verbs look the same in the singular only
of indo and subj.). The contractions found in o{owJ.l.~ are similar, but 0 +!l, ->
'P. In all the subjunctives involving contraction, the contracted vowel has the
circumflex accent. Here are six examples showing the five possible patterns:
' ,
ayw 7roLEW Tt.eYJ}.J.L opaw OYJAOW Ot.OW}.J.L
stem ay- stem 7roLE- stem neE- stem opa- stem OYJAO- stem OLOO-
---------
ayw 7roLW new opw OYJAw OLOW

aY[l' 7ro LfJ , nefJ' op~, OYJAOL, OL00,
aY[l 71'OLfJ nefJ op~ OYJAOL OL00
(aYYJTov 71'0 LT] TOV neT]TOV Opo.TOV OYJAWTOV OLOWTOV)
(ayYJTov 71'OLT]TOV neT]TOV Opo.TOV OYJAWTOV OLOWTOV)
"
ayw}.J.Ev 71'OLW}.J.EV neW}.J.EV OpW}.J.EV OYJAw}.J.EV OLOW}.J.EV
"
aYYJTE 71'OL T]TE neT]TE Opo.TE OYJAWTE OLOWTE
aywcn(v) 71'OLwcn(v) newcn(v) opwcn(v) 0YJAwcn(v) oLowcn(v)
Other present active SUbjunctives: L1JJ.I.~ - > tw, L(J'T1JJ.I.~ - > t(J'TW, <P1JJ.I.{ - >
<pw (all three like new); EiJ.l.{ ->~, -n",
-n, (ryTOV, ryTOV,) ~J.l.EV, ryTE, ~(J'~(v);
and (both without any contraction) EZJ.l.~ -> tw, OEiKVVJ.l.~ -> OHKV1JW.
b. Present Middle/Passive Subjunctive. The primary middle/passive
endings are added to the present stem. Contractions, if any, occur in the same
way as in the active. Here are examples showing the five possible patterns:
,
"
ayw 71'OLEW opaw OYJAow Ot.OW}.J.L
---
"
ayW}.J.aL 71'OLw}.J.aL opw}.J.aL oYJAw}.J.aL oLow}.J.aL
"
aY[l 71'OL fJ op~ OYJAOL OL00
"
aYYJTaL 71'OLT]TaL Opo.TaL OYJAwTaL OLOWTaL
(aYYJaBov 71'OL T]aBov opo.(J'eov 0YJAw(J'eOV OLOW(J'eOV)
(aYYJ(J'eov 71'OLT](J'eOV opo.(J'eov 0YJAw(J'eOV OLOW(J'eOV)
ayw}.J.Eea 71'0 LW}.J.EOa opw}.J.E8a OYJAw}.J.E8a OLow}.J.E8a
aYYJ(J'8E 71'OL T](J'8E Opo.(J'8E OYJAw(J'eE OLOW(J'eE
"
aYWVTaL 71'OLWVTaL OPWVTaL oYJAwvTaL OLOWVTaL
Other present mid/pass. SUbjunctives: T{e1JJ.I.~ -> HeWJ.l.a~, L1JJ.l.L -> tWJ.l.aL,
L(J'T1JJ.I.~ -> t(J'TwJ.l.a~ (all three like 71'o~wJ.l.a~); OE{KVVJ.I.~ -> OELKVVwJ.l.a~
(without any contraction); ovvaJ.l.a~ -> oVvwJ.l.aL, E71'{(J'TaJ.l.a~ -> E71'{(J'TwJ.l.a~
(both without contraction).
236 UNIT THIRTY -ONE
c. Aorist Active Subjunctive. The active endings are added to the aorist
stem (whether strong or weak aorist). Athematic aorists feature contractions
which are the same as seen in the present of the same verbs. Here are examples
showing the four possible patterns:
7rpaTTW AEi7rW Ti87J1.1.t oiowjJ.t
stem 7rpa~- stem At7r- stem 8E- stem 00-
7rpa~w Ai7rw 8w Ow
7rpa~"[IS Ai7r"[ls 8fis 00s
7rpa~"[I Ai7r"[l 8~
"[I 00
(7rpa{T/TOV Ai7r7JTOV 8ryTOV OWTOV)
(7rpa~7JTOV Ai7r7JTOV 8ryTOV OWTOV)
7rpa~wjJ.Ev Ai7rwjJ.f.V 8wjJ.f.V oWjJ.f.V
7rpa~7JTf. Ai7r7JTf. 8ryTf. OWTf.
7rpa~w(n(v) Ai7rW(Tt (v) 8wcn(v) OWo-t(v)
Other aorist active subjunctives: Lr1/J.L -> -~ (compounds only), Lo-TYJfJ.L - >
o-TW, {3aivw -> {3w, cp8avw -> cp8w (all four like 8w); YLYVW(]"KW -> yvw,
G.Ai(]"KoJJ.aL -> G.Aw (both like ow); ovw -> ovw (without contraction).
d. Aorist Middle Subjunctive. The middle/passive endings are added to

the aorist stem (whether strong or weak aorist). For athematic aorists the con-
tractions are the same as in the aorist active. Here are examples showing the
four possible patterns:
7rpaTTW AEi7rw Ti87J1.u oiowjJ.t
7rpa~wjJ.at AL7rwjJ.at 8wjJ.aL oWjJ.aL

7rpa~"[I Ai7r!l 8~
!I 00
7rpa~7JTat Ai7r7JTaL 8ryTaL OWTat
(7rpa~7J0-80v Ai7r7J0-80v 8ry0-80v ow0-8ov)
( 7rpa~7J0-8ov Ai7r7J0-80v 8ry0-80v ow0-8ov)
7rpa~wjJ.E8a At7rwjJ.f.8a 8wjJ.f.8a oWjJ.f.8a
7rpa~7J0-8f. Ai7r7J0-8f. 8ry0-8f. ow0-8f.
7rpa~wvTat Ai7rwVTat 8WVTaL OWVTaL
Other aorist middle subjunctives: LYJJJ.L -> -~JJ.aL (compounds only, like
8wJJ.aL).
3. Independent Uses of the Subjunctive. Although the subjunctive is pre-

dominantly used in subordinate clauses, it does have several uses in
independent clauses. These uses may be classified broadly as either "imper-
atival" (issuing a command or recommendation for future action: uses a and b
The Subjunctive 237
below) or "prospective" (looking to an action that might take place in the

future or to a proposition that might be ascertained as true in the future: uses c
and d below). Since the sUbjunctive expresses assumption or possibility or
command rather than assertion, the negative is normally jJ.7} rather than ov. The
choice of tense depends on the aspect of the action.
a. Hortatory Subjunctive. The first person plural (and less often the first
person singular) subjunctive may express a proposal of action or an exhor-
tation:
vvv rWjJ.EV Kat. aK01)(J"wjJ.EV TOV avop6~.
Let us go now and hear the man.
jJ.ry cpopwjJ.E8a.
Let us not be afraid.
b. Prohibitions. The second or third person subjunctive (normally aorist)

with jJ.7} may express a prohibition, that is, a negative command. (A negative
command with present aspect usually is expressed instead with the imperative:
U40.)
jJ.ry 7TOt7}(J"Y]TE TaVTa.
Do not do this.
jJ.Y]od~ r,y7}(J"Y]TW TOV <l>tAt7T7TOV CPtAOV.
Let no one consider Philip a friend.
c. Doubtful Assertions and Emphatic Denials. The subjunctive with jJ.7}

may express a doubtful assertion ("Perhaps ... " or "I suspect ... ") or, with jJ.ry
OV, a doubtful denial ("Perhaps ... not ... "). On the other hand, the aorist
subjunctive with ov jJ.7} (note the order) expresses a strong denial.
jJ.ry TOVTO n
0 i(y]TOVjJ.EV.
Perhaps this is what we were seeking.
jJ.ry OVK op8w~ EXYI TaVTa.
I suspect that these things are not correct.
ov jJ.ry OEttYl avatno~ wv TWV KaKwv.
He will never show that he is free of blame for the bad things.
d. Deliberative Subjunctive. The subjunctive may be used in questions

in which one is asking what one is to do or wondering what is to happen.
Er7TWjJ.EV 17 (J"tyWjJ.EV;
Shall we speak or keep silent?
Tt 7Ta8w;
What is to happen to me? [Lit.: What am I to experience?]
4. Dependent Uses of the Subjunctive. Again in these uses the subjunc-

tive has a prospective or imperatival or generalizing force that differs from the
force of assertion carried by the indicative. The principal dependent uses are:
a. Purpose clauses (see §6 below).
b. Object clauses with verbs of fearing (see §7 below).
c. Present general conditions and relative clauses with present general
conditional force (to be presented in U34).
d. Future more vivid conditions and relative clauses with future more
vivid conditional force (to be presented in U34).
e. Temporal clauses introduced by conjunctions meaning before or until
(to be presented in U39).
5. Sequence of Moods. In a complex sentence, the tense or mood of the

verb in the subordinate clause is often influenced by the tense of the verb in
the main clause. For instance, in English one says He sa)'s the man will come
but He said the man would come: the modal would is used in place of will
because the leading verb (the verb of the main clause) is in a past tense, This
change reflects a regular sequence of tenses in English.' Ancient Greek has a
similar sequence of moods, depending again on the tense of the leading verb.
A primary tense tends to be accompanied by an indicative or subjunctive
(which has primary personal endings) in subordinate clauses of certain kinds,
while a secondary tense instead tends to be accompanied by an optative in the
same kinds of subordinate clause (as the student will see in the next unit, the
optative has secondary personal endings). Put in its most general form, the rule
for the sequence of moods may be stated thus:
In a complex sentence in which the subordinate clause is a purpose
clause, an object clause of fearing, an indirect-statement noun clause
with on or wS', an indirect question, or the protasis of a general
condition (or relative clause with general conditional force), (l) if
the leading verb is in a primary tense (primary sequence), then the
verb of the subordinate clause must be in the subjunctive or
indicative (as the particular construction requires), but (2) if the
leading verb is in a secondary tense (secondary sequence), then the
verb of the subordinate clause may be instead in the optative.
Note that the sequence of moods in Greek is for most constructions a tendency
or option rather than a rigid rule.
I. For students who know Latin, the relatively strict sequence of tenses which applies to the use
of the Latin subjunctive is a comparable phenomenon: iubet ut abeat, but iussit ut abiret.
The Subjunctive 239
6. Purpose Clauses. Clauses denoting purpose (that, in order that, so

that; also in English translation in order to with infinitive; negative also lest
[somewhat archaic]) contain the sUbjunctive in primary sequence and either
the optative or the sUbjunctive in secondary sequence. In Attic prose the fol-
lowing conjunctions may introduce a purpose clause (also sometimes called a
final clause): (positive) Lva, 07TW~, W~; (negative) Lva P.?], 07TW~ P.?], W~ P.?],
p.?].l
primary sequence: subjunctive mandatory
TOV~ (J"ocpov~ OOKO'VVTa~ ELvaL E~EAfYXH Lva gaveavy/ n.
He cross-examines those who seem to be wise in order to learn some-
thing.
secondary sequence: optative optional (to be learned in U32)
cpvAaKa~ (J"vvf7TEp.'irEV 07TW~ p.~ A6.eOLEV a7TEM6vTE~
or cpvAaKa~ (J"vvf7TEp.'irEV 07TW~ p.~ AaeW(J"W a7TEMovTE~.
He sent along guards in order that they not go away secretly.
7. Object Clauses with Verbs of Fearing

a. Clauses denoting a fear about a future event or about a present event
the occurrence of which is unascertained contain the subjunctive in primary
sequence, the optative or SUbjunctive in secondary sequence. Such clauses are
introduced by P.?] when positive, by p.~ ov when negative. 2
primary sequence: SUbjunctive mandatory
cpo;3ovJJ.Eea p.~ 6 ;3a(J"LAEv~ ryp.'iv E7TLer,TaL.
We are afraid that the king may attack us.
cpo(3oVP.Eea p.~ Ot (J"vp.p.axoL OVK 'EMw(J"w Ei~ KaLpov.
We fear that the allies may not come in time.
secondary sequence: optative optional
Ecpo;3ovVTO p.~ 6 ;3a(J"LAEv~ EmeE'iTO.
or ECP0(30VVTO p.~ 6 (3a(J"LAEv~ E7TLOr,TaL.
They were afraid that the king might attack.
b. Clauses denoting afear referring to a past event or to a present, ascer-
tained event contain the indicative, introduced by P.?] or p.~ oV. This is a rare
idiom in Greek, though the corresponding English idiom is fairly common as
an apologetic or polite form of expression.
I. In poetry and a few prose writers the modal particile av is sometimes used with the sub-
junctive (and rarely the optative) in purpose clauses with w> or 07rw>.
2. The dependent (hypotactic) fear-clause derives from an original coordinate (paratactic)
construction: We are aji·aid. Let the king not allack liS. - > We are afraid that the king may
allack liS.
<pOp01JjJ.Eea jJ.ry Q.jJ.<pOTEpWV Q.jJ.a ryjJ.apnlKajJ.Ev. (perfect ind.)

We fear that we have (actually) failed of both objects at once.
Note that verbs of fearing may also take a complementary infinitive when the
sense is fear to do X.
OU <pOj3ELTaL T0 j3a(rtAEL E7TLj3oVAElJEW.
He is not afraid to plot against the king.

I. Learn the patterns of subjunctive conjugation.
2. Study the independent and dependent uses of the SUbjunctive.
VOCABULARY
verbs
~TTaOJ.i.al, ~TTrlO"OJ.i.al (no be less, be inferior; be defeated, be defeated by (+
aor. mid.)1 gen. of person)
o"lyaw, O"lyrlO"OJ.i.al, EO"iyrwa be silent; (transitive) keep secret
nouns
aeAo" aeAov, m. contest (of war or sports) [athletics, decathlon]
aeAov, aeAov, n. prize (of a contest)
yaJ.i.o" yaJ.i.ov, m. wedding, wedding feast; marriage [polygamy]
OEL7rVOV, oEi7rVOV, n. meal
oovAo" oovAov, m. slave (male) [hieroduleJ
001.111.1), 001.111.1)" f. slave (female)
ETaLpo" ETaipov, m. comrade, companion
ETaipa, {Taipa" f. woman companion; courtesan
Kalp(k Kalpov, m. right measure, right degree; time, season,
opportunity; critical moment, crisis
0PYrl' opyTj" f. mood, temperament; anger, wrath [orgasm]
7riO"Tl" 7riO"TEW" f. trust, faith; assurance, pledge
Tp07raWV, Tpo7raiov, n. 2 trophy, victory monument
adjectives
aJ.i.cpoTEpo" aJ.i.cpoTEpa, each of two, both
aJ.i.cpoTEpoV
, I , I ' I
avalTW>, aValTla, avalTWV guiltless, without blame or responsibility

eTjAv" eriAEla, eTjAv female; soft, delicate [thelitis, epithelium]
I. Non-Attic TwuaoP.UL
2. In older Attic also Tp07ru'iov.
The Subjunctive 241
op8o<;, op8~, op8ov straight; upright; correct [orthodox, orthogonal]

7T Lin <;, 7T Lln~,
0 TTL (n 0v trustworthy, faithful
conjunctions
,," ,
tva, 07Tw<;, or w<; in order that (+ subj. or opt. of purpose)
EXERCISES
I. Write in Greek the following subjunctive fonns.
I. 3rd s. aor. act. "be silent" 11. 2nd s. pres. act. "go"
2. 2nd pI. pres. pass. "be defeated" 12. 3rd pI. aor. mid. "arrive"
3. 2nd s. aor. act. "be a slave" 13. 1st s. aor. mid. "call"
4. 3rd s. pres. act. "be at a loss" 14. 2nd s. aor. act. "lead away"
5. 3rd pI. pres. m/p "cross-examine" 15. 3rd s. pres. act. "be ill"
6. 1st s. aor. mid. "attack" 16. 3rd s. aor. act. "go up"
7. 2nd s. pres. mJp "revolt from" 17. 2nd pI. pres. mJp "be able"
8. 1st pI. aor. act. "long for" 18. 3rd pI. aor. act. "make"
9. 1st s. pres. m/p "prevent" 19. 1st pI. pres. act. "be willing"
10. 1st pI. pres. mid. "carry out a 20. 1st pI. pres. m/p "make a
campaign" truce"
II. Identify each fonn completely.
, , ,
1. ~apacrxw,crt 11. OVVWVTat 21. aKOV1]TE
, ,
2. ava yt yvwcrK1]Tat 12. Etat n]cr1]cr8E 22. V7TOJJ.tJJ.v1]crKl/r;
, ,
3. a7Tflr; 13. 7Tapa(3r,TE 23. a7Ttwcrw
,
4. EAWVTat 14. KPV7TT(I 24. ap7Ta(WJJ.E ea
5. acpflr; 15. KP~Tfl 25. aptl/
6. (3acrtAEvcr1]TE 16. JJ.EWW 26. acptcrTwcrt
,
7. OEtKVVWJJ.EV 17. 7Tapa ya Y(I 27. oEit1]creE
8. 01]Awcrn 18. ryTTWVTat 28. ryyr,Tat
9. OtaJJ.Ev~crt 19. ayyEiAwJJ.EV 29. E7Tt TPEt1]TE
10. OtwKl/ 20. aLpr,Tat 30. 7TVeWJJ.at
1. Do not betray your city, men of Athens.
2. They fear that the children may not trust the slaves.
3. It is better to fill the sea with triremes in order to prevent the enemy ships
from attacking the city.
4. Let no one ever remind us of those critical times.
5. Never will you (s.) demonstrate that you are more just than the others.
6. How am I to praise this man in the manner he deserves [= worthily l?
IV. Sentences for reading
I. Tivar; OtKatOTEpov j3Aatw 1] Tovr; EJJ.E aOtKrycraVTar;:
2. oi "E'\'\1]VES' 7Tav(]"(l)J.EVOt o.,\.\?j'\OtS' 7TO'\E)J.OVVTES' EiP~V1]V (JvvTi8EVTat

07TWS' (; {:3a(Jt'\EvS' )J.1] pq.'OiwS' KpaT~(JV a7TIJ.vTwv.
3. )J.~7TOTE ryTTw)J.f.8a T0V 8~'\EOS' yEVOVS'. av'OpES' QVTES'.
4. Kai7TEp 7Ti(JTtv OOVTES' TE KaL '\apovTES'. cpopov)J.E8a )J.1] oi 01](:3aLOt ov
7Tt(JTOL ~(Jw.
5. Tr,S' 7TO'\EWS' )J.1] Ka'\wS' 7TpaTTov(J1]S'. )J.1] OOt1]TE opyi(w8at TOLS' o.vatTiotS'.
0.'\'\0. TOLS' )J.1] op8wS' POV'\EVO)J.EVOtS'.
6. 'OtwKOVTWV TWV i7T7TEWV TOVS' CPEVYOVTaS'. (; (JTpaT1]Y0S' TOUS' (;7T'\iTaS' EXWV
Tpo7Tawv E(JT1](JEV Zva 7TQ(JW E7Tt'OEitv TO Eav70V (JTpo.TEV)J.a KpELTTOV TOV
7TO'\E)J.iov Qv.
V. Reading: Xenophon, Memorabilia 1.1.l8-l9 (slightly adapted): an ex-
ample of Socrates' justice and courage.
E7Tt8v)J.~(JavToS' 7TOTE TOV 'Or/gov 7Tapa 7OVS' vO)J.ovS' )J.t~ "'~cpcr TOVS' ~
0po.(Jv'\'\ov KaL 'Epa(Jwi'01]v o.7TOKTELVat 7To.VTaS'. ~WKpo.T1]S'. /1g]J'\EVTllS' wv
KaL TOTE E7Tt(JTo.TYlS' EV T0 'O~)J.cr YEVO)J.EVOS'. OVK ~8E'\1](JEV E7Tttncpi(Jat.
Kai7TEp opyt(O)J.EVOV )J.EV aVT0 TOV 'O~)J.ov. 7TO'\'\WV 'OE KaL 'OvvaTwv o.7TEt-
'\OVVTWV' 0.'\'\0. 7TEpt 7T'\EiovoS' E7TOtri(JaTo EVOPKELV 17 xapi(Ja(J8a~ T0 'O~)J.cr
7Tapa TO OI.Kawv Kat cpv'\o.ta(J8at 7OVS' o.7TEt'\OVVTaS'. KaL yap E7TtgE'\EL(J8at
8EOVS' EVO)J.t(EV o.V8pW7TWV. oVX QV TP07TOV oi 7TO'\'\OL vO)J.i(ov(Jw· OlJTOt )J.Ev
yap OLOVTat 7OVS' 8EOVS' TO. )J.Ev EL'OEVat. TO. '0' OVK EL'OEVat· ~WKpo.T1]S' 'OE
7To.VTa )J.EV ryYELTO 8EOVS' EL'OEVat. TO. TE '\qO)J.Eva Kat 7TpaTTO)J.Eva KaL TO. ([0'iL
POV'\EVO)J.EVa. 7TaVTaXOV 'OE 7TapELVat Kat (JngaivEw TOLS' o.V8pw7TOtS' 7TEpL TWV
o.V8pW7TEiwv 7To.VTWV.
Underlined Words
Q,llcpi = (prep. with acc.) associated with E7rt(JT(lTT/'>, -ov, m. = chairman,
[Thrasyllus and Erasinides were two presiding officer (of a meeting of the
members of the Board of Generals Assembly)
accused of failing to take adequate E7rttT/cpi(w = put (a measure) to a vote
steps to rescue the Athenians whose EVOPKEW = abide by one's oath [to abide
ships had sunk during the victorious by lawful procedures)
sea battle at Arginusae in 406] Kat yap = and in fact, for indeed
Q,v8pw7rEto<;, -a, -ov = human DV TpeJ7rOV = adv. acc. in the way in
Q,7rEtAEW = threaten which
(3ovAEVT~'>, -ov, m. = member of the 7raVTaxOv = everywhere
Council (of 500 at Athens) 7rEpt 7rAEiovo,> 7rOLELIT8aL = consider to
or,jJ.o,>, O~1l0V, m. = (common) people, be of greater importance [+ inf. or
Assembly (of all adult male Athenian noun object]
citi::.ens) ITT/Ilaivw = xive signs
ovvaT<)'>, -~. -Ov = powerful ITLy~. -r,'>. f. = silence
E7rtIlEAEOllaL = have concern for (+ gen.) Xapi(ollaL = oblige (+ dat.)
UNIT THIRTY-TWO
The Optative
1. The Optative Mood. The third of the four finite moods of Greek to be
learned is the optative (Latin optativus, Greek EVKTLK~, "of wishing"), which
occurs in the three tense systems which express aspect (present, aorist, and
perfect) and also (rarely, and only for indirect-discourse transformations) in
the future and future perfect. The optative may be used both independently to
express a wish or a potentiality (as opposed to a fact or assertion conveyed by
the indicative) and in a variety of subordinate constructions.
2. Conjugation of the Optative. The mark of the optative mood is the

mood vowel iota, which is added to the theme vowel (0) or to the tense vowel
(e.g., a in the weak aorist act. and mid.). An alternative form of the mood
suffix is -L1]-, used in athematic inflection. The optative has secondary per-
sonal endings, except for first person singular forms in -OLP.L and -aLp.L, where
-P.L is the primary ending used with athematic verbs; the third plural active
ending has the variant form -EV.
a. Optative in OL: this pattern is found in uncontracted presents, uncon-

tracted futures, and strong aorists.
Ex. ayw, stem ay- +0 + L -> ayoL-
present active opt. present mlp opt.
, ,
"
aYOLJlL aYOLJl7]V
aYOLS' ayow layoL((T)ol
"
aYaL ayoLTo
(ayoLTov ayoL(TeOV)
(ayoLT7]V a YOL(Te7]V)
ayoLJlEea
"
aYOLTE ayoL(TeE
aYOLEV "
aYOWTO
243
244 UNIT THIRTY -TWO
Conjugated with the same endings are the future active opt. a~OLIJ.L, future
middle opt. a~o(.fJ. YJv, strong aor. act. opt. aya:YOLfH, strong aor. mid. opt. aya-
,
YOLfJ..YJV.
Accentuation: note that the final OL of the 3rd sing. act. opt. counts as long
for the purpose of accentuation. Hence, optative KTELVOL with acute on P as
opposed to nom. pI. noun olKoL with circumflex on P.
b. Optative in aL: this pattern is found in weak aorists, and is basically

like the above but with aL for OL In Attic, however, the alternative forms of the
2nd and 3rd sing. and 3rd pI. act. are usually used instead of the forms in aL
Ex. A.'VW, stem AVCT- + a + L - -> AVCTaL-
aorist active opt. aorist middle opt.
AVa"ULfJ..L AVrTaiww
AVrTEW, or AVrTaL, AVrTaW IAVrTaL(rT)o I
AVrTHdv) or AVrTaL AVrTaLTO
(AVrTaLTOV AVrTaLrT8ov)
(AvrTai TrW AVrTairT8Ylv)
AVrTaLfJ..EV AVrTaifJ..E8a
AVrTaLTE AVrTaLrT8E
AVrTHaV or AVrTaLEV AVrTaWTO
Accentuation: note that the final aL of the 3rd sing. act. opt. counts as long for
the purpose of accentuation. Hence, aor. optative KTELvaL with acute on P as
opposed to aor. info KTELvaL with circumflex on P.
c. Optative of fJ..L-verbs. The present optative and strong aorist optative of

athematic verbs have the mood vowel iota added directly to the tense stem,
forming a diphthong (EL, aL, or OL) with the final vowel of that stem. The
alternative mood suffix -LYJ- is found instead of simple iota in the singular
forms of the present active and aorist active. Forms with -LYJ- occur occasion-
ally in other active forms (e.g., neELYJfJ..EV for neELfJ..EV), and such forms are
more common than iota-forms in the 2nd and 3rd pI. active of monosyllabic
stems (athematic aorists, and present of ElfJ..L and CPYJfJ..{). The regular secondary
personal endings are used (-v for the 1st sing. active; 3rd plur. in its variant
form -EV).
The paradigms on the next page show the three possible patterns for the
present. The aorists are similar except for the 2nd and 3rd pI. active
(commonly -ELYJfJ..EV for -ELfJ..EV, -ELYJTE for -ELTE, -aLYJfJ..EV for -aLfJ..EV, etc.). For
full paradigms of the aorists of these verbs and of the present or aorist of other
fJ..L-verbs, see Appendix 3: Paradigms.
The Optative 245
OPTATIVE OF MI-VERBS
present active present middle/passive

' , ' ,
n8Ei7]v tUTUt7]V CItOOL7]V n8EL}l7]V tUTUt}l7]V OtOOL}l7]V
n8EL7]'> tUTUt7]'> OtOOL7]'> n8 ELo i LUTalO OtOOLO
, ,
n8EL7] tUTUt7] OtOOL7] n8ElTo LUTaLTO OtOOlTO
(n8ElTov LUTUlTOV OtOOlTOV n8Elu8ov LUTaLU80v OtOOLu8ov)
' ,
( n8EiT7]V tUTUtT7]V OtOOLT7]V n8Eiu87]v LUTaLU87]v OtOOLu87]v)
n8El}lEV LUTal}lEV OtOOL}lW n8Ei}lE8u LUTaL}lE8u OtOOL}lE8u
n8Eln LUTaln OtOOln n8ELu8E LUTaLU8E OtOOLu8E
n8Elw LUTalW OtOOlW n8ELvTo LUTaLVTO OtOOlVTO
Like neEirJV (neEi}J-ryv) are inflected present LEiryv (LEi}J-ryV) and aorists
eEir/V (eEi}J-ryv) and (acp)EirJV ([acpJEi}J-ryv) (compounds only).2
The optative of Ei}J-i is similar to that of Tiery}J-t, but the plural forms often
have stem Eiry-. The inflection is EtryV. Etry~. Etry. (EtryTOV or ELTOV. EiryTryvor
EtTryV.) Etry}J-EV or EL}J-EV. EtryTE or ELTE. Etry(TaV or ELEV.
Like L(Hai ryv are inflected present cpai ryv and aorists (Hai ryv. f3ai ryv. and
cpeairyv; and like L(Hai}J-ryv, presents ovvai}J-ryv and E1wHai}J-ryv (except that
these have regular recessive accentuation, e.g., ovvaw. i7ri(J"TatTo).
Like otooiryv are inflected aorists ooiryv, yvoiryv, and aAoiryv. And like
oLooi}J-ryv is inflected aorist middle ooi}J-ryv.
The present optative of verbs in -VV}J-L and of EL}J-L and the aorist optative
of ovw follow the w-verb pattern: OELKV1JOL}J-L. tOL}J-L. OVOL}J-t. (For the 1st sing.
of EL}J-L the alternative athematic form ioiryv is occasionally found.)
Accentuation: note that the accent of athematic-verb optatives normally
does not precede the diphthong containing the mood vowel iota. 3
d. Optatives of contract verbs are presented in the next unit.
3. Independent Uses of the Optative. There are two independent con-
structions using the optative.
a. Optative of wish, using the optative without modal particle (further
details in §4).
I. As usual, this is from *ne€L(er)o.

2. By analogy with w-verbs, there are variant forms which show theme vowel 0 in place of the
root vowel E: e.g., neOLTO for ne€LTO. f.7TLeOLVTO for E7rle€LVTO. 7fpOOLere€ for 7fpO€Lere€ (from
7fpo(;rllll), a.1>iOtEV for a.1>l€LEV, a.1>iOlH for a.1>l€LH.
3. This is the teaching of ancient grammarians. confirmed by modem experts. But for terTy/lll
the medieval manuscripts normally and printed editions often present forms with regular
recessive accentuation like terTal TO.
b. Potential Optative. The optative accompanied by the modal particle

av expresses a possibility, probability, or any softened form of assertion or
opinion. The negative is oV. Appropriate English translations use modal help-
ers like may, might, would, etc. The potential optative may also be used in
subordinate clauses of various kinds.
-ryOEW) av ViJ.LV AEYOLiJ.L. I would gladly tell you.
OVOEL) av T1JV nOAw npooo{YJ. No one would betray the city.
[the speaker views the act as improbable or impossible]
OVTW) acppwv E(TTLV W(TTE nos Tt) aVTov Pq.o{w) av AaeOL aOLKwv.
He is so foolish that anyone at all would easily wrong him without his
reali::.ing it. [potential optative used in a result clause]
4. Expressions of Wish. In Attic Greek the construction with which a

wish is expressed depends on whether (a) the wish is for some future object or
event (or an event in the present which is viewed as still attainable) or (b) the
wish is for some object or event unattainable in the present or unattained in the
past.
a. Future or possible wishes are expressed either by the optative alone or

by the optative introduced by deE or Ei yap, and the negative is iJ.Y,.
, ,
iJ. YJ YEVOL TO. May it not (now or in the future J happen!
EreE TO (HpaTEViJ.a acp{KoLTO. May the army arrive!
Ei yap 6 naL) (J'WCPPOVELV iJ.aVeaVOL. May the boy learn to be temperate!
b. Unattainable or unattained wishes (wishes impossible of realization)

are expressed by the imperfect or aorist indicative introduced by EreE or Ei yap,
and the negative is iJ.Y,. The imperfect refers to what is wished for but is not
now the case:
EreE napfJv 6 b.YJiJ.0(J'eEVYJ).
Would that Demosthenes were present now (but he isn't).
The aorist refers to a past wished-for occurrence that was not the case or did
not occur:
Ei yap 6 naL) (J'WCPPOVELV EiJ.aeEV.
Would that the boy had learned to be temperate (but he didn't J.
An alternative method of expressing an unattainable wish is the use of strong
aorist WCPEAOV (from 0cpE{AW = owe) with a complementary infinitive (present
info for present wish, aorist info for past wish):
WCPEAE napELvaL 6 b. YJiJ.0(J'eEVYJ).
Would that Demosthenes were present now (but he isn't).
The Optative 247
WCPEAOV (J"WCPpOVE~V gaeE~V.

I wish I had learned to be temperate (hut I didn't).
5. Dependent Uses of the Optative. Many of the dependent uses of the

optative correspond to those of the subjunctive, with the optative replacing the
subjunctive after a secondary-tense leading verb by the sequence of moods
(U31.5). The major dependent uses are:
a. The optative may replace the subjunctive in purpose clauses in
secondary sequence (U31.6).
b. The optative may replace the subjunctive in object clauses with verbs
of fearing in secondary sequence (U31. 7).
c. Past general conditions and relative clauses with past general condi-
tional force (U34.4b).
d. Future less vivid conditions and relative clauses with future less vivid
conditional force (U34.5c).
e. Temporal clauses introduced by before or until (U39).
f. Indirect-discourse noun clauses introduced by on
or wS' in secondary
sequence (U33).
g. Indirect questions in secondary sequence (U33).
h. Subordinate clauses in indirect discourse in secondary sequence
(U38.2).
Remember that (outside of the indirect-discourse uses) the tenses of the opta-
tive have aspect meaning, not time meaning.
1. Learn the patterns of optative conjugation.

2. Study the potential optative and constructions expressing wish.
VOCABULARY
compounds of verbs previously learned

G.valpEw (ava) take up, pick up; make away with, destroy, kill
G.noKpivw (ano) separate, set apart; (mid.) answer, reply
owj:3aA.A.w (ow) throw or carry across; set at variance; discredit,
attack the character of, slander [diabolical, devil J
(passive deponent) converse with (+ dat.)
[dialectic [
f:mAuv8clVOfJ,Ut (hTd (middle deponent) forget, lose thought of (+ gen.)

KUTaAEl7TW (KaTa) leave behind, abandon
7TUPUWEW (7TUpU) exhort, advise (+ dat. of person + inf.) [paraeneticl
ITvyytYVWITKW (ITvv) agree with; acknowledge; excuse, pardon (+ dat. of
person + acc. or dat. of thing)
advise, counsel (+ dat. of person); (mid.) consult with
(+ dat. of person)
bring together; (more commonly intrans.) be
advantageous, beneficial, or useful
ITVfJ,rpEPEt (impersonal) it is expedient, advantageous (+ inf.)
tmuKO'vw (iJ7To) listen to, heed, obey (+ gen.); reply to (+ dat.)
lJ7ToAufJ,pclvw (iJ7To) take up; understand, interpret; assume; reply. rejoin
V7TOfJ,EVW (V7TO) await; endure, stand up under
new verbs
a7ToAoyEOfJ,Ut. a7ToAoyr1ITofJ,ut. speak in defense, defend oneself [apology]
a7TEAoyrW clfJ,7)V
OfJ,OAOyEW. ofJ,oAoy~ITw. agree with, say the same thing as (+ dat.)
wfJ,oAoy7)ITu [homologous 1
OrpElAw. orpEtA~lTw. owe; be obliged to (+ inf.); (strong aor. only, with
wrpEiA7)ITU and wrpEAov complem. inf.) would that ... (to express
unattainable wish)
ITWrpPOVEW. ITwrppOV~ITw. be of sound mind; be temperate, moderate, etc.
EITWrppOV7)ITU
adverbs
"
uv (postpositive modal particle used with the
subjunctive in certain dependent constructions and
with the potential optative and potential indicative
in independent or dependent constructions)
uyuv very much; too much
alet, sufficiently, enough
UfJ,U at once, at the same time; (+ dat.) at the same time
with [hamadryad, hamacratic 1
, ,
EyyV' near; (+ gen.) next to. near
Aiuv very, exceedingly
7TclAw back, backwards; again [palindrome]
ITXEOOV roughly speaking, about, almost
"
UVptoV tomorrow
T~fJ,EPOV (non-Attic IT~fJ,EPOV) today
X8E, yesterday
The Optative 249
EXERCISES
I. Give a complete identification of each fonn.
ow(3airyv
1. 11. CTVVEVEYKOLCT8E 21. E7TLA.77CTOVTaL
CTwcppoV11CTW (TL
2. 12. f:m8wvTaL 22. Ka TaA.E i7TOVCTaL
,
3.
ojJ.0A.oywjJ.E8a 13. o.7TOOOLTO 23. 7TapaWECTELar;;
' , ' ,
V7T0jJ.E
4. waLjJ.EV 14. a7TwLjJ.EV 24. CTVyyVWVaL
iJ7TOA.a{:3oL
5.
,
15. a7TOA.0yovjJ.Evryr;; 25. oL'llv t::yK 10
6.
YVOLryTE 16. o.VEA.OLTO 26. o.cpEiYJ
, ,
'
V7TaKOVCTaL
7. 17. a' 7ToKpwaLjJ. ryv 27. jJ.ETaOOLEV
v7TaKovCTaL
8. 18. owj3aA.A.!]r;;
, 28. CP8WjJ.EV
9.
OOVA.EVryTE 19. ovvaw 29. TEVtOLCT8E
10. CTVjJ.(3oVA.EVCTELar;; 20. OLEA.EYETO 30. 8p b VaL
II. Render into Greek. (By convention, may is used to render subordinate
Greek subjunctives and might is used to render subordinate optatives. In this
exercise, therefore, in subordinate clauses treat may as subj. and might as opt.)
1. in order that he may use 6. in order that I might reply
2. lest they might go on campaign 7. Let us take counsel together.
3. Let him not become silent. 8. lest she might not be graceful
4. May you (s.) never forget. 9. May the gods grant this.
5. Am I to go or to stay? 10. Do not promise anything.
1. Let us be silent in order that the poet may surpass his accusers by
defending himself as well as possible.
2. The king was afraid that Cyrus might plot against the other generals. And
so he exhorted them to be on their guard.
3. Would that the anny were present! May it arrive tomorrow!
IV. Reading sentences.
1. nV80LI 0 'A7TOA.A.WV [Apollo] EXPry TOLr;; "EA.A.ryCTW" "jJ.ryoEv ayav."
2. TOLr;; 7Tapa TOV KpoiCTOV [Croesus] xpwjJ.EvOLr;; o.7TEKpivaTO 0 8Eor;; ~OE'
"o.VaYKry Tip KpoiCTI{l TOV "AA.vV [Halys] 7TOTajJ.OV owj3avTL KaTaA.VELV
[destroy] jJ.EyaA.ryv o.pX-r,v." Ka~ TaVTa o.KOVCTar;; 0 KpoLCTor;; KpaT/7CTEW
aiJTor;; TWV 7TOA.EjJ.iwv crETO, ou
KaA.Wr;; iJ7ToA.aj3wv. Ka~ ou cpoj3ovjJ.Evor;; jJ.~
G.jJ.apTavoL Tf7 EavTov yvwjJ.T/ 7TLCTTEVWV, ECTTpaTEvCTaTo E7T~ Tovr;; nEpCTar;;
[Persians] Zva TovTOvr;; VLK?}CTar;; G.7TaCTryr;; Tryr;; 'ACTiar;; [Asia] apx0L. o.A.A.·
aA.A.w; CTVVE{:3ry' -ryTTWVTai TE yap ot A voo~ [Lydians] Ka~ G.A.iCTKOVTaL 0 TE
KpoLCTor;; Ka~ -ry YVV~ Kat TO. 7TaLOia. G.A.ovr;; OE TaOt 7Tpor;; EaVTOV ECPry' "ELeE
1. Cf. U29.5e.
)J.ry7rOTE CJLEP?]V TOV "AAVV. Kat VVV Ti 7raOw)J.EV; OOVAEVW)J.EV TOL~

nEpITaL~; ov OEWOV TOL~ OVITTVXEITW (J.7rOOaVELv. aAA' ELeE )J.ry OL nEpITaL
TryV KHpaAryv a7rOTE)J.OLEV. "I
V. Reading: Plato, Protagoras 324d-325a (adapted): Protagoras the sophist is
trying to explain to Socrates how political virtue differs from other arts but can
nevertheless be taught.
"ETJ. AEi7rETaL ~ a7rQjJia ryv a7rOpEL~ 7rEpt TWV avopwv TWV ayaOwv. Ti
O_~7rOTf OL avopH OL ayaOot TO. )J.EV aAAa TOV~ aiJTwv VEL~ OtOaQ"KOVITW a
OLOaITKaAWV 0(ETaL Kat ITOCPOV~ 7rOWVITW. EKEiV?]V OE TryV apETryv ryv aiJToi
ELITW ayaOot OVOEVO~ f:3EATiov~ 7rOWVITW. Kat 7rEPL TOVTOV. dJ ~WKpaTE~.
OYKEH )J.vOQ~ ITOL EPW aAAa AOyOV. ~OE yap OEL VO)J.i(HV· EITTW H {'V 17 OVK
EITTW. OV avaYK?] 7raVTa~ TOV~ 7rOAiTa~ )J.ETEXEW. fL7rEP )J.EAAH 7rOAL~ ELvaL;
EV TOVTl.P yap aUT?] AVETaL ~ a7ropia ryv lTV a7rOpEL~ 17 aAAj)OL ovoagov. U. )J.EV
yap EITTW. TOVTO TO EV EITTW OV TEKTOVLK1r OVOE xaA_KEia OVOE ~EpajJ.Eia.
aAAa OLKWOITVVn Kat ITwckpOITlJ~ll Kat TO OITWV Et'VaL Kat Q"VAAri(:30JJ! {'VaVTO
7Ij20ITaYOPEVW ELVW avopo~ apETryv.
Underlined Words
aAAo8L ovoa}J.ov = nowhere else. in no KEpa}J.Eia. -a" f. = art of ceramics
other place }J.v8o,. -ov. m. = tale. story,Jahle
anopia. -a,.f. = difficulty, pu-:::.lement OVKETL = no lonRer
o-,jnoH = (emphatic adverb intensifying npouayopEvw = call (hy a certain
interrogative) (why) in the world name) [avTlJ is the object,
OLOQ.UKW = teach (+ dir. object of person UVAA-,jpOy/V f'V may be taken in
+ internal acc. of the thing taught) apposition to it, and apET-,jv is
OLKawuvvy/, -y/" f. = justice, predicate noun I
riRhteousness UVAA-,jpOy/V = taken all loR ether
Et = if uwcppouvvy/. -y/" f. = moderation, self-
ilnEp = if in fact control
ETL = (adv.) still TtKTOVLK-,j, -y/" f. = carpentry
EXtTaL = attaches to, falls within the xaAKEia. -a" f. = hron::.eworkinR
realm of(+ gen.)
I. Compound of ar.o-: guess the meaning.

UNIT THIRTY-THREE
Optative of Contract Verbs; Indirect

Discourse with OTL; Indirect Questions
and Indirect Interrogative
1. Optative of Contract Verbs. Tense stems in -EW. -aw.

feature -ow
contraction of the stem vowel with the -o~- of the optative: a + o~ -> cr. E + o~
-> o~. ° + o~ -> OL Thus verbs in -EW and -ow
have the same endings in the
optative. In addition the optative active has two possible forms, those based on
-O~fH conjugation and those based on suffix -~'l- (as seen in f.t~-verb optatives,
U32.2c). The -~'l- suffix is more usual in the singular; the standard suffix is
more usual in the dual and plural. In the following paradigm of the active, the
common form is given first and the rarer form is shown beside it in brackets.
PRESENT ACTIVE OPTATIVE
verbs in -EW verbs in -ow verbs in -O.W
cfH A0[:'1 v Icf>LAOL,uL 1 (7)Aoi7)V [(7)AOL,uL 1

. ,
OP'P7)v [op0,ud
cfH 11.0 i'l > Icf>LAoL> 1 (7)Aoi7» [(7)AoL>1 OP'P7» [op0>[
cf>LAoi 7) [cf>LAoL 1 (7)Aoi7) 1(7)AoLi OP'P7) lop01
(cf>LAoLTOV [cf>LAoi 7)TOV 1 (7)AOLTOV 1(7)Aoi7)TOV 1 oP'PTOV lop07)TOV [)
(cf>LAoiT7)v [cf>LAoL ~T7)V 1 (7)AoiT7)V 1(7)AOL ~T7)V 1 Op0T7)V IOp'p~T7)V [)
cf>LAoL,uw [cf>LAoi 7),uw 1 07)AoL,uw 1(7)Aoi7),uw 1 op0,uw lop0ww 1
cfHAoLTE [cf>LAoi7)Tt 1 (7)AOLTE 1(7)Aoi7)Tt 1 oP'PTt lop07)Tt 1
cf>LAoLw [cf>LAoi 7)UQV 1 07)AOLW 1(7)Aot7)uQvI op0w [op07)uQvl
Like 0pcP'lv is inflected the optative of futures in -aw,
such as fut. act.
opt. EAcP'lV from EAavvw. (JXE0cP'lv from (J"KEoaVVVf.t~. etc.
Likf, cp~Aoi'lv is inflected the optative of futures in -EW. such as fut. act.
opt. aYYEAoi'lv from ayyEAAw. v0f.twi'lv from v0f.ti(w, etc.
The optative in -oi'lv as seen in CPLAOi'lv is also the normal Attic form of
the aorist active optative of the simple verb txw: (J"xoi'lv, (J"xoi'l'" etc .. like CPL-
Aoi'lv. except that the 3rd pI. is always (J"XOLEV. On the other hand, the aorist
251
252 UNIT THIRTY -THREE
active optative in compounds of EXW has the regular conjugation -axoLfu,

--(TXOL~, etc. (e.g., 7TapaaxoLjJ.L).
PRESENT MIDDLE/PASSIVE OPTATIVE
verbs in -EW verbs in -Ow verbs in -O.w

' ,
cpLAOip.1/v 01/Aoip.1/v °Pc.rp.1/V
CPLAOLO 01/AOLO opij>o
CPLAOLTO 01/AOLTO Opij>TO
cpLll.OLa8ov 0l1AoLa8ov opij>a8ov
cpLAoia81/v ol1Aoia81/v op0a8rfV
CPLAOtp.E8a 01/AOtp.E8a op0p.E8a
cpLAoLa8E ol1AoLa8E opij>a8E
CPLAOLVTO 01/AOLVTO Opij>VTO
Like CPLAOijJ.YJv is inflected the optative of futures in -EojJ.aL, such as fut.
mid. opt. 7THTOijJ.YJv from 7Ti7TTW.
2. Indirect Discourse with on
or w~. The third of the three indirect-dis-
course constructions of Greek is the use of a noun clause introduced by on
or
W~ = that, the fact that (cf. U20.6-7, U28.2). This construction is common
with verbs of saying (AEYW, EL7TOV regularly; only occasionally <j>YJjJ.i), an-
nouncing (aYYEAAw), knowing (YLYVW(JKW, OLea), intellectual perception
(aKovw, ai(JeavojJ.aL, jJ.aveavw, etc.), and emotion (eavjJ.a(w, opyi(ojJ.aL), and
with impersonal expressions like efJAov E(JTW on,
<j>avEpov on,
etc. Many of
these verbs and expressions may also take the supplementary participle of
indirect discourse. The noun-clause construction is rare with verbs of thinking
or believing, which (like <j>YJjJ.i) usually take the infinitive of indirect discourse.
Indirect-discourse noun clauses follow the general rule for the sequence
of moods (U31.5). After a main verb in a primary tense, the verb of the
indirect statement retains the mood and voice and tense it had in the direct
form (but the person of the verb may be changed):
direct: 6 f3a(JLAfv~ OVK Ei~ KaLpov a<j>iKETo.
The king didn't arrive in time.
indirect: AEYW on 6 J3a(JLAEv~ OUK Ei~ KaLpov a<j>iKETo.
I say that the king didn't arrive in time.
direct: ad njJ.~(JojJ.EV TOV 7TOLYJT~V.
We'll always honor the poet.
indirect: AEYOV(JW on TOV 7TOLYJT1JV aft njJ.~(Jov(JW.
They say they'll always honor the poet.
Optative o/Contract Verbs; Indirect Discourse; Indirect Questions 253
After a main verb in a secondary tense, the verb of the indirect statement may
either (a) be left unchanged in mood or (b) be changed to the same tense and
voice of the optative. Note, however, that imperfects and pluperfects of direct
discourse are usually left in the indicative and only rarely changed to the
optative of the same tense stem (present or perfect). Furthermore, indicatives
denoting unreality (to be learned in U36) are left unchanged.
direct: 6 j3a(J"LAEv"> Ei"> KaLpov acpi~ETaL.
The king will come in time.
indirect: E[7rOV on 6 i3aCTLAEv"> Ei"> KaLpov acpi~ETaL (or acpi~oLTO).
I said that the king would arrive in time.
direct: ECTTpaTEv(J"avTo E7r~ TOV"> 'A81]vaiov,,>.
They went on campaign against the Athenians.
indirect: ryKov(J"aTE W"> E(J"TpaTEv(J"avTo (or (J"TpaTEv(J"awTo) E7r~ TOV">
'A81]vaiov,,>.
You heard that they went (or had gone) on campaign against
the Athenians.
direct: a[ yvva'iKE"> 0PXOVVTaL.
The women are dancing.
indirect: E7rv8op.E8a on a[ yvva'iKE"> 0PxovvTaL (or OPX0'ivTO).
We learned that the women were dancing.
direct: aL yvva'iKE"> WPXOVVTO.
The women were dancing.
indirect: E7rv8op.E8a on a[ yvva'iKE"> WPXOVVTO.
We learned that the women were dancing (when something or
other happened).
Note that the present optative would be ambiguous in the final example above,
just as the English were dancing is ambiguous unless some addition is made to
indicate that an imperfect is intended.
3. Indirect Questions. Noun clauses introduced by interrogatives (such

as who, which, what, when, why, how) are used in the same sorts of contexts as
indirect statements and are called indirect questions.
I know what you did. noun clause as object of know
(direct: What did you do?)
Why this happened is unclear. noun clause as subject of is
(direct: Why did this happen?)
The verb in a Greek indirect question follows the general rule for the sequence
of moods (U31.5). After a main verb in a primary tense, the verb of the in-
direct question retains the mood and voice and tense it had in the direct form
(but the person of the verb may be changed). After a main verb in a secondary
tense, the verb of the indirect question may either (a) be left unchanged in
mood or, more commonly, (b) be changed to the same tense and voice of the
optative. (Again, unreal indicatives [U36] are left unchanged.) In Greek,
indirect questions also differ from direct questions in that the interrogative
word may either be in the same form found in a direct question or appear in a
modified form, the indirect interrogative. The indirect interrogative pronoun
OOTL) is presented in §4 below; other indirect interrogatives will be learned in
U36.
direct: T[) (J"E aOLKEL; Who wrongs you?
indirect: OVK oioa T[) (or o(J"TL) (J"E aOLKEL. (primary)
I don't know who is wronging you.
OVK i10rwea T[) (or o(J"TL))
(J"E aOLKo[YJ (or aOLKEL). (secondary)
You didn't know who was wronging you.
direct nOTE ryMEV 6 aYYEAo);
When did the messenger come?
indirect: nOTE ryMEV 6 aYYEAo) EPWTq.. (primary)
He asks when the messenger came.
nOTE EMoL (or ryMEV) 6 aYYEAo) rypWTYJ(J"EV. (secondary)
He asked when the messenger came.
direct: CPVYWjJ.EV; [deliberative subj.]
7f(J))
How are we to escape?

indirect: anopovjJ.EV 7f(J)) CPVYWjJ.EV. (primary)
We are at a loss how we are to escape.
rynopovjJ.EV nw) CPVYOLjJ.EV (or CPVYWjJ.EV). (secondary)
We were at a loss how we were to escape.
4. Indefinite Relative and Indirect Interrogative. The pronoun o(J"TL),

1]TL), 0 TL is a combination of the relative pronoun and the indefinite pronoun,
both elements of which are declined (see paradigm, next page). By origin,
o(J"TL) is an indefinite relative pronoun (or adjective), whoever, whichever,
whatever; but like other indefinite relative words in Greek, it has a second
function as well, as indirect interrogative introducing an indirect question.
The short forms given in parentheses are common in poetry and in
inscriptions, but rare in formal prose: in these only the second element is
declined. Note that the neuter pI. nom. acc. aTTa differs from the alternative
indefinite pronoun form aTTa (UI7.1) only in its breathing. It is a modern
printing convention to show the neut. sing. nom. acc. as two separate words to
distinguish it from OTL = that (which is in fact a frozen adverbial acc. of o(J"TL).
In some texts this convention is not followed, and the two uses must be
distinguished by the interpretation of the context.
Optative o/Contract Verbs; Indirect Discourse; Indirect Questions 255
INDEFINITE RELATIVE / INDIRECT INTERROGATIVE

------_.
mase. fern. neuter
sin~. nom. OO'TL, "

1)TL, OTL
',' 'i' 'i'
~en. OVTWO, (OTOV) 1)O'TWO, OVTWO, (OTOV)
',' 'i' 'i'
dat. '(ITWL (onp) ?l TWL '(ITWL (OT'(I)
ace. OVTwa 1)VTwa OTL
(dual n. a. WTWE "

WTWE WTLvE)
'i' 'i'
(~. d. OWTWOW OWTWOW oivTLvow)
plur. 110m. "

OLTWE, aLTWE, aTLva UiTTa)
'i' 'i' 'i'
~en. WVTWWV (OTWV) WVTWWV WVTLVWV (OTWV)
dat. OtO'TLO'L(V) (OTOL<;) aiO'TLO'L(V) OiO'TLO'L(V) (OTOL<;)
ace. oVO'TLva<; "

aO'Twa<; aTLva UITTa)
Accentuation: like OOE, oO'TL) is a combination of an accented element and an
enclitic element; this explains the peculiarities of accent (1]TL), not ryTL);
(;jVTWWV with circumflex on apparent A). The accentuation is the same as that
of the simple relative pronoun.
1. Learn the conjugational patterns of contract-verb optatives and the inflec-

tion of oO'TL).
2. Study indirect discourse with OTL and indirect questions.
VOCABULARY
contract verbs
ai TLaojJ.aL, ai TLaO'ojJ.aL I a. I, accuse, censure; allege as a cause
, - ,
'[IT wO'ajJ.1)v
UtLOW, UtLWO'W, ~tiwO'a think worthy, think proper; expect, claim [axiom]
u7TavTaw, u7TavT~O'ojJ.aL, meet, encounter (+ dat.)
U7T~vT1)O'a (U7TO)
UO'$EVEW, UO'$EV~O'W, be weak, be ill
~O'$Ev1)O'a
uTLjJ.a(w, uTLjJ.aO'w, ~TI.jJ.Q(J'a
fail to honor; slight; dishonor
p01)$EW, p01)$~O'w, EpO~e1)O'a come to the aid of (+ dat.); come to the rescue
256 UNIT THIRTY-THREE
------_.--------------------
I I "
ya~EW. ya~EW. Ey~~a (act.) take as wife, marry a woman; (mid.) (of male
relative of bride) give in marriage, (of bride) give
self in marriage, marry a man
YEAaw. yEAa(JO~aL. EYEAa(Ja laugh; laugh at (+ prep. phrase or + dat.); deride (+
lei I acc.)
Oa7TaVaW. Oa7TaV~(JW. spend; consume, use up
EOa7TaV~(m
EaW. Ea(JW I ei I. ErMa permit, allow (+ acc. + inf.); let go, dismiss
(imperf. aug. ELWV)
Epaw [no act. or mid. in fut. be in love with. desire (+ gen.) [Eros. Erasmus I
or aor.]
[Ionic ErpO~aL].1 Ep~(JO~aL. ask, inquire
, ,
~po~~v
, , , I , I
EpwTaw. EpWT~(JW. ~pwT~(Ja ask, inquire (sometimes + acc. of person + acc. of

thing)
, I , ,
EVEpyETEW. EVEpyET~(JW. benefit, show kindness toward (+ acc.)

~VEpyET~(Ja 2
(w. (~(Jw, (non-Attic E(~(Ja)3 be alive, live [zoology]
~;:(JEW. ~;:(J~(Jw. E~i(J7wa I ;: I hate; (ingressive aor.) conceived a hatred for
[misogynist, misanthrope]
, , , , "
op~aw. op~~(Jw. wp~7wa set in motion; (intrans. act. or mid.) start off. go; rush
[hormone]
7TOAWpKEW. 7TOAWPK~(JW. besiege [poliorcetics]
E7TOALCJpK7W a
TEAEW. TEAEW (or rarely fulfill, accomplish, bring to an end; pay (taxes);
TEAE(JW), ETEAE(Ja initiate (into religious rites); perform rites
noun
(JwT~pia. (JwT~piar;, f. saftey, means of saftey, preservation; salvation
indefinite relative/indirect interrogative

whoever. whatever, whichever; who, what
conjunctions
that (introducing a noun clause); because
that (introducing a noun clause); as, because
I. In Attic f.PWTaW is used for the present system.

2. Fourth-century texts have aorist ElJEPYfrT]r:rU (because T]V had by then become the same as €V
in pronunciation).
3. Conjugated as if from *(aw. but T] or!7 appears instead of a. or q.. just as with xpaw. Present
indo and subj. (w. 07>. (fl. (WflEV. 07TE. {wr:rdv); opt. (0T]v. info (f}v. part. (wv. Imperfect E(wv.
E(T]>. E(T]. i.(WflEV. ~07TE. E(wv.
4. Never elided; OT' = OTE. when.
Optative of Contract Verbs; Indirect Discourse; Indirect Questions 257
prepositions
"
aVEV (+ gen.) without
"
EVEKa (usually placed after its noun; + gen.) on account of,
as far as regards
(+ gen.) except; (also used as conjunction) except
EXERCISES
I. Give a complete identification of each form.
1.
. ,
oPJJ."?YJv 8. oa7Tav0EV 15. EpE()eW
2. JJ.L()OLVTO 9. (w()a 16. "
ELa
' ,
3. !30YJeOVvTa 10. r,n JJ.o.(0JJ.EV 17. EVEPYETYJ(JYJTE
' ,
4. yaJJ.r,TaL 11. YEAa()aL 18. EVEPYETYJ(JETE
,
5. 7TOAWPKOi YJ~ 12. atwLJJ.EV 19. ()VvEyvW()aV
a()eEVELV ' ,
6. 13. ainu(JeaL 20. avaLpoLJJ. YJV
' ,
7. EpwTqS 14. EPW()W 21. a7TYJVTWV
II. Write the optative in the designated form for each of the following:
1. 3rd pI. aor. act. of JJ.L()EW 6. 2nd s. pres. mJp of 0PW1.W
2. 1st s. fut. mid. ofYEAaw 7. 3rd s. aor. mid. ofTEAEw
3. 2nd pI. pres. mJp of yaJJ.Ew 8. 1st pI. aor. act. of ai TEW
4. 3rd pI. pres. act. of a7TavTaw 9. 3rd s. pres. act. of Epaw
5. 1st pI. aor. mid. of ainaoJJ.aL 10. 2nd s. pres. act. of anJJ.a(w
III. Render the following sentences into Greek, producing as many versions
as possible by choice of different indirect-discourse constructions and by
choice of sequence of moods.
1. And when he arrived, he reported that the Athenians had conceived a
hatred for those who were not coming to the aid of the weak.
2. Tomorrow we shallieam where we shall encounter our allies.
3. At daybreak [= at the same time with day] just about all the cavalrymen
started off toward the sea, it being obvious that no one thought it proper to
permit the enemy to perceive what preparations the citizens had made.
IV. Reading sentences.
1. TOV vwviov EPOJJ.EVOV ryvnva TWV TpLWV evyaTEpwv ()VJJ.cpEPOL yr,JJ.aL,
yEAWVTE~ a7TEKpwaJJ.Eea on
ayvooLJJ.EV.
2. EWJJ.EV TOV /3a()LAEa 7TOAWPKOVVTa TO a()TV OLaJJ.EVEW. ry !30YJery()WJJ.EV;
3. r,PWTWV oi ()TpanWTaL 7TW~ EUEPYETOl.EV TOV Kvpov. OUK EtOV ()TpaTEV-
WeaL aVEV XPYJJJ.aTWV· OU yap r,tiovv 7TEieE()eaL ()TpaTYJy0 EAanov ry
lJ7TE()XETO Oa7TaVWVTL.
IV. Reading: Xenophon, Anabasis 6.1.26--29 (abridged, but unaltered except

for last sentence): Xenophon advises the army not to appoint him as its sole
commander.
EYW, (J; avopE~, 1jooJJ.aL JJ.EV vcj>' vJJ.wv nJJ.wJJ.Evo~, Et7rEP av8pw7ro~ EiJJ.L,
Ka~ xapw EXW Ka~ EVxoJJ.aL oovvai JJ.OL TOV~ 8EOV~ atnov TWO~ vJJ.~v aya80v
YEVEaBaL' TO gEVTOL EJJ.E 7rPOKpL8fivaL vcj>' vJJ.wv apxovTa AaKEoaLJJ.oviov
avopo~ 7rapOVTO~ OVTE vJJ.~v JJ.OL OOKE~ O"VJJ.cj>EpOV dvaL, a A. A. • ryTTOV av OLa
TOVTO TvyxaVELv, Et n OEOL0"8E 7rap' aiJTwv' EJJ.oi TE au OV 7ravv n vOJJ.i(w
aO"cj>aA.E~ ELvaL TOVTO. opw yap on Ka~ TV 7raTpioL JJ.ov OV 7rP00"8EV
E7ravO"avTO 7rOA.EJJ.OVVTE~ 7rP~V E7roinO"av 7rQ.O"av T~V 7rOA.W OJJ.OA.0YE~V
AaKEOaLJJ.oviov~ Ka~ aVTwv i]yEJJ.Ova~ ELVaL. ... 8 OE VgE~~ EVVOELTE, on
ryTTOV av o"Tao"L~ d1J EVO~ apxovTo~ ~ 7rOA.A.WV, EU to"TE on aA.A.ov JJ.EV
EA.OJJ.EVOL OVX EVpryo"ETE EJJ.E O"TaO"La(oVTa' vOJJ.i(w yap oO"n~ EV 7rOA.EJJ.c.r wv
O"Tao"La(H 7rPO~ apxovTa, TOVTOV 7rPO~ Trw EaVTOV O"wT1Jpiav O"Tao"La(Hv' EJJ.E
OE EA.OJJ.EVOL, to"w~ av Twa EiJpOLTE Ka~ vJJ.~V Ka~ EJJ.O~ 0PYL(0JJ.EVOV.
Underlined Words
Q.v here adds modal (potential) force to 7Tavv TL = very much at all, really
the infinitive TVYXavEw (which 7TO~EW = (here) cause, compel
depends on an understood OOKEl.TE = 7Tpiv = before
it seems to me that you . .. ) 7TpoKp~efJva~= (aor. pass. inf.) to be
EL TL oEowBE = if you should ask for selected (as X) in preference to (+
anything (optative in a condition) gen. of person)
EL-rrEp = if in fact O"Talna(w = engage in strife or
LaTE = 2nd pI. imperative from oIoa dissension
JJ.EVTO~ = (postpositive particle) however
o oE ... EVVOEI.TE = and as for the
notion which you have in mind
UNIT THIRTY -FOUR
Simple, General, and Future

Conditions
1. Conditional Sentences. One of the most common fonns of complex

sentence is the conditional sentence, that is, one in which the subordinate
clause (the if-clause; the protasis in the traditional tenninology of Greek gram-
mar) expresses a condition and the main clause (then-clause,1 or apodosis in
traditional tenninology) expresses the consequence of that condition's fulfill-
ment. In many languages, including Greek, conditional sentences have a
variety of schemes of moods (or modal auxiliaries) and tenses in the if-clause
and then-clause in order to express different notions of the possibility or prob-
ability of the condition's being fulfilled and different degrees of assertiveness
in the main clause. In Greek, the conditional schemes apply not only to
sentences containing Ei = if, but also to various relative and temporal clauses
that have a force akin to that of a condition. In this unit and in U36 the most
important regular patterns of Greek conditions will be presented. In actual
Greek texts the student will later occasionally find irregular or "mixed"
conditions, but these need not concern the beginner. The negative nonnally
used in the protasis of all kinds of conditional sentences is jJ.?].
2. Simple Conditions. Grammatically most obvious as well as relatively
uncommon are the conditions called simple. In these the protasis implies no-
thing about the reality or probability of the apodosis. The scheme is:
protasis apodosis
Ei + indicative indicative or any independent-clause construction
Ex. simple present condition
Ei jJ.av$6.vw; T1]V 'EAAY]VLK1]V YAwTTav, KaAW'7fOLEL,.
If you are learning Greek, you are doing the right thing.
1. Although the word then is not in fact always used in an English condition, it may always be
added without changing the sense; and in an artificial programming language like Pascal, the
syntax requires that every ifbe followed by a then.
259
260 UNIT THIRTY -FOUR
simple past condition

EL E~ aPxiJ<; Ta xaAE7ra !n7jJ.aTa EjJ.av8avE<; (EjJ.a8E<;), KaAw<; hro{Et<;
(hro{rwa <;).
If you were learning (learned) the difficult verbs from the beginning, you
were doing (did) the right thing.
Simple Relative and Temporal Clauses. Clauses introduced by a relative
pronoun, relative adverb, or temporal conjunction contain the indicative when
they refer to present or past action that is asserted as a fact applying to a
specific occasion.
OTE ryMw, owpa ~VEYKW.
When he came (on one particular occasion), he brought gifts.
Ot (TTpanWTaL oi.' vvv 7TapEt(H 7TLcrTfJTaTo{ Eicrw.
The soldiers who are present now are very trustworthy.
E7Td 6 ~apE'io<; ETEAEtJT1'/crE, Ef3acr{AEVcrw 6 EEp~1'/<;.
After Darius died, Xerxes became king.
3. General Conditions. General conditions refer indefinitely to general
truths in the present or past or to repeated or customary actions in the present
or past. (For actions that lie in the future, on the other hand, the distinction be-
tween specificity and generality is syntactically unimportant, and other distinc-
tions are significant instead, as §4 will show.) General conditions do not assert
the occurrence of one definite act at one definite time. To express generality,
Greek uses a dependent mood in the protasis (rather than the indicative, which
asserts fact) and the present stem (present or imperfect indicative) in the apo-
dosis to convey repeated action or general truth (the typical aspect of the
present stem). The scheme for a present general condition is:
prolasis apodosis
Eav (EL + Q.v) + subjunctive present indicative
Ex.
Eav EMn, owpa <pEpEt.
If he (ever) comes, he brings gifts (on each occasion).
Eav jJ.~ vocrfl, Ta 7TaLo{a OLoacrKEt.
He teaches the children (every day) unless he is ill (at any time).
Note that one can determine whether a condition is simple or general by trying
to add adverbial phrases like on one particular occasion. at that time (for
simple) or ever, on each or any occasion (for general) to clarify the sense.
The scheme for a past general condition is:
protasis apodosis
Ei + optative imperfect indicative
Simple, General, and Future Conditions 261
Ex.
Ei }J-ry vO(J"oiy/, TO. 7faLoia Eoioa(J"KEV.
He used to teach the children (every day) unless he was ill (at any time).
Ei TO. OiKaLa 7fpaTTOLEV, ETL}J-W}J-EV aVT01k
If they (ever) did what was right, we (always) used to honor them.
Relative or Temporal Clauses with General Conditional Force. Clauses
of these types may also follow the general conditional patterns shown above
when they are indefinite or generic or refer to repeated or customary action.
Relative clauses with general force are often introduced by the indefinite rela-
tive (U33.4, U36), but the simple relative may also be used. The modal parti-
cle av is often combined with a conjunction: OTaV = OTE + av, E7fELOaV =
E7fELO~ + av, etc.
Ex. present general force

OTaV (07fOTaV) 'EAeTl, owpa <pEPEL.
Whenever he comes, he brings gifts (on each occasion).
01. (J"TpaTLWTaL OZTLVE~ av 7fapw(J"L xp~}J-aTa Aa}J-pavov(J"w.
Whichever soldiers are present (on any occasion) receive money.
past general force
OTE (07fOTE) 'EAeOL, owpa 'E<pEpEV.
Whenever he came, he brought gifts (on each occasion).
01. 'ABy/vaLoL E~EpaAAov oVTLva 7fovy/pew VO}J-i(OLEV.
The Athenians used to expel any man (whom, whomsoever) they consid-
ered wicked.
4. Future Conditions. Future conditions express suppositions (either

general or particular) about the future. The supposition is considered by the
speaker to be possible, but the question of fulfillment vs. non-fulfillment is not
yet decided. The moods used in the protasis and apodosis depend on the speak-
er's attitude toward the probability of fulfillment.
a. Future Most Vivid. This pattern conveys strong emotion or certainty.

It is a rather rare construction in prose (and should not be used in the English-
Greek exercises of this book), but is found in drama and colloquial contexts.
The scheme is:
protasis apodosis
Ei + future indicative future indicative
Ex.
Ei TafJTa 7f0L17(J"EL~, KTEVW (J"E.
If you do that, I'll kill you!
b. Future More Vivid. In this pattern the speaker views fulfillment as

relatively probable, and so the indicative is used in the apodosis; but since the
occurrence of the condition is unascertained, the protasis has the sUbjunctive.
The scheme is:
protasis apodosis
Eav + subjunctive future indicative)
Ex.
Eav TOV paCHA.Ea EA.I1~' aptEL~ aVT' EKEivov.
If you capture the king. you will rule in his place.
Eav TUUTU yEVY]TUt, xaA.E7rW~ oLanE.
If that (ever) happens. you will be upset.
c. Future Less Vivid. In this construction the speaker views fulfillment

as relatively less probable, and so the apodosis contains the potential optative
(optative + av) to make a cautious or softened assertion. By assimilation of
mood, the protasis also contains the optative, expressing a more remote possi-
bility than the subjunctive + av in the future more vivid pattern. The English
equivalent of the future less vivid pattern is usually should-would (also were to
X-would). The scheme is:
protasis apodosis
Ei + optative optative + av
Ex.
Ei TOV (3arHA.Ea EA.Ot~, aptEw~ uv aVT' EKEivov.
If you should capture the king. )lOU would rule in his place.
A.EyOt}J.' av v}J.I.V Ei E8EA.OtTE aK01JELv.
I would tell you if.vou should be willing to listen.
Relative or Temporal Clauses with Future Conditional Force. Clauses of
these types may also follow the future more vivid or less vivid conditional pat-
terns shown above when they are indefinite or generic, or refer to the future
and the apodosis also refers to the future.
Ex. future more vivid force

a7rOKTEVOUO"W ot:nVE~ UV T0 (3ao"tA.EI. E7rt(30VA.E'lJwO"w.
They will put to death anyone who plots (may in the future plot) against
the king.
1. One may also find other constructions implying future time, such as an imperative or Xpri
(DEL) + infinitive.
omv E/\BTl' owpa OLO"EL.

When( ever) he comes, he will bring gifts.
future less vivid force
OVK o.v E)J.(3aivoLIU TO. 7fA.o~a aKvpoS' iJ)J.~v ooi1}.
I would not board the ships which Cyrus might give us.
07fOV TO vowp ~ov EL1} E8EA.OL)J.EV o.v OiKELV.
Wherever the water might be sweet, we would be willing to settle.
I. Study the conditional patterns presented above.

VOCABULARY
nouns
aOEA<po~, aOEA<p0v, m. brother [Philadelphia]
aOEA<Pr], aOEA<pr,~, f. sister
apL8}J.o~. apL8}J.ov, m. number [arithmetic]
f.O"7T'f.pa. f.G"7T'f.pa~, f. evening; the west [Hesperides]
8av}J.a. 8av}J.aTo~, n. wonder, marvel; astonishment [thaumaturgy]
Kivovvo>. KWOVVOV, m. danger, risk
vV~. VVKTOS, f. night
OLKO~. OLKOV, m. house, dwelling place; household [ecology,
ecosystem)
oiKia. oiKias, f. building, house
07T'AOV, 07T'AOV, n. tool, implement; (pI.) arms; ship's tackle
"
opOS. "
opOVS, n. mountain, hill
7T'AO'iOV. 7T'Aoiov, n. ship. boat
7T'pf.G"(3v~. 7T'pf.O"(:3Ew~, m. old man; elder; ambassador (plural rare except in this
last sense) [presbyopia. presbyterian]
7T'pEG"(:3VTEpOS. -a. -ov older. elder
7T'PW(:3VTaTOS. -1). -ov oldest, eldest
7T'PEG"(:3VT1)S. 7T'PW- old man, ambassador
(3VTOV, m.
verbs
OLoa.G"KW. OLoa.~W. Eoioa~a instruct. teach; train (a chorus), produce (a dance or
play) [didactic]
E}J.f3aivw (EV) step in or upon; board (a ship)
~KW. ~~w have come, be present (pres. with meaning of perfect)
264 UNIT THIRTY-FOUR
eaV/lo.(w, eav/lQ.(J"O/laL, wonder at, marvel at; admire

EeaV/la(J"a
KAETrTW, KAE..yW, EKAE..ya steal; behave stealthily [kleptomania]
Tr0PEVW, Tr0PEV(J"W, make to go, convey; (more commonly middle
, ,
ETrOpEv(J"a deponent Tr0pEVO/laL) go, walk, march
TPEXW, Opa/lEO/laL (or rarely run [trochaic, hippodrome, aerodrome]
epEfo/laL), EOpa/lOV
conjunctions
EL if (with indo or opt.); whether (in indirect question)
EQ.V, contracted av' or if (with subj.)
"
YJV
Et7TEP if in fact, if indeed; since
Et }.J.~ (without an expressed verb) if not, except
ETrEl since, whereas; when, after
ETrElTE when, since
ETrELOry (ETrELory + av when, after; since, whereas
= ETrELoaV)
aTE (elided aT'; aTE + av = when (relative adverb)
OTav)
OTrOTE (OTrOTE + av = (indef. rel.lindirect interrogative) whenever, when
OTrOTav)
EXERCISES
l. The men whom(ever) Socrates examined by conversing with (them) ap-
peared to those present to know nothing, with the result that they were
angry with him.
2. If we accuse them, they will not agree with us readily.
3. When the ambassador has come, will you ask this question or not?
4. If they should leave behind their weapons and boats and flee during the
night, it would be no surprise (wonder).
II. Reading sentences.
1. o(J"TLI) Q.v 7TPE(J"j3HI) aOtKil, Ei}J.1] a1JTiKa aAAo. TEAOI) OiK77V oiow(J"w,
2, Eo.V oi TpELr; aOEAcpoL AaGw(J"t KAEtavTEr; TO. 07TAa a aVEGE(J"av oi 077-
j3aLOt, 7TAOV(J"Wt YW7}(J"ovTat Kai7TEp avo(J"w 7Tpa~aVTEI).
I. This fonn has long alpha; it can be distinguished from the modal particle av by the length of
(av
the alpha (which is apparent in verse) and by its position in its clause =if is nonnaIly first in
its clause, modal av
is postpositive and cannot be first).
3. 'Ae~VYJ(J"L I TO 7To.ll.aWV EeaVjJ.o.(OVTO Ot OLKa(J"Tat. OLTWES' aKOV(J"aVTES'

aWPOTEpWV
, ,
TOVS' lI.oYOVS' T~V tr,cj>OV eEt.VTO KaTa TO oiKawv Kat. KaTa
TOVS'VOjJ.ovS'.
4. Ei To.XL(J"Ta Opo.jJ.OLS', L(J"WS' av TOV Kivovvov cj>VYOLS'.
5. aVTt. TOVTWV, aTwa vvv d)EpyET~(J"EWV, a7TOlI.o.j3OLEV av Xo.pw Kat. (WVTES'
Kat. jJ.ETa T~V TEII.EVT~V [= end] TOV f3iov.
a
6. EaV EPWV Tr,S' ETaipaS' oa7Tav~(J"71 7TOlI.lI.a vEaviaS', ov (J"VVOi(J"H T0 OLK~
wS' l]oYJ XPYJjJ.o.TWV a7Topovvn.
7. 7TpE7TH aEt. 7TOLEt.V 0 n av 7TapawE(J"w(J"w Ot (J"ocj>oi.
8. [Cephalus narrates:] E7THO~ EiS' 'Ae~vaS' [Athens] acj>LK()jJ.YJv, KaT' ayopav
a7T~VTYJ(J"a 'AOHjJ.o.VT~ Kat. fll.aVKwVL· Kai jJ.ov lI.af3ojJ.EVoS' [mid. = take
a
hold of, + gen.] Tr,S' XHPOS' 'AOEijJ.avToS', "Xat.PE [greetings]," Ecj>YJ, "~
KEcj>aIl.E, Kat. EL TOV OE!] TWV EVeo.OE a. ~jJ.Et.S' OVVo.jJ.Eea 7TOLEt.V, cj>po.(E [tell
(us)]." "a 11.11.0., " Et7TOV iyw, "7To.PHjJ.L E7T' aVTO TOVTO, OEYJ(J"OjJ.EVOS' VjJ.Wv. "
III. Reading: Aristophanes, Wealth 489-504: the goddess of Poverty has
argued in favor of the status quo (in which the god of Wealth is blind), but
Chremylos justifies his proposal to restore Wealth's sight as follows. 2
Chremylos
cj>avEpov jJ.Ev EYWy' otjJ.aL yvwvaL TOVT' EtVaL 7Ta.(J"W ogoiwS', 489
on TOVS' XPYJ(J"TOVS' TWV aVepW7TWV EV 7Tpo.TTEW E(J"Tt. oiKawv, 490
TOVS' oE 7TOVYJpOVS' Kat. TOVS' aeEO'lJi TOVTWV TavavTig QR7TOV.
TOVT' OVV ~jJ.Et.S' E7TLeVjJ.OVVTES' gOIl.LS' YJVpOjJ.EV W(J"TE YEVE(J"eaL
f3oVII.EVjJ.a Kall.OV Kat. YEVvat.ov Kat. XPfl(J"LgOV EiS' a7Tav EPYOV.
lJV yap aflIl.OVTOS' vvvt. /3I1.EtV Kat. jJ.~ 'LVCPII.OS' wv 7JEPWO(J"Ti1,
wS' TOVS' ayaeovS' TWV aVepW7TWV paOLEt.TaL KOVK a7TOII.EitH, 495
TOVS' oE 7TOVYJpOVS' Kat. TOVS' aeEOVS' cj>EV~Et.TaL· K~Ta 7TOfl(J"H
7To.VTaS' XPYJ(J"TOVS' Kat. 7TII.OVTOVVTaS' O~7TOV TO. TE eEt.a rLEiJOVTaS'.
KaiTOL TOVTOV TOtS' aVepW7TOLS' TiS' av E~EVpOL 7TOT' ajJ.Ewov; 498
Blepsidemos
ovoEiS" TOVTOV go.pTVS' EYW (J"OL' jJ.YJoEv TavTYJv y' ~vEpwTa. 499
I. See U29.5e.
2. The speech is written in a meter called anapaestic tetrameter catalectic. Greek meter is
quantitative (based on length of syllables). The Greek anapaest is ~ ~ - ~ ~ - , but each pair of
shorts can be replaced by a long, and a long can be replaced by two shorts (within certain
limits). Thus an anapaestic metron can also appear as - - _. - or as - ~ ~ - - or the like. The
tetrameter consists of four metra, with word-end at the end of each of the first two and with the
fourth metron shortened to ~ ~ - - (with no substitutions allowed). So the first two lines are
scanned:
~~-~~-I----I---- ~~--II
~~---I----I---- ~~--II
Chremylos
OJ, jJ.EV yap vvv r,jJ.tV 0 (3io, TOt, aVepW7fOL, CnD.KHTaL, 500
Ti, av OVX r,YOtT' E~vaL gaviav KaKOoaLgoviav T' En jJ.QAAOV;
7fOAAOL jJ.EV yap TWV aVepW7fWV OVTH 7fAOVTOV(n 7fovYJpoi,
aoiKW, aVTa tVAAEtD.gEVOL· 7fOAAOL O· OVTH 7fD.VV XPYJ(J"TOL
7fpD.TTOV(J"L KaKW, KaL 7fEWW(J"W jJ.ETa (J"OV TE TO. 7fAEt(J"Ta (J"VVH(J"W. 504
Underlined Words
489: EywyE = emphatic fonn of Eyw 496: 7TO~(J"EL = 7TOL~(J"EL (metrical
489: yvwvaL = epexegetic (explanatory shortening of diphthong OL from
result) infinitive with cpavEpov, clear popular speech)
to understand 497: 7TAOVTEW = be wealthy, be rich
489: oP.Ol.w> = equally 497: eELO>, -a, -av = divine
491: new>, -av = godless, wicked 497: (J"Ef3w = revere, respect
491: TG..vaVTl.a = TO. EVaVTl.a, the 498: Kal.TOL = and yet
opposite 498: E~d)pOL = EK- compound; guess the
491: O~7TOV = surely, you'll agree meaning
492: take TOlJTO as object of 1]VPOP.EV, 499: P.aPTV> = witness
further explained by WCTTE = a way so 499: y' (elided YE) = enclitic adding
that emphasis to TaVT1]V (i.e., Poverty)
492: ovv = so then 499: G..VEpWTa (2nd sing. imperative) =
492: P.OAL> = with difficulty ask
493: YEVvaLo>, -a, -ov = noble, 500: OLaKELP.aL (deponent p.L-verb) = be
excellent disposed, be arranged
493: xp~cnp.o>, -1], -av = useful 501: p.avl.a = madness
494: VVVI. = emphatic fonn of vvv 50 I: KaKooaLp.oVl.a = accursed
494: !3AE7Tw, aor. E!3Anva = have sight, mi!>fortune
see 501: ETL = still, even
494: TVCPAO>, -~, -av = blind 503: aUTO. = their possessions
494: 7TEPLVOCTTEW = go around 503: (J"VAAEYW, aor. (J"vvEAE~a = gather
495: w> (+ acc. of person) = ({v v is the old Attic fonn of (J"vv)
(preposition) to, to the house of 503: 7TaVV = (adv.) altogether,
495: f3aol.(w, fut. f3aoLEop.aL = walk, go exceedingly
495: KOUK = Kat. OUK 504: 7TELVaW = starve
495: G..7TOAEI.",EL = G..7TO- compound; 504: (J"ov refers to Poverty
guess the meaning 504: TO. 7TAEL(J"Ta (adv. acc.) = for the
496: K4Ta = Kat. E~Ta most part
504: (J"VVELP.L = be with
UNIT THIRTY -FIVE
Aorist Passive and Future Passive
I. The Last Three Principal Parts. Up to this point the student has dealt
with the first three principal parts of the Greek verb: the first person singular
forms of the present active (or middle/passive for deponent), future active (or
middle), and aorist active (or middle) indicative. In the traditional order of
principal parts, the fourth is the first person singular perfect active indicative,
the fifth is the first person singular perfect middle/passive indicative, and the
sixth is the first person singular aorist passive indicative. In this book the aorist
passive will be learned first (since the aorist is more commonly used than the
perfect), and the perfect will soon follow in U37. From this unit on, new verbs
will be presented with all six principal parts, or as many as a particular verb
actually has (since deponents and some other verbs lack some tense systems).
As part of the work of this and the next two units, the student should also
study the remaining principal parts of the verbs learned in previous units,
using the compiled list of principal parts in Appendix 2.
2. Formation of Aorist Passive Stem. In origin, the aorist passive devel-

oped from an intransitive "active" form, similar in formation to intransitive
athematic aorists like E(}TryV or EpryV. The more primitive aorist passive stems
(called "second" aorist passive) consist of a form of the verb stem plus tense
vowel ry (shortened to E in the participle, subjunctive, and optative):
ypacpw stem ypacpry- princ. part Eypacpryv
pAa7rTW stem pAapry- prine. part EpAa(3ryv
The more recent aorist passive stems (called "first" aorist passive) add a tense
suffix Ory (or OE) to the verb stem:
AVW, stem AVOry- princ. part EAVOryV
7rO~EW stem 7rO~ryOry prine. part E7rOnjeryv
TiOry}J-~ stem TEOry- princ. part ETEOryV'
I. Note the effect of Grassmann's law: when suffix e.,., is added to the verb stem e(, the result is
nO.,.,- rather than 0(0.,.,- by dissimilation of the initial aspiration.
267
268 UNIT THIRTY-FIVE
It is necessary to learn the principal parts because the form of the aorist stem
cannot always be predicted from the first principal part; but there are certain
patterns that make learning the principal parts somewhat easier:
a. Insertion of (J' before the suffix 8Y/ (verbs in dentals or (w, some verbs
in -EW):
7TEi8w E7TE L(J'8y/v
vO~L(w Evo~L(J'8y/v
TEAEW ETEAE(J'8y/v
b. Labial or velar plosive aspirated before 8Y/ (by assimilation):
AEL7Tw EAELcp8y/v
7TpaTTw (7Tpay-) E7TpaX8Y/V
c. v dropped before 8y/:
,
KPWW EKpL8Y/v
3. Inflection of Aorist Passive. The inflection is the same for "first" and
"second" aorist passive, so these terms are only of historical interest (unlike
the case of first and second aorist active or middle). Every part of the aorist
passive inflection is the same as some inflectional pattern that the student has
already learned. The indicative has augment and has athematic conjugation
using the appropriate secondary active personal endings (-v. -'>. - , -TOV,
-Ty/V. -~EV, -TE. -(J'av): cf. E(J'Ty/V. Ej3y/V. The infinitive has the ending -vaL
with the (circumflex) accent on the tense vowel Y/. The participle has the active
participial suffix -VT-, producing the endings -(8)EL'>, -Wki(J'a, -(e)EV; the
declension is like that of neEt'>, n8EL(J'a. n8Ev. The subjunctive has the usual
active subjunctive personal endings, which contract with the tense vowel E, so
that the conjugation is like that of subj. 7TOLW or n8w. The optative has the
mood suffix -Ly/- or -L- (optional in dual and plural) added to the tense vowel E,
so that the conjugation is like that of optative n8ELy/v.
Ex. aorist passive of AVW, stem Av8y/- (or Av8E-)
indicative subjunctive optative
Er.:v8r/V Av8w Av8dYJv

EAV8YJ<; Av8fl<; Av8EiYJ<;
EAV8YJ Av8fl Av8EiYJ
(EAV8YJTOV Av8r,TOV Av8dYJTOV or Av8EtTOV)
(EAV8~TYJV Av8r,TOV Av8EL~TYJV or Av8EiTYJV)
EAV8YJ}J.EV Av8w}J.EV Av8EiYJ}J.EV or Av8Et}J.EV
EAV8YJTE Av8r,TE Av8EiYJTE or Av8EtTE
EAv8wmv Av8wO'L(V) Av8EiYJO'av or Av8EtEV
Aorist Passive and Future Passive 269
infinitive: Av8fwaL
participle: Av8Ei'i. Av8ELeTa. Av8EV; m.ln. stem Av8EVT-,
dat. pI. Av8ELI]'L(V)
4. Future Passive System. The sixth principal part also provides the
basis for the formation of the future passive system. Recall (from VI8.7) that
the future middle of many verbs can have a passive meaning, but some verbs
have only a future passive (e.g., ryoop.aL. iweYwop.aL from aor. pass. ry0'8'7v)
and others can use either form to express a future passive meaning.
The future passive stem is formed by adding -O'op.aL (= future suffix 0' +
theme vowel olE + primary middle/passive personal endings) to the aorist
passive stem with vowel '7. 1 The indicative, infinitive, participle, and optative
are inflected just like a regular future middle in -(J'op.aL.
Ex. future passive of AVW, stem Av8'70'- + olE
indicative optative
AVe.,jO'OJlaL AVerwo[wJV
Ave.,jeJ'"[I AVe.,jIJ'OLO
AVe.,jouaL AVe.,jIJ'OLTO
(Ave.,jlJ'wBov AVe.,jIJ'OLlJ'eOV)
(AVe.,jIJ'Weov AVerwo[lJ'erJV )
AVerwoJlE ea AVerwo[JlEea
AVe.,jIJ'ElJ'eE AVe.,jIJ'OLlJ'eE
AVe.,jIJ'OVTaL AVe.,jIJ'OLVTO
infinitive: Av8~O'EO'8at
participle: Av8'7(J'()P.EVO'i. -'7. -ov
1. Study the aorist passive and future passive systems.

2. Study the principal parts of verbs learned to date (compiled in Appendix
2). Begin to learn the perfect principal parts now as well. You may wish to
read "Advice on Learning Principal Parts," which precedes the list of prin-
cipal parts).
I. A future passive from a "first" aorist passive (r.v8.ryCToflaL) is called a "first" future passive.
and one from a "second" aorist passive (,3r.a,3.ryCToflaL) is called a "second" future passive, but
the distinction is insignificant.
270 UNIT THIRTY -FIVE
VOCABULARY
nouns related to words learned previously
acnKia, aOLKia" f. injustice, wrongdoing
aiaxvvT/, aiaxvvT/" f. shame, dishonor; sense of shame
aLTia, aiTia" f. responsibility, blame; accusation; cause
apxwv, apxovTo" m. ruler; archon (an Athenian magistrate, one of a group
of nine chosen annually)
acr8EVELa, acr8EVEia<;, f. weakness, illness
130.80" pa80v" n. depth
papo" papov" n. weight
oLKawcrvVT/, oLKawcrvVT/" f. righteousness, justice
ovcrTvxia, ovcrTvxia" f. ill luck, ill fortune
E1.JTvxia, E1.JTvxia" f. good luck, success
Ex8pa, Ex8pa" f. hatred, enmity
CiJr..o" (~r..ov, m. eager rivalry, emulation; (less commonly) jealousy
[zeal]
KaKia, KaKia" f. badness; cowardice; vice
Kar..r..O" Kar..r..OV>, n. beauty [calliope]
7TPOOOTT/" 7TPOOOTOV, m. traitor, betrayer
crwcppocrVVT/, crwcppocrVVT/" f. prudence; moderation, temperance
TaXO" TaXOV" n. speed, swiftness [tachometer]
TaXO, (adv. acc.) swiftly
TEr..EVT~, TEr..EVTr", f. accomplishment; end, finish; death
cpvya" cpvyaoo" m. or f. exile; runaway, fugitive
EXERCISES
I. Write in Greek.
1. 3rd pI. aor. pass. indo of eav}J.a(w
2. dat. pI. masc. fut. pass. part. of (YJAow
3. 2nd sing. fut. pass. indo of (TKEoavvVfJ.L
4. 3rd sing. fut. pass. opt. of ytYVW(TKW
5. 2nd pI. aor. pass. subj. of 7TpaTTw
6. acc. sing. fern. aor. pass. part. of /nlyvv}J.t
7. 1st pI. aor. pass. subj. of }J.L}J.V?7(TKW
8. 1st sing. aor. pass. opt. of opaw
9. aor. pass. info of TE}J.VW
10. 3rd sing. aor. pass. indo of cpatvw
11. fut. pass. info of E7TawEw
12. nom. sing. neut. aor. pass. part. of j3aAAw
13. aor. act. info of EXW
Aorist Passive and Future Passive 271
14. neut. s. acc. pres. act. part. of VLKaW

15. 2nd s. aor. mid. opt. of a:7rOOioWjJ.L
16. 1st pI. aor. act. subj. of AajJ.{3avw
17. 3rd pI. fut. pass. indo of aipEw
18. 2nd pI. fut. act. indo ofEA7Ti(w
19. 3rd S. aor. pass. opt. of OLWKW
20. masc. S. nom. aor. pass. part. of ryoojJ.aL
II. Identify each form completely.
1. ArJep8f]vaL 15. KpaTrJ8Ei(F[1 29. aYYEM~a-ETaL
2. 7TOL rJ8~a-ETaL 16. 7TELa-8wa-L 30. aVETE8rJ
3. ow{3aAovjJ.EV 17. Kpvep8EV 31. aVETi8EL
4. KWAv8~a-ojJ.aL 18. opjJ.~a-awTo 32. a7Tax8wjJ.EV
I
5. a-VVEyvwTE 19. ap7Taa-8rJa-ojJ.EVOV 33. a7TopoirJ~
6. EvojJ.ia-8rJ~ 20. EAa8EirJ 34. a7TEovTE
7. ETa x8rJa-av 21. Eepo{3~8rJjJ.EV 35. yvwa-8f]vaL
8. yf]jJ.aL 22. Epp~8rJ 36. OELX8ELCTaL
9. aiTLa8f]vaL 23. iw8~a-E(T8aL 37. EOLOaX8rJ
10. atLw8EvTWV 24. EVE7TA~a-8rJv 38. ovvrJ8EVTa
11. 7Tpax8fJ 25. EVPE8~a-oVTaL 39. wpyia-8rJTE
12. E(rJ 26. (rJTrJ8ELjJ.EV 40. opYLa-8f]TE
13. E7TL8ELO 27. i]TTrJ8EVTO~ 41. E{3A~8rJ~
14. rypaa-8rJv 28. jJ.vrJa-8f]vaL 42. orJAw8~a-Ea-8E
III. Reading: Plato, Gorgias 456a-c: the sophist Gorgias explains to Socrates
the primacy of the art of rhetoric.
[Socrates:] TaVTa Ka~ 8avjJ.a(wv. ~ fopyia. 7TaAaL EPWTW Ti~ 7TOTE i]
ovvajJ.i~ Ea-TLV Tf]~ imIopLKn~. oaLgovia yap n~ EgOLYE KaTacpaivETaL TO
gEYE8o~ OVTW a-K07TOVVTL.
[Gorgias:] Ei 7TaVTa yE EiOEi!)~. ~ LWKpaTE~. on W~ E7TO~ Ei7TELV a7Taa-a~
Ta~ OVvajJ.EL~ a-VAAa(3ova-a vep' aVTfJ EXEL. jJ.E}a OE a-OL TEKgnpwv Epw'
7TOAAaKL~ yap ~OrJ EyWyE jJ.ETa TOV aOEAepOV Ka~ jJ.ETa TWV aAAWV iaTpwv
Eia-EMwv 7Tapa Twa TWV KagvovTwv OVX~ E8EAOVTa 77 cpapgaKOV 7TLELV. 77
TEjJ.ELV 77 Kava-aL 7Tapaa-XELV Tip iaTpip. ov OvvajJ.Evov TOV iaTpov 7TELa-aL. EYw
E7TELCTa. OVK aAATI ~ 77 TfJ prJTOPLKfJ. eprJjJ.~ oE Ka~ Ei~ 7TOAW 07TOL {30VATI
EA80VTa iJ?]TOPLKOV avopa Ka~ iaTpov. Ei OEOL AOY'P OLaywvi(w8aL EV
EKKA!Wig 77 EV aAA'P nv~ a-VAAOY'P 07TOTEPOV OEt aipE8f]vaL iaTpov. ovoagov
av epavf]vaL TOV iaTpov. aAA' aipE8f]vaL av TOV Ei7TEtV ovvaTov. EL {3ovAOLTO.
Ka~ Ei 7TPO~ aAAov yE orzgwvpyov oVTLvaovv aywvi(oLTO. 7TEia"ELEV av aVTov
EAEa-8aL 0 PrJTOPLKO~ jJ.UAAOV 77 aAAo~ oa-TLa-ovV' OV yap Ea-nv 7TEP~ OTOV OVK
av 7TL8aVWTEpov EL7TOL 0 PrJTOPLKO~ 77 aAAo~ oa-na-ovv TWV OrJjJ.wvPYwv EV
7TA~8EL.
272 UNIT THIRTY -FIVE
Underlined Words
aywvi(op..UL = contend. compete OVOUp..OV = nowhere; here would appear
av here makes the indirect-discourse nowhere is a metaphor from racing
infs. cpUVr,VUL and UlpEer,VUL (would make no showing at all)
potential in meaning ovXi = emphatic form of ov
OULp..OVW>. -a. -av = miraculous. 7raAUL is used idiomatically with the
marvelous present indicative to convey I have
07]p..wvpyo>. -ov. m. = skilled craftsman been Xing for a long time now
owywVi(Op..UL = contend. compete 7rUpU~EI.V = (here) permit. allow (+ dat.
OVVUTO>. --rJ. -av = able of person + inf. [here governing
EywyE = emphatic form of Eyw TEp..EI.V ~ KUVIJULj)
EL 7ravTa yE ELOEi7]>: the particle yE meuvo>. --rJ. -av = persuasive
marks agreement in this elliptical P7]TOPLKO>. --rJ. -ov = (of a person)
sentence: .. Yes. <you certainly would rhetorically skilled; (of things)
call it marvelous> if . .. "; ELOEi7]> is pertaining to rhetoric (so fern. with
optative of oiou noun TEXV7] understood = art of
EKKA7]IJiu. -a>. f. = public assembly rhetoric)
Ep..oLyE = emphatic form of Ep..oi IJK07rEW = examine
LUTPO>. -av. m. = physician IJVAAup..pavw = take together.
Kui is here adverbial, indeed. infact encompass
Kap..vw = be ill IJVAAOYO>. -av, m. = gathering
KUTacpuivw = (pass.) appear TEKp..-rJpWV. -av, n. = indication. piece of
(understood subject is r, P7]TOPLK-rJ) evidence
p..EYEeO>. -av>, n. = si:e. greatness (here TEXV7]. -7]>, f. = art. skill
acc. of respect) TL> added to an adj. may either soften its
a7rOL = to wherever force (sort of . .. ) or strengthen it, as
(mOTE po>. -a. -av = which of the two here (quite . .. )
OIJTLIJOVV = any at all (strengthened cpapp..uKov. -ov, n. = drug
indefinite pronoun made of aIJTL> + £0> E7ro> EL7rEI.V = so to ,Ipeak (idiomatic
ovv) epexegetic or result infinitive)
UNIT THIRTY -SIX
Contrary-to-Fact Conditions;
Indicative with o.v; Correlatives
~~~-.-------- -----------------
I. Contrary-to-Fact Conditions. Three major classes of Greek condi-

tional sentences were presented in U34. The fourth major class is that in which
the protasis expresses a supposition which the speaker knows is not or was not
true and the apodosis expresses what would be or would have been the
consequence (usually with the implication that the consequence did not occur).
Such conditions are called contrary-to-fact or unreal. Just as secondary tenses
of the indicative are used to express impossible wishes, so the secondary
tenses are used in both clauses of unreal conditions, with the modal particleav
added in the apodosis to mark the unreality. The scheme for a contrary-to-fact
condition in present time (English equivalent: were (subj.)-would) is:
protasis . apodosis
EL + imperfect indicative imperfect indicative + av
Ex.
EL 7Tapryv 6 Kvpo}, fJ-o.xw·8aL r,fJ-LV uv
7TapEKEAE1JETO.
If Cyrus were present [and he is not], he would exhort us to fight.
EL TaAry8ry EAqEV, E7TLCTTEVOfJ-EV avo
Ifhe spoke (were speaking) the truth [and he is not], we would trust him.
The scheme for a contrary-to-fact condition in past time (English equivalent:
had-would have) is:
protasis apodosis
EL + aorist indicative aorist indicative + av
Ex.
uv
EL OL (:3o.p(:3apm E7TE8EVTO, fJ-o.xw8aL r,fJ-LV 7TapEKEAEvCTaTo.
If the Persians had attacked [but they didn't], he would have exhorted us
to fight.
EL fJ-1J TaAry8ry EAE~EV, 7To.VTE,) uV a7TE8avov. [Note fJ-1J as negative.]
If he had not spoken the truth [but he did], all would have died.
273
274 UNIT THIRTY-SIX
- - - ------------
In English, the apodosis of an unreal condition may look similar to one of the
future less vivid type, but the protasis will look different in correct English. If
necessary, the student can remove doubts by considering the time implications
of the sentence (future as opposed to present or past) and by trying to spell out
the unreality of the protasis. Contrast If Cyrus were to be present (i.e., at the
peace conference tomorrow) and If Cyrus were present (i.e., now, but he isn't).
2. Indicative with avo

In Attic the secondary tenses of the indicative are
sometimes used with the modal particle av
outside of conditional sentences to
express a potentiality or probability in the past (whereas the optative with av
expresses a potentiality in the present or future). This use is called the past
potential indicative. Sometimes, but not always, there appears to be ellipsis
(omission) of a condition. Sometimes there is the implication that the event ex-
pressed by the indicative with av
is not or was not the case (unreal indicative).
Ti" yap uv ryP7eTaTO Tafna YEVE(J-ea~;
Who would have thought that this would happen?
eUTTOV 1] W'i n"
UV tfJETO
more swiftly than [as] one would think (would have thought)
n , I "
OVTW" EV~KrwaTE avo
In that way you would have won [but in fact you didn't]. (unreal)
In a purely potential indicative, both the imperfect and the aorist commonly
refer to past time; but the imperfect may refer to present time in certain idioms
like EPOV,,-Op..T/V av = I should like, I should wish. In the unreal indicative (as in
contrary-to-fact conditions and impossible wishes), the imperfect usually re-
fers to present time, the aorist to past time. Note that, in order to avoid ambi-
guity, if an unreal indicative of direct discourse is put into an indirect-
discourse on-clause in secondary sequence, the indicative is not changed to
the optative.
A further development of the past potential indicative with av
is the
iterative indicative ("iterative" = "of repeated action"):
7rO,,-,,-aK~" ryK01)(Tap..EV av n KaKw" vp..u" pOV"-EVeTap..Evov".
We often used to hear that you had planned something bad!.\'.
3. Imperfect of Unfulfilled Obligation. The imperfect of an impersonal

expression of obligation, propriety, necessity, or the like may be used without
av to denote an action that was not carried out. This usage, called the imper-
fect of unfulfilled obligation, is often found in the apodosis of a contrary-to-
fact condition instead of the imperfect or aorist indicative with In this av.
construction the infinitive is present if it refers to an action unfulfilled in
Contrary-to-Fact Conditions; Indicative with av; Correlatives 275
present time, normally aorist (occasionally present) if it refers to an action

unfulfilled in past time. I
EOn (JE TafJTa 7TOLELV.
You ought to be doing this (now) [but you aren't].
Ei EV{KrWE, o{KaWV ryv E7TawE(JaL alm)v.
If he had won, it would have been just to praise him.
EOn (JE TaVTa 7TOLYwaL.
You ought to have done this (then).
4. Correlatives. Certain pronouns, pronominal adjectives, and adverbs

correspond to each other in form and/or meaning and are called correlatives
because of their occasional use in pairs in main and subordinate (relative)
clauses. For instance, the English pairs where-there and when-then are cor-
relatives:
Where there is smoke, there there is fire.
When there is victory, then there is celebration.
The table on the next page presents some Greek correlatives in organized
sequences. Some of the words you have already learned; others are new. Note
various patterns in the table, such as the element -ow- denoting quality; -O(JO-
denoting quantity; the identity of interrogatives and indefinites except for
accentuation (indefinites being enclitic); 7T- as first letter of many interrog-
atives; rough breathing as initial sound of many relatives; 07T- as beginning of
indefinite relatives.
Of the new adjectives and pronouns shown in the table, most have normal
three-ending vowel-declension inflection: e.g., 7TOtO), -a, -ov; 07TOTEpO), -a,
-ov. In TO(TO(JOE, TomjoE, TO(JOVOE, where the final syllable is the enclitic suf-
fix -OE, the accent it treated as in DOE, 7jOE, TOOE. The declension of TOLOVTO)
and TO(JOVTO), however, is irregular: as in OVTO), the diphthong of the stem is
assimilated to that of the ending, and the neuter sing. nom. acc. may have
pronominal ending -0 or adjectival ending -ov (paradigm on page 277).
I. The impersonal verb expresses the obligation in the past; the infinitive which is its subject
expresses the action without asserting its occurrence; and the context helps the reader or listener
infer that the action did not occur. The combination of imperfect tense and infinitive renders uv
superfluous.
276 UNIT THIRTY -SIX
CORRELATIVES
indef rel.!
indefinite indirect
interrog. (enclitic) demonstr. relative interrog.
TL~, TL TL~, TL 001', OVTO~, or O~tij, 0 OCTTL~

who? anyone EKE!.VO~ who, which whoever
this, that
, ~
7TO!,O~ 7TOLO~ TOLOCTOE or OLO~ 07TO!,O~
what sort? of some sort TOLOfJTo~ (such) as, the of whatever
such sort which sort
,
7TOCTO~ 7TOCTO~ TOCTOCTOE or "
OCTO~ 07TO(TO~
how much? of some TOCTOfJTO~ as much as, as however much
how many? quantity so much, so many as or many
many
7TOTEpO~ 7TOTEPO~ ~TEPO~ 07TOTEPM
which of two? anyone of two the other (of two) whichever of
two
7TOV 7TOV EVeaoE, OV, Evea 07TOV
where? somewhere EvmVea, EKE!. where wherever
here, there
7TOeW 7TOeW EVeEVOE, EVTEV- oew 07TOeEV
from where? from some ew, EKE!.eW whence whencesoever
place from here, from
there
~
7TO!. 7TOL EVeaoE, EV- OL 07TOL
whither? to to some place mvea, EKE!.CTE whither whithersoever
what place? to this place,
to that place
7TW~ 7Tw~ (;;01', OVTW,
.
W~ 07TW~
' ,
how? somehow EKELVW~ as, how how, however
in this way,
in that way
, ' ,
7TOTE 7TOTE TOTE OTE 07TOTE
when? at some time, then when whenever
ever
~
7Tfl 7T?) TflOE, miJT?) ?) 07T?)

by which way? in some way in this way. in which way, in which way.
where? by this way as as
Contrary-to-Fact Conditions; Indicative with all; Correlatives 277
DECLENSION OF TOW1JTo,>
masculine feminine neuter
sing. nom. TOWVTO, TOWVTI) TOW1JTOV or TOW1JTO

,
gen. TOWVTOV TOWVTI), TOWVTOV
,
dat. TOWVT'tl TOWVT?1 TOWVT'tl
acc. TOW1JTOV TOWVTI)V TOW1JTOV or TOW1JTO
(dual n. a. TOWVTW TOWVTW TOWVTW)
(g. d. TOWVTOW TOWVTOW TOWVTOW)
plur. nom. TOWVTOL TowvTaL TowvTa

, ,
gen. TOWVTWV TOWVTWV TOWVTWV
, , ,
dat. TOWVTOL, TOWVTaL, TOWVTOL,
, ,
acc. TOWVTOV, TOWVTa, TOwvTa
The declension OfToo-OVTO'>, TOo-a1JTry, TOo-OVTO(V) follows the same pattern.
5. Some Adverbs of Place. Several adverbs of place are formed from

basic roots with similar suffixes (e.g., -8w for place from which, -o-E for place
to which). Here is a table of some common adverbs:
root
meaning place where place to which place from which
------ - - - - _ . -
other aAAOeL, aMaxov G.MO(TE, aMaxolIE G.AAOeW, aMa-
elsewhere in another direction xo 8w

from elsewhere
hoth a/11>oTEpweL a/11>oTEpwIIE a/11>oTEpoeW
on hoth sides in hoth directions from hoth sides
all 7TaVTaXOV, 7TavTaxfl 7TaVTaXOIIE, 7TaVTaX°'i 7TaVTaXOeW
everywhere in all directions from all sides
' ,
this, aVTov aVTOIIE aVTOeW
the very in this very place in the same direction from the same place
home "
OLKOL OtKaOE OtKOeW
at home to home from home

Also derived from the root o.AA - = other are the adverb aAAoTE, at another
time, and the adjective o.AAOLO'>, of another kind.

1. Study the indicative with av
and the imperfect of unfulfilled obligation.
2. Study the declension of TOWlJTO,> and TOo-OVTO,>.
278 UNIT THIRTY -SIX
3. Learn as the vocabulary of this unit any new words presented in §§4-5
above.
4. Continue to study the principal parts of the verbs learned to date, using
Appendix 2.
EXERCISES

1. You ought not to be betraying the laws [as you are], gentlemen of the jury.
2. Twenty hoplites would have been captured on that day if the exiles had not
come to the rescue.
3. If the guards were not present at the shrine during the night, those who lack
money would quickly steal everything.
II. Reading sentences
1. 7TCWTa) fJ-aXEcTa(JBaL xpf]v KaL 1J7TEP TWV e'!paLwv EL OL pappapoL Tryv
7r(JAW TryV EKELVWV E7TOALOpKWTaV.
2. TOTE fJ-EV OVOEL) av 7Tapa TWV 7TOAEfJ-LWV owpa EAaj3EV, VVV oE 7Ta) TL)
('!TEL 7TPOOOT'!) YEVECT8aL.
3. aL yvvaLKE) TO. 7TaLOLa KaL TOU) avopa) OrKOL AL7TOVCTaL EL) TO opO) aAAaL
aAAo8EV hpEXOV.
4. ~ CPLAE <PaLopE, 7TOL ory [particle adds lively tone to question] KaL 7To8EV;
- 7Tapa AVCTLOV, ~ ~WKpaTE), TOV KEcpaAov, 7TOPEl)OfJ-aL oE 7TpO)
7TEpL7TaTov [walk] Etw [outside, + gen.] TELXOV).
5. 7TEPL 7TavTo), ~ 7TaL, fJ-La apxry TOL) fJ-EAAOVCTL KaAW) j3oVAEl)CTECT8aL'
~Lo~vaL OEL 7TEPL ov av -n ~ f30VA?] [deliberation], ~ 7TavTo) afJ-apTaVEw
avaYK'!.
6. ov KEAEVCT8EL) ov8' 1J7T0 EEVOcpWVTO) ov8' 1m' aAAov TLVO) TOVTO
E7ToL'!CTa' LOOVTL OE fJ-OL avopa aya80v aYOfJ-EVOV TWV EfJ-WV CTTpaTLWTWV
[partitive gen. with avopa] imo b..EtL7T7TOV, QV VfJ-EL) E7TLCTTaCT8E vfJ-a)
7TPOOOVTa, OEWOV EOOtEV EivaL' KaL acpHAOfJ-'!V [took away (by force)] TOV
avopa, DfJ-OAoyw.
III. Reading: Lysias, Oration 1.1-3: Euphiletus is on trial for murder, having
killed the adulterer Eratosthenes upon discovering him in bed with his wife.
7TEPL 7TOAAOV av 7TOL!/CTaLgrzv, ~ avopE), TO TOLOVTOV) VfJ-a) EfJ-OL
OLKaCTTa) 7TEPL TOVTOV TOV 7TpaYfJ-aTO) YEVECT8aL, OrOL7TEp av VfJ-LV aVTOL) Er,!TE
TOLaVTa 7TE7Tov8oTE)' EV yap oioa OTt, Ei Tryv aVTryv yvwfJ-,!v 7TEPL TWV aAAWV
EXOLTE, ryv7TEP 7TEPL vfJ-WV aVTWV, OVK av Er,! OCTTt) OUK E7TL TOL) YEYEVrzgEVOL)
ayaVaKTOLrz, aAAa 7TaVTE) av 7TEPL TWV TO. TOLaVTa E7TL TrzOEVOVTWV TO.)
(rzgLa) fJ-LKpa) ~yOLCT8E. KaL TaVTa OVK av Er,! govov 7Tap' VfJ-LV 01JTW)
Contrary-to-Fact Conditions; Indicative with av; Correlatives 279
EYVW(J"gEva, a A.. A.. , EV a:rra(J"'[I Tn 'EA..A..aOL· 7rEpt TOVTOV yap jJ.OVOV TOV
aOI.A?jE~IQ~ Kat EV 01JjJ.OKpaTiq. Kat OA..1YJlWCf i] aiJT~ nMwpia TOL~
a(J"8EVE(J"Ta TOL~ 7rpa~ TOV~ TO. jJ.EyL(J"Ta OvvajJ.Evov~ a 7rOOEOOTaL, W(J"TE Tav
XEipL(J"TOV TWV aiJTwv TvyxavEw T0 PEA..Ti(J"TqJ· OVTW~, ~ avopE~, TaVT1JV
T~V vj3pw a7raVTE~ aV8pW7rOL OEWOTaT1JV i]YOVVTaL 7rEpt MEV OVV TOV
gEYE8ov~ TiJ~ (1JjJ.ia~ a7ravTa~ vjJ.os vOjJ.i(w T~V aiJT~v OLaVOLaV EXEW, Kat
OVOEva OVTW~ OA..LYWPW~ OLaK_EL(J"8aL, O(J"H~ OrETaL OELV (J"VYYVWM!]~ TvyxaVELV
1] jJ.LKpa~ (1JjJ.ia~ atiov~ i]YELTaL TOV~ TWV TOWVTWV EPYWV aiTiov~.
Underlined Words
ayaVaKTEW = be vexed at (here with Ofl.Lyapxia, -Q" f. = oligarchy (form of
hrl-phrase); here used in the government in which a small class,
potential optative without av (special defined by wealth, holds political
idiom in indefinite relative clause) power)
aOiK!]jJ.a, -aTO" n. = crime OfI.L ywpw, OLaKEL(J"eaL = be of a careless
a7rOOEOOTaL = (perf. mid./pass. ind.) has or neglectful disposition
been granted 7rE7rOVeOTE, = (perf. part. act. 7raaxw)
yEyW!]jJ.EVOL' = (perf. part. yiyvojJ.aL) having suffered
things that happened -7rEP = intensifying suffix added to
OLaVOLa, -Q" f. = notion, idea relative words, adding notion the very
Eyvw(J"jJ.Eva = (perf. part. YLyvwaxw) one which, exactly the one which
judged, determined 7rEPl 7rOAAOV 7rOLEL(J"eaL = consider to be
E7rLT!]OElJW = practice, pursue (a form of great importance (here with
of behavior) articular inf. as its object)
(!]jJ.ia, -Q" f. = penalty (J"vyyvwjJ.!], -!]" f. = forgiveness, pardon
jJ.EYEeO" -om, n. = si~e, greatness HjJ.wpia, -Q" f. = retribution. right to
jJ.f.V ovv = (transitional particles) now vengeance
then
jJ.()VO" -!], -av = alone; (neut. acc. as
adverb) only
UNIT THIRTY -SEVEN
Perfect System
------- - - - -
I. The Aspect of the Perfect Tense. The perfect stem of a Greek verb
conveys the aspect of completed action with a continuing or permanent result.
The Greek perfect indicative thus refers to a continuing present state and is a
primary tense: it lacks augment, and it governs the subjunctive in primary
sequence. The aspect of the perfect is especially clear in verbs whose perfects
are best translated by an English present:
a7TOevrWKW,
, I am dying TEeVy]Ka, I have died and am now dead =
I am dead
tCTTY]jJ.L, I cause to stand ECTTY]Ka (intransitive perfect act.), I have
adopted a stance and am now standing
=I stand
(ava)jJ.LjJ.vryCTKW, I call to jJ.EjJ.vY]jJ.aL (perfect middle), I have called
mind to my own mind and am now remem-
bering = I remember
OjJ.VVjJ.L, I swear an oath ojJ.wjJ.oKa, I have sworn an oath and am
now bound by it = I am under oath
The aspect of the perfect is also clear in certain legalistic uses of the supple-
mentary participle:
oEitw TOVTOV 7ToAAa T' aAAa rycnKY]KOTa KaL TaAavTov KEKAO¢OTa.
I'll prove that this man is guilty of doing many other wrongs and of
stealing a talent. [literally, is in the state of having done wrongs and of
having stolen]
The close association of the perfect stem with states and conditions helps ex-
plain the existence of many intransitive perfects that correspond in meaning to
middle/passive present forms and intransitive aorists:
tCTTajJ.aL, I am placing myself, I am standing
ECTTY]V (intransitive strong aor.), I stood; ECTTY]Ka (intransitive perfect
act.), I stand
7TEieojJ.aL, I obey, trust
7TE7TOLea (intransitive perfect), I have placed my trust in and now trust
= I trust
280
Perfect System 281
-- . _ _. _ - - - - - ------------
G..7TOAAVjJ.aL. I am being ruined. destroyed

G..7ToAwAa (intransitive perfect), I have been ruined and am now ruined
=I am ruined. destroyed
In early Greek the perfect referred principally to the continuing state brought
about in the subject of the action: for instance, jJ.EjJ.a81]Ka, I have learned and
now know (the lesson). In classical Attic, however, the use of the perfect was
extended so that it could also express a pennanent result affecting the object:
e.g., TE81]Ka, I have placed something (and it remains in position), OEOWKa, I
have given something (and it remains given).
2. Reduplication. Reduplication is a modification of a verb stem in

which the initial consonant (or occasionally the initial vowel plus consonant)
is repeated. Reduplication with iota is found in a limited number of present
stems (cf. U19.7b). Reduplication with epsilon is the regular marker of a per-
fect stem, but reduplication may be effected in other ways as well. (By
learning the principal parts, the student need not detennine in each case which
variety of reduplication is relevant to each verb.)
a. If the initial sound of the verb stem is a single consonant (other than
rho) or a plosive followed by nasal or liquid, the initial sound is repeated with
epsilon. In accordance with Grassmann's law (U 19.5), an initial aspirated
plosive is reduplicated with the corresponding unaspirated voiceless plosive.
present perfect active perfect mid./pass.
----------- . _ - - - -
AEi7TW AEAoma AEAELjJ.jJ.aL

TPECPW Thpocpa TEepajJ.jJ.aL 1
CPEVYW 7TEcpEvya
b. If the initial sound of the verb stem is a double consonant or rho,

reduplication looks no different than syllabic augment. As with augment, an
initial rho is doubled.
present perfect active perfect mid./pass.
((~TYJKa
EppLcpa
,
yLyvwaxw "
EYvwapaL
(root yvw-)
1. Grassmann's law applies doubly to the perfect of Tpicpw: the root is in fact OPECP-, but
Grassmann's law makes this appear as Tpicpw in the present and TErpocpa in the perfect active;
in the perfect middle/passive, however. the aspiration at the end of the stem is lost because of
other euphonic changes and so the aspirate at the beginning of the verb stem is retained (but the
reduplication is still TE -).
282 UNIT THIRTY -SEVEN
c. If the initial sound of the verb stem is a vowel, reduplication normally

looks no different than temporal augment. Since the reduplication is a pre verb
element, the accent cannot precede it (cf. U\6.5): in short stems a circumflex
will appear on the reduplicated/augmented vowel when U is short.
present perfect act. perfect mid./pass.
v
ayw "
YJxa "
YJYfJ.at
napayw napfJxa napfJYfJ.at
, ,
tVpt(J"KW "
YJvpYJKa YJvpW at
acptKVEOfJ.at acp'iYfJ.at
d. A few verbs beginning with a vowel reduplicate the initial vowel and
consonant and lengthen the vowel that follows reduplication. This was called
"Attic reduplication" by ancient grammarians (though it occurred in other
dialects as well).
present perfect(s) from root
, , , , ,
aKOVw aKYJKoa aKO-
' ,
OfJ.VVfJ.t OfJ.WfJ.OKa OfJ.O-
EAEYXW EA~AtYfJ.at EAfYX-
CPEPW Ev~voxa. *EVOK-. *EVtK-
WYJVEYfJ.at
e. A few verbs have odd reduplication because of the disappearance of a

consonant at the beginning of the root. For instance, A.aJJ.j3o.vw produces
perfects ELA.rycpa and ELA.ryJJ.JJ.aL (from root *(J"A.ry7T-),1 and A.ayxo.vw produces
ELA.ryXa .2
3. Perfect Active System. The fourth principal part of the Greek verb is
the first person singular perfect active indicative. This form provides the stem
used in generating the perfect active indicative, subjunctive, optative, imper-
ative, infinitive, and participle, the pluperfect active indicative, and the future
perfect active indicative, optative, infinitive, and participle. Many of these
forms, however, are rarely or never found for any given verb.
Perfect stems may be classed in two groups. The more primitive stems
have no tense suffix. and some plosive stems of this kind have their final
consonant aspirated in the perfect. These perfects are called "second" perfects:
I. The perfect is thus derived from *UWt.:ry7T- -> *{UAT/7T- (loss of initial sigma) -> *(LAT/7T-
(loss of aspiration and loss of internal sigma with initial vowel lengthened in compensation).
2. The unusual form of reduplication in this verb is due to analogy with Aallf3avw; so too
perfect cMLAf.Yllal from OtaAEyollal.
Perfect System 283
for example, 7THPEVY-. A.EA.Om-; (aspirated) pEpA.acp-. 7TECPVA.aX-. oEfJLoax-.

The more recent stems have the tense suffix K and are called "first" perfects:
for example, A.EA.VK-. mcptA.1]K-. }J.E}J.a81]K- (for the addition of 1], cf. future }J.a-
8~(J"o}J.at), 7TE7TEtK- (from 7TEL8w; for the loss of the dental before the suffix, cf.
aor. E7Twm). Note that in verbs which show a variation of vowel grade in the
different tense stems the perfect has a strong-grade form (e.g., A.EL7TW. EA.mov.
A.EA.Oma; CPEVyW. ECPVYOV. 7TEcpEvya).
The distinction between first and second perfects is not relevant to in-
flection, since the same endings are used; but many of the most primitive
second perfects and those second perfects which coexist with first perfects are
semantically different in that they have intransitive (or sometimes virtually
passive) force: for instance, transitive first perfect 7TE7TEtKa = I have persuaded
vs. intransitive second perfect 7TE7TOt8a = I trust, trans. first perf. a7TOA.WA.EKa
=I have ruined vs. intrans. (quasi-passive) second perf. a7TOA.WA.a = I am
ruined (destroyed); intrans. (quasi-passive) second perf. Eppwya = I am broken
from p~yvv}J.t.
4. Inflection of Perfect Active
a. The perfect active indicative has tense vowel a and (basically) pri-
mary personal endings: -a. -as'. -E. (-aTOV. -aTOV.) -a}J.EV. -aTE. -(un (the
first sing. has no ending; the third sing. has vowel E instead of a and no
ending; the third plural is -(un, as for }J.t-verbs, from --O.vn).
Ex. 2nd perfect 1st perfect
(AEi7TW) (f30VAEVW)
sin/? 1st AEAoma f3Ef3ovAEVKa

2nd AEAoma, PEf3ovAEVKa,
3rd AEAomd v) PEPOVAEVKE(V)
(dual 2nd AEAOi7Ta TOV PEpovAEvKaTov)
(3rd AEAOi7Ta TOV PEpovAEvKaTov)
plur. ist AE Aoi7Ta}1EV PEpovAEVKa}1EV
2nd AE Aoi7Ta TE PEPOVAEVKaTE
3rd AEAoi7TQ.(n(v) PEPOVAEvKQ.(n(v)
b. The perfect active infinitive has the ending -EVat (accent, as usual, on
the syllable preceding -vat): for example, A.EA.OmEVat. A.EA.VKEVat.
c. The perfect active participle has masc.!neuter T-stem (suffix -aT -) with
nominatives in -wS'. -OS' (recall that all other active participles are vT-stems);
the short-vowel fern. has suffix -via. The accent is persistent on the vowel of
the participial suffix. The full declension is shown on the next page.
DECLENSION OF PERFECT ACTIVE PARTICIPLE
masculine feminine neuter
sing. nom. AEAVKW> AEAvKv'ia AEAVKO>

gen. AEAVKOTO> AEAVKvia> AEAVKOTO>
dat. AEAVKon AEAVKViq. i\EAvKon
ace. AEAVKom AEAvKv'iav i\EAVKO>
(dual n. a. AEAVKOTE AEAVKvia AEAVKOTE)
(g. d. AEAVKOTOW AEAVKviaw AEAVKOTOW)
plur. nom. AEAVKOTE> AEAvKv'iat AEAVKom
gen. AEAVKOTWV AEAVKVtwV AEAVKOTWV
dat. AEAVKO(J"t(V) AEAVKViat> AEAVKOCTt(V)
ace. AEAVKom> AEAVKvia> AEAVKom
d. The perfect active subjunctive is found in two fonns.
(1) The nonnal SUbjunctive endings -w, -Yl>, etc., may be added to the
perfect active stem: thus, AEAOt7Tw, AEAOt7TYI>, etc.
(2) More commonly, a periphrastic ("compound-phrase") fonn of the
subjunctive is created by using the nominative of the perfect active
participle and the present SUbjunctive of ELP.t: thus, AEAomw, ~,
plur. AEAomoTE, ~P.EV, etc. (the participle will agree in gender with
the subject, so with a fern. pI. subject the periphrastic fonn would be,
e.g., 3rd pI. AEAomVZat ~()t).
e. The perfect active optative is found in two fonns.
(1) The nonnal w-verb optative endings -Otp.t, -Ot" etc., may be added
to the perfect active stem: thus, AEAOt7TOtP.t, AEAOt7TOt" etc.
(2) More commonly, a periphrastic fonn of the optative is created by
using the nominative of the perfect active participle and the present
optative of ELP.t: thus, AEAomw, ErrlV, plur. AEAomoTE, tLYjP.EV, etc.
(the participle will agree in gender with the subject, so with a fern.
sing. subject the periphrastic fonn would be, e.g., 3rd S. AEAomvZa
ErYj).
5. Perfect Subjunctive and Optative of oLoa. The irregular perfect oLoa

(U28.6) has an e-grade alternative stem: ELOE- or tLO-. You have already
learned the infinitive ELOEVaL. The participle is ELOW" ELovZa, ELM,; this has
masc.!neut. stem ELOOT- and normal perfect active participle declension. Also
from stem ELOE- is the subjunctive ELOW, ELOn" etc. (the epsilon contracts with
the subj. personal endings, as in subj. of 7TOtEW). Likewise, the optative is
conjugated like n$EtYjv: ELOEtYjV, ELOdYj" ELOEtYj, (ELOEZTOV, EiOEtTYjV,) ELOEZP.EV
or ELOEtYjP.EV, ELOEZTE or ELOEtYjTE, EiOEZEV or ELOEtYj()av.
• Perfect System 285
6. The Perfect Middle/Passive System. The fifth principal part of the

Greek verb is the first person singular perfect mid./pass. indicative. This form
provides the stem used in generating the perfect mid./pass. indicative, imper-
ative, infinitive, and participle (from which periphrastic subjunctive and
optative are made), the pluperfect mid./pass. indicative, and the future perfect
mid./pass. indicative, optative, infinitive, and participle. Many of these forms,
however, are rarely or never found for any given verb.
The perfect middle/passive stem is a reduplicated stem and usually very
similar to the perfect active stem: for example, AEAoL7Ta. AEAELJJ.JJ.aL (stem
Af.AH7r-: note change of vowel grade); EppLcf>a. EppLJJ.JJ.aL (stem EPPL7T-).
Sometimes it is the same as that stem without active tense-suffix K, as in vowel
stems such as THiJJ.YJKa. THiJJ.YJJJ.aL; 7rf.7roAiTf.vKa. 7rf.7roAiTf.vJJ.aL
7. Inflection of Perfect Middle/Passive. The perfect middle/passive has

inflectional endings added directly to the stem without intervening vowel. This
leads to euphonic changes in the final consonant of many stems as well as in
some inflectional endings. The paradigm is shown on page 287.
a. The perfect middle/passive indicative has primary middle endings

-JJ.aL. -O""aL. -TaL, etc. Because of euphonic changes, there are several patterns
of inflection (illustrated in the paradigms following this section):
(I) Stems ending in a vowel have the endings added without changes: for
example, AEAvJJ.aL. (3f.(3ovAEUJJ.aL.
(2) Stems with inserted 0"": verbs with present in ( or with dental plosive
stem (T. o. e) and certain vowel-stem verbs have perfect mid./pass.
stem in 0"" « or dental is dropped): vOJJ.i(w. Vf.VoJJ.LO""JJ.aL; 7rf.iew.
7rE7rELO""JJ.aL; Tf.AEw. THEAf.O""JJ.aL In conjugation, if an ending begins
with 0"", the resulting double 0"" is reduced to a single 0"" (thus 2nd pI.
indo VEVOJJ.LO""ef., inf. Tf.Tf.AEO""eaL).
(3) Stems ending in labial (7r. /3. cf» or velar (K. y. X) plosive (e.g., AE-
AELJJ.J.LaL. 7rE7rpaYJJ.aL) undergo euphonic assimilation (of sound or of
aspiration) in most forms:
before JJ., labial becomes JJ. ( - > JJ.JJ.), velar becomes y ( - > YJJ.)
before O""e, 0"" drops out and labial becomes cf> (-> cf>e), velar becomes
X(->Xe)
before T, labial becomes 7r ( - > 7rT), velar becomes K ( - > KT)
with 0"". labial combines to produce t. velar combines to produce t
(4) Stems ending in A (e.g., 7jYYf.AJJ.aL) have the endings added directly,
but endings beginning with O""e lose the 0"" (as in 2nd pI. 7jYYf.Aef.).
- - - - --- ---------------
(5) Stems ending in v have endings beginning with T or O"e added

directly (but the 0" of O"e disappears), but the v is replaced by 0" before
endings beginning with jJ... The 2nd sing. form is not found. Cf.
7TEcpaO"jJ..aL, 3rd sing. 7TEcpaVTaL
Only vowel-stem perfects (type 1 above) normally form a third plural with the
ending -VTaL. For all other types of verb, the third plural is formed peri-
phrastically with plural participle plus ELO"i (or EO"Ti for neuters): for example,
7TE7THO"jJ..EVOL ELO"i. TETEAEO"jJ..Eva EO"Ti.'
b. The perfect middle/passive infinitive has the middle infinitive ending

-O"eaL (or -eaL after a consonant, where 0" drops out) and is accented on the fi-
nal syllable of the stem (acute on short vowel, circumflex on long vowel):
thus, vEVojJ..iO"eaL. 7TE7TodweaL
c. The perfect middle/passive participle has the middle participle ending

-jJ..EVO'). -1]. -ov added to the stem (with, where needed, the same euphonic
changes as for indicative endings -jJ..aL or -jJ..Eea). The accent of the perfect
middle/passive participle is persistent on the participial suffix -jJ..EV-, a feature
which distinguishes the perfect participle from all other middle participles in
-jJ..EVO,): for example, 7TE7TaLoEVjJ..EvO'). 7TEcpvAaYjJ..Evo').
d. The perfect middle/passive subjunctive is normally formed periphras-

tically with the perfect middle/passive participle plus subjunctive of ELjJ..i: thus,
AEAHjJ..jJ..EVO,) ~, etc. A very few verbs with stem in 1] whose perfects are
especially common sometimes show a simple form of subjunctive: for exam-
ple, from jJ..EjJ..V1]jJ..aL = I remember, jJ..EjJ..vwjJ..aL, jJ..EjJ..VfJ. jJ..EjJ..Vr,TaL, etc.; from
KEKT1]jJ..aL = I possess, KEKTwjJ..aL, etc.
e. The perfect middle/passive optative is normally formed periphras-

tically with the perfect middle/passive participle plus optative of ELjJ..i: thus,
AEAHjJ..jJ..EVO,) Er1]V, etc. A very few verbs with stem in 1] whose perfects are
especially common sometimes show a simple form of optative: for example,
from jJ..EjJ..V1]jJ..aL, jJ..EjJ..VyljJ..1]V or jJ..EjJ..VcPjJ..1]V; from KEKT1]jJ..aL, KEKTyljJ..1]V or KEKTcP-
jJ..1]V.
1. In poetry and a few times in early Attic prose a simple 3rd pI. form is formed with the ending
-UTU( (an alternative development of the ending that usually appears as -VTUt): HTclXUTU( =
HTaYllfVO( Ei(]"t.
Perfect System 287
PERFECT MIDDLE/PASSIVE INDICATIVE, INFINITIVE, PARTICIPLE
vowel stem dental plosive stem labial plosive stem

AVw 7rd8w ypacpw
stem: Af.AV- stem: 7rE7rH(J- stem: yqpa7r-
sing. 1st Af.AVj1.aL 7rE7rE L(Jj1.aL yf.ypaj1.j1.aL

,
2nd Af.Av(JaL 7rE7rH(JaL yf.ypataL
,
3rd Af.AVTaL 7rE7rE L(JTaL yf.ypa7rTaL
(dual 2nd Af.AV(J8ov 7rf.7rH(J8ov yf.ypacp8ov)
(3rd Af.AV(J8ov 7rf.7rH(J8ov yf.ypacp8ov)
plur. Ist AEAVj1.E8a 7rE7rd(Jj1.E8a yEypaj1.j1.E8a
2nd Af.AV(J8E 7rf.7rH(J8f. yf.ypacp8E
' " , "
3rd Af.AVVTaL 7rE7rH(Jj1.EVOL H(JL yEypaj1.j1.EVoL H(JL
infinitive AEAv(J8aL 7rE7rE t(J8aL yEypacp8aL
,
participle AEAVj1.f.VO~ 7rE7rH(Jj1.EVO~ yqpaj1.j1.EVo>
velar plosive stem stem in A stem in v

7rpaTTW ayyf.AAW cpaivw
stem: 7rE7rpay- stem: ~yYEA- stem: 7rEcpav-,
7rEcpa(J-
sing. 1st 7rf.7rpaYJlaL 17YYEAj1.aL 7rf.cpa(Jj1.aL

2nd 7rf.7rpataL 17YYEA(JaL
,
3rd 7rE7rpaKTaL 17YYEATaL 7rf.cpaVTaL
(dual 2nd 7rf.7rpax8ov 17YYEMov 7rf.cpav8ov)
(3rd 7rf.7rpax8ov 17YYf.Mov 7rf.cpav8ov)
plur. 1st 7rE7rpayj1.E8a ~yyf.Aj1.f.8a mcpa(Jj1.E8a
2nd 7rf.7rpax8E 17YYEME 7rf.cpav8E
3rd 7rf.7rpaYj1.f.VOL ~yyEAj1.f.VOL 7rEcpa(Jj1.f.VOL Ei(Ji
, ,
H(JL H(JL
infinitive 7rE7rpUx8aL ~yyf.MaL 7rEcpav8aL
,
participle 7rE7rpa yj1.EVO> ~yYEAj1.f.VO> 7rE cpa(Jj1.f.vo >
8. Dative of Agent. The personal agent with a perfect or pluperfect pas-

sive verb fonn is nonnally expressed by the dative of agent (a fonn of the
dative of interest) rather than by imo + gen. (as is usual with other passives):
for example, TO. TOVTOL~ 71"E7rpaYJJ.Eva = the things done by these men.
9. Synopsis of Verb Forms. Now that the student has learned so many
verb forms, an effective way to practice and review verbal conjugation without
writing out over a hundred forms is to give a synopsis of a verb in a particular
person and number. This consists of the finite forms of that person and number
in all possible tenses, voices, and moods, plus the infinitives and participles
from each tense stem. Here is an almost complete synopsis of A.EiTTW in the
third person singular (it does not include the imperative or the pluperfect or
future perfect, which are yet to be learned).
present system future system aorist system perfect system
active active active active
indo AEL7TEL AELtEL fAL7TE AEAOL7TE

subj. AEL7T"[I AL7T"[I AEAoL7T"[Ior
AEAOL7TW~ n
opt. AEL7TOL AELtOL AL7TOL AEAOL7TOL or
AEAOL7TW~ EL7]
in! AEL7TELV AELtELV AL7TELV AEAOL7TEVaL
part. AEL7TWV AELtwV AL7TWV AEAOL7TW~
imp. indo fAEL7TE
present system future system aorist system perfect system

mid./pass. middle middle mid./pass.
indo AEL7TETaL AELtETaL EAL7TETO AEAEL7TTaL

subj. AEL7T7]TaL AL7T7]TaL AEAELJlJlEVO~ iT
opt. AEL7TOLTO AELtOLTO AL7TOLTO AEAELJlJlEVO~ EL7]
in! AEL7THJ'8aL AELtwBa L AL7TE aBaL AEAELcp8aL
part. AEL7T6JlEVO~ AELt6JlEVO~ AL7T6JlEvo~ AEAELJlJlEVM
imp. indo EAEL7TETO
future system aorist system

passive passive
indo AELcp8~aHaL EAELcp87]

subj. AELcp8fJ
opt. AE Lcp8~(J'OL TO AELcp8EL7]
in! AELcp8~(J'E(J'8aL AELcp8fjvaL
part. AELcp87](J'6JlEVO~ AELcp8EL~
Perfect System 289
1. Learn the conjugational patterns of the perfect system.

3. Continue to study the principal parts of the verbs learned to date.
VOCABULARY
verbs
OAAVIU (poetic) = a:rroAAVJ.i.L destroy, kill; lose; (mid. and intrans. aor. and perf.)
(prose) (a7To), a7ToAEw, perish, die
(trans. aor. ) a7TwAwa and
(intrans. aor.) a7TwA0J.i.7]V,
(trans. perf.) a7ToAwAEKa
and (intrans. perf.) a7To-
AWAa
OJ.i.VVJ.i.L, 0J.i.E0J.i.aL, WJ.i.0lTa, swear; swear to, swear by; swear that (+ inf.)
0J.i.wJ.i.0Ka, 0J.i.wJ.i.0J.i.aL or
0J.i.wJ.i.0ITJ.i.aL, wJ.i.o87]v or
wJ.i.0IT87]v
jJi7TTW, jJi"ljlw, EppL"ljla, throw, hurl
EppLcpa, EPPLJ.i.J.i.aL,
Eppicp87]v or Eppicp7]v
[i: in all stems except
Eppicp7]v I
verbs whose perfects have present meaning

KTll0J.i.aL, KTrJIT0J.i.aL, acquire, get; (perfect system) possess, hold, have
, , ,
EKT7]ITaJ.i.7]v, KEKT7]J.i.aL,
EKTrJ87]v
J.i.LJ.i.VrJITKW (already learned in (perfect system) remember
U29); perfect J.i.EJ.i.V7]J.i.aL
KaAEw (already learned in (perf. mid./pass. system) have been named, be called
U 18), perfect mid./pass.
KEKA7]J.i.aL
EXERCISES
I. Identify each form completely.

1. o}J.w}J.oKa(]"L 3. jJ.EjJ.VYJjJ.EVOt 5. 'lff:CPVAUKTUt
2. EpptCPEVUt 4. KEKpV7rTat 6. (J"VjJ.PEPYJKOS
7. (JLEiAEX8E 19. KEKAi7(T8a~ 3l. E(T7TEW8E

8. aKYjKOaTE 20. TE8pajJ..jJ..E8a 32. 7TEcpYjva)
9.
10.
° ECjo
, yjJ..Eva
KEKTYjVTa~
2l.
22.
TETpacp8a~
TE8~Ka(T~
33.
34.
7TE7TojJ..cpEva~
7TE7Tov8ajJ..EV
1l. a7TOAwAOTa 23. jJ..EjJ..a8YjKo) 35. KEKTc{JVTO
,
12. a7ToAwAEKVl.aV 24. 7TE7TpayEVa~ 36. TETjJ..i7(T8a~
,
13. pE{3AacpajJ..Ev 25. 7TE7TwKO(T~ 37. ryTT~jJ..E8a
,
14. TETata~ 26. EOYjOOKVLWV 38. vEVojJ..~Ka
15. 7TECPEVYE 27. 7TE7TV(TjJ..E8a 39. TE 8a v jJ..aKa(T ~

16. TETtjJ..YjjJ..EVOV) ' , "
28. wpy~(TjJ..EVOV 40. ELpYjKa
17. AEAYj80n 29. EAYjAv8VLWV
, 'i'
18. TETaXEva~ 30. 7TE7T~(TTEVjJ..EVaL W(TW
II. Write in Greek.
1. 2nd s. perf. act. indo of "throw"
2. 1st pl. perf. m/p indo of "honor"
3. perf. act. info of "hate"
4. 3rd pl. perf. act. indo of "think proper"
5. 3rd pl. perf. rnJp subj. of "snatch"
6. perf. m/p info of "be afraid"
7. 3rd S. perf. rnJp indo of "be called"
8. masc. nom. pl. perf. act. part. of "find"
9. 3rd S. perf. act. opt. of "learn"
10. fern. dat. pl. perf. m/p part. of "betray"
11. 1st S. fern. perf. act. opt. of "prevent"
12. acc. pl. neut. perf. m/p part. of "become"
III. Write synopses of the following in all the tenses and moods you know,
including infinitives and participles:
1. aLpEw in 3rd sing. 3. pi7TTW in 3rd pl.
2. Ti8YjjJ..~ in 2nd pl. 4. (3oVAEvw in 1st pl.
IV. Reading: Lysias, Oration 1.4-6 (continuation of U36, Ex. III).
ryyovjJ..a~ OE. ~ avopE). TOVTO jJ..E OEI.V E7T~OEl.ta~. OJ) WiXEVEV
'EQa:[o(T8&1li T1JV yvval.Ka T1JV EjJ..1JV Kat EKEivYjV TE OlEct8E.!jJ( Kat TOV)
7TaLoa) TOV) EjJ..OV~ n(TxVVE Kat EjJ..E aiJTov iiPB(TEV d) T1JV oLKiav T1JV EjJ..1JV
Ei(T~Wv. Kat OVTE Ex8pa EjJ..Ot Kat EKEiv,,? ovoEjJ..ia 1]v 7TAryv TaVTYj). OVTE
xpYjjJ..aTwv EVEKa E7Tpata TaVTa. tva 7TAOV(Tw) EK 7JE~YjT.9) yEvwjJ..a~. OVTE
aAAov !SipOOV5. OVOEVO) 7TAryv Ti7~ KaTa TOV) vOjJ..ov~ ngwpia~. Eyw LoivvR Et
apXi7) VjJ..LV a7TavTa E7TLOEitw TO. EjJ..aVTOV 7TpaYjJ..aTa. OVOEV 7rSljJaAEi7T~V.
aAAa AEYWV TO. aAYj8i7' TaVTYjV yap EjJ..avTip jJ..jVllV ryyovjJ..a~ (TwTYjpiav. EaV
VjJ..LV EL7TELV a7TaVTa ovvYj8w TO. 7TE7TpayjJ..Eva. EyW yap. ~ 'A8YjvaLo~. E7TELOry
EOOtE jJ..o~ Yi7jJ..a~ Kat yvvaLKa r,yayojJ..Yjv EL) TryV oLKiav. TOV jJ..EV aAAov
Perfect System 291
XJ)()VOV OVTW Q!'~~lj;.Y]1J W(JTE }J.r7TE ~V.7rELV }J.r7TE ALaV iJJ' EKELVJI ElvaL 0 TL av
EeEA[1 7rOLELV, EcpVAanaV TE W} olav TE ryv, Kal. 7rPO(TELXOV TOV VOVV W(T7rEP
EiKO} ryv. E7rELO~ OE }J.OL 7raLOLOV YLyvETaL, E7rL(TTEVOV ryOT/ Kal. 7r<lVTa TO.
E}J.aVTOV EKELV[1 7rapEOWKa, i]YOV}J.EVO} TaVTT/V OLI5HQTYlTa }J.qL(TTT/V ElvaL.
Underlined Words
aiaxvvw, aor. iiaxvva = dishonor, jJ.OLXEVW = commit adultery with (a
brinx shame upon woman)
OWcp8Etpw, aor. OLEcp8Etpa = corrupt, jJ.ovo" -71. -ov = sole, only
seduce OiKEtOT71', -OT71TO', f. = (bond of)
oLG.KEtjJ.aL = be di~posed (+ adv. of intimacy or friendship
manner) orov TE = (neut. s. nom.) possible
ELKO, = (neut. adj., nom. s.) reasonable 7TapaA.Et7Tw = omit

EL(TLWV = compound of EL,: guess the 7TEV71', 7TEVY/TO" m. = poor man (the
meaning idiom YEVE0'8aL EK conveys be
E7r' EKEtVT/ /ZvaL = to be in her own chanxed from X into Y)
power (impersonal, + inf. 7TOLElV as 7TP0O'EXW TOV vovv = apply one's mind,
subject) pay attention
'EpaTo0'8Ev71'. -ov" m. = Eratosthenes TLjJ.wpta, -a,. f. = retribution, venxeance
(the man who was killed by TOtVVV = (postpositive particle) well then
Euphiletus, the speaker) Vppt(w = commit an outrage axainst.
KEPOO', -ov" n. = profit, financial xain insult
A.V7TEW = vex, cause pain or annoyance
UNIT THIRTY-EIGHT
Object Clauses with Verbs of Effort;

Subordinate Clauses in Indirect
Discourse; Attraction
- - - - - - - - ------ - -- - - - - - - - -- -------
1. Object Clauses with Verbs of Effort. Verbs of effort govern object

clauses introduced by 07fw<; (negative 07fw<; I_oj) and usually containing the
future indicative in both primary and secondary sequence. Verbs of effort
include those meaning to strive or to bring about (7fpaTTw. IT7fovM(w. 7fapa-
ITKEva(ojJ.aL), to plan (j3ovAE1JojJ.aL). to take care or to take pains (E7fLjJ.EAE-
ojJ.aL. E7fLjJ.EAojJ.aL, impersonal jJ.EAEL), to see to it that (opaw. ITK07fEW), or to
be on one's guard (EvAapEojJ.aL. cpvAaTTojJ.aL).
Ex.
07fw<; jJ.~
oi 'A8y/va'ioL 7fpaTTOVITW a
<I> iA L7f7f0<; TWV UKPWV KpanjITEL.
The Athenians are bringing it about that Philip will not get control of the
heights.
7fapEITKEVaITaVTO 07fw<; ITLTia EtOVITW.
They made preparations so that they would have provisions.
limperative] 07fw<; w<; p~ITTa U7fLjJ.w. I
ITK07fEL
Consider how (see to it that) we'll depart as easily as possible.
Occasionally the future optative is used in place of the future indicative in
secondary sequence:
E7fEjJ.EAETO 07fw<; jJ.Y,TE UITLTOL jJ.Y,TE u7foToi 7fOTE EITOWTO.
He took care that they would never be without food or water.
Sometimes a purpose clause with the sUbjunctive (or optative in secondary
sequence) is used with verbs of effort instead of an object clause:
opa [imperative] 07fW'> jJ.Y, ITE Q.7faTy,ITTl.
See to it that he doesn't deceive you.
I. Remember that the present indo of ELJ.l.i is treated as a future in Attic.
292
Object Clauses; Subordinate Clauses in Indirect Discourse; Attraction 293
Special idiom: sometimes a o7TwS'-clause with the future indicative is used

without an introductory verb (that is, in ellipsis) to express an urgent warning:
07TWS' j.l.T/OEVt TafJTa AEtHS'.
Make sure you don't tell this to anyone!
2. Subordinate Clauses in Indirect Discourse. When a complex sentence

is transformed into an indirect statement, the main clause of the statement is
expressed by whichever of the three indirect-discourse constructions (inf.,
part., on-clause) is appropriate with the governing verb, but the verbs of the
subordinate clause(s) normally remain in finite form and are treated according
to the following rules:
a. After a primary-tense governing verb, the subordinate-clause verbs

remain unchanged in tense and mood.
direct: EG.V mvm 7T0L'/7(r[lS', j.l.L(J'~(J'w (J'E. lfut. more vivid condition]
If you do this, I'll hate you.
indirect: (inf.) EG.V mvm 7TOL~(J'T/S', j.l.L(J'~(J'EW (J'E cj>T/(J'w.
(on-clause) AEYH on EG.V mvm 7roL~(J'T/S" j.l.L(J'~(J'H (J'E.
(part.) O,K01JOj.l.EV alJTov j.l.L(J'~(J'ovTa (J'E EG.V mvm 7TOL~(J'T/S"
He says (we hear) that he will hate you if you do this.
b. After a secondary-tense governing verb, primary-tense indicatives and

SUbjunctives are usually changed to the same tense of the optative (a direct
subj. with Q.v becomes an indirect opt. without Q.v), but are sometimes left
unchanged.
indirect: (inf.) EL mvm 7TOL~(J'EWS', j.l.L(J'~(J'EW (J'E Ecj>T/.
(on-clause) E(7TEV on EL mvm 7TOL~(J'EWS' IJ.L(J'~(J'OL (J'E.
(part.) ryKov(J'aj.l.EV alJTov j.l.L(J'~(J'ovTa (J'E Ei mvm 7ToLry(J'HaS'.
He said (we heard) that he would hate you if you did (were to
do, should do) this.
direct: 6 (J'TpanwTT/S' QV 1] haipa cj>LAEL 0'7TE8avEV EV Tfl j.l.aXT/·
The soldier whom the courtesan loves died in the battle.
indirect: 77YYHAav TOV (J'TpanwTT/V QV 1] haipa cj>LAOiT/ 0,7T08o.vQvm
EV Tfl j.l.aXT/·
They announced that the soldier whom the courtesan loves
died in the battle.
c. After a secondary-tense governing verb, secondary-tense indicatives

(including indicative with Q.v) and optatives remain unchanged.
direct: o(J'nS' EMoL TOV7O rypwm. lpast gen. reI. clause]
Whoever came always asked this question.
294 UNIT THIRTY -EIGHT
indirect: E'[7rOV on o(J"ns> EMol TOVTO rypWTa.

I said that whoever came always asked this question.
direct: TaVTa aE7rOlEtTE ov mAa ryv. [simple reI. clause]
These things you were doing were not good.
indirect: OVK EVOj1l(OV TaVTa aE7rOlEtTE KaAa E'[val.
They didn't consider these things you were doing to be good.
3. Atttraction. It is characteristic of Greek that words referring to the

same person are sometimes all expressed in the same case even though some
of the words might be expected, according to strict grammar, to differ in case.
This phenomenon is called attraction, because the case expected according to
syntactic function is attracted into another case. The student has already
learned some constructions which feature attraction.
a. Attraction of predicate nouns or adjectives with the infinitive. The

subject of an infinitive, when expressed, is normally in the accusative, and so
predicate nouns or adjectives are accusative in agreement (cf. U9A, lOA,
20.8). But when the subject of the infinitive is the same as the (nominative)
subject of the governing verb, the subject of the infinitive is unexpressed and
predicate nouns or adjectives are in the nominative by attraction: ECPll ciya8os>
E'[vaL Likewise, when the subject of the infinitive is the same as a person or
thing mentioned in the genitive or dative in close proximity to the infinitive
(usually as gen. or dat. object of the main verb), the subject of the infinitive is
usually unexpressed and predicate nouns or adjectives may either appear in the
acc. or be attracted into the gen. or dat.
It is in your power (for you) to be virtuous.
E'twn Vj1tV ciya8ovs> E7vaL [no attraction, vj10S understood]
Etwn Vj1tV ciya8ots> E7vaL [dative by attraction to vj1tvJ
He exhorted the soldiers not to prove themselves cowards.
7rapEKEAE1JETO TOtS> (J"TpanWTalS> j11J KaKOt~ YEVE(J"8al.
They asked Cyrus to show himself as enthusiastic as possible.
EOEOVTO TOV Kvpov WS> 7IfH)8vMQJ"aTo'Q YEVE(J"8w.
I beseech you to prepare yourselves, since you see that Philip is strong
and you see that your allies are despondent.
OEOj1al vj1WV 7rapa(J"KEva(w8al, Qpii1v~as> j1EV TOV <l>iAl7r7rOV i(J"Xvpov.
OpWVTaS> oE TOVS> (J"vj1j1axovs> ci8vj1ovs> QVTaS>.
[no attraction: OPWVTaS> is acc. pI. masc. agreeing with the unexpressed
subject of inf., Vj1QS>]
Similarly. as already learned in U28.5. when an infinitive copula depends on a
participle, a predicate noun or adjective agrees in case with the participle:
TOL~ cpaa-KOVa-L (>LOaa-KaAOL~ ElvaL

to those who claim they are teachers
b. Attraction of the Relative Pronoun. A relative pronoun nonnally takes

its case from its construction in its own clause. But sometimes a relative is
attracted into the case of its adjacent antecedent, especially when the relative
would have been accusative and the antecedent is genitive or dative:
a~wL T'i]~ EAEVeEpia~ 'lli
KEKT1]a-eE
worthy of the freedom which you possess
[unattracted relative would be ~v, direct object of KEKT1]a-eE]
a-vv TOL~ e1]a-avpoL~ o[~ 6 7raT~p KaTEAL7rW
together with the treasure which his father had left him
[unattracted relative would be ov~, direct object of KaTEAL7rw]
Attraction is especially frequent when the antecedent is a (relatively unem-
phatic) neuter demonstrative. Indeed, the usual idiom in Greek is to omit such
an antecedent and have the relative pronoun in the case which the antecedent
would have had:
He gave everyone a share of the things he had received [or of what he
had received].
idiomatic fonn: ~v EAa(3E 7ram fJ.f.TEOWKE.
fuller fonn: I®Ti.J)Y aEAa(3E 7rUa-L fJ.f.TEOWKE.
[partitive gen. antecedent and acc. relative as direct object]
I provide witnesses of whatever things I sa.v.
idiomatic fonn: fJ.apTVpa~ ~v Q.v AEyw 7rapExw. [instead OfTOVTwV a]
He wrongs the city in these respects in addition to the ways he wrongs
individuals.
idiomatic fonn: TalJTa aOLKEL T~V 7rOAW 7rpO~ or~ TOV~ iOu.oTa~ aOLKEL.
[instead of 7rPO~ TOVTOL~ a... aOLKEL]
c. Inverse Attraction with Relative Pronoun. An antecedent in the nomi-

native (or, less often, the accusative) is sometimes attracted to the case of the
relative pronoun:
EAEyovon J\.aKEOaLfJ.0VWL ~V OEOVTaL 7rgL'T_WV 7rE7rpayOTf.~ Elw.
They said that the Lacedaemonians had accomplished everything the.v
needed.
[instead of 7ravTa 7rE7rpayOTf.~ Elw]
To~avopa TOVTOV, QV 7raAaL (1]Tf.L~ . .. OVTO~ Ea-nv EvOaoE.
(Sophocles) This man, whom .'lou have long been seeking, ... is here.
[instead of 6 av~p OVTO~ ... Ea-Tiv: note repetition of the
demonstrative after the intervening clause]
296 UNIT THIRTY -EIGHT
A special idiom which displays inverse attraction is the use of oblique cases of
ovoEls O(TTL~ ov = everyone, deriving from ovoEls E(TTW O(TTL~ OV + verb of rel-
ative clause.
ovoEva Kivovvov oVTLva OVX iJ7TEjJ.Ewav.
They endured every (possible) danger.
[instead of fuller form ovoEi~ E(TTL Kivovvo~ oVTLva OVX lJ7TEjJ.Ewav,
There is no danger which they did not endure.]
d. Incorporation of the Antecedent. A stylistic variation related to attrac-

tion is the incorporation of the antecedent word into the relative clause, so that
it has the same case as the relative and the relative functions as adjective in-
stead of pronoun. Again, this is more common when the antecedent would
have been nominative or accusative (in the main clause) than when it would
have been genitive or dative.
EL E(TTW, ~v (TV 7rPOTEpOV EAEYH apETYv, aAy/e~~ ...
if the virtue of which you were speaking before is true . ..
[instead of EL E(TTW ~ apET~, ~v EAEYE~ ... ]
OVK E(TTW ~TL~ TOrJT' G.v 'EAAy/VL~ yvviz ETAy/
(Euripides) There is no Greek woman who would have dared to do this.
[instead of OVK E(TTW 'EAAy/VL~ yvv~ ~TL~ G.v ETAy/]

1. Study the grammatical constructions presented above.
VOCABULARY
nouns
$vIl6~. $VIlOV, m. spirit; seat of courage, anger, emotion, etc.
[enthymeme, thymus]
private person (i.e., not an official or professional),
individual; layman [idiot]
llaPTV'>. llaPTVP0'>, m. or f. witness [martyr]
(dat. pI. llapTV(n)
IlL(]"$ck IlL(]"$ov, m. hire; pay, wages
TEXVTJ, TEXVTJ'>, f. art, skill, craft [technical, technology]
T6~ov, T6~ov, n. bow [toxic]
TO~6TTJ'>, To~6TOV, bowman, archer
m.
some alpha-privative and related adjectives

a01]AO~, a01]AOV unseen; unknown, obscure, uncertain
aOVVaTO~, aOVVaTOV unable. weak; impossible [adynaton]
OVVaTO~, OVVaT~, strong. able; possible
OVVaTOV
a8vjJ.o~, a8vjJ.ov discouraged. spiritless
7rpo8vjJ.o~, ready. willing. eager; bearing good will
7rpo8vjJ.ov
pa8vjJ.o~, pa8vjJ.ov easygoing. indifferent
aKWV, aKOV~a, aKOV unwilling. under constraint (when used in predicate
(masc.lneut. stem clKOVT -) position agreeing with subject. may be translated
in English as adverb unwillingly)
EKWV, EKov~a, EKOV willing (when used in predicate position agreeing
(masc.lneut. stem with subject. may be translated in English as
EKOVT-)I adverb willinRly)
ava~LO~, ava~LOV unworthy
aVOjJ.M, avojJ.ov lawless. impious [anomie. anomophyllous]
VOjJ.LjJ.O~, VOjJ.I.jJ.1], customary; lawful; legitimate
,
VOjJ.LjJ.OV
a7rOTO~, a7rOTOV not drinkable; not drinking. without water or drink
a~acp~~, a~acpf.~ indistinct. uncertain
a~LTO~, a~LTOV without food
aTLjJ.o~, aTLjJ.ov without honor; deprived of citizen rights
acp8ovo~, acp8ovov free from envy; (more commonly) plentiful
cp80VEPO~, cp80VEpa, envious. jealous
cp80VEPOV
verbs
a8pol.(w, a8pol.~w, ~8poL~a, gather together
~8poLKa. ~8poL~jJ.aL,
~8pol.~81]v
a7raTaW, a7raT~~w. ~7raT1]~a, cheat. deceive
~7raT1]Ka. ~7raT1]jJ.aL.
~7raT~81]v
E~a7raTaW (f.~) deceive. trick
EVAapf.ojJ.aL. EVAap~~ojJ.aL, beware. take care. take precautions
1]vAaf3~81]v
evw, ev~w. {8v~a, Tf.8vKa. offer by burning. sacrifice
Tf.8vjJ.aL. ETv81]v 2
I. ~K~JV is in fact a strong aorist participle of a verb which survived only in this form. The non-
Attic form of aKwv is uncontracted ciiKWV. an alpha-privative compound derived from ~K~JV.
2. v in the first three principal parts, v in the last three.
298 UNIT THIRTY-EIGHT
Kfl.ivw. Kfl.WEW. EKfl.WU. cause to lean. slope. or lie down; (pass.) lie down.
KEKfl.tJ1.Ut. EKfl.i8rJV or recline lheteroclite. clinic]
(compounds) -f.Kfl.ivYJv I
KOJ1.i(w. KOJ1.tEW. EKOJ1.trTa. take care of; carry. convey; (mid.) acquire
, ,
KEKOJ1.tKU. KEKOJ1.WpUt.
EKOJ1.iaBYJv
J1.Efl.W. J1.Efl.rww. EJ1.Efl.YJ(JU. (poetic) be a concern to (+ dat. of person); (poetic)
J1.EJ1.Efl.YJKU take care of. care for (+ gen.)
J1.Efl.H (impersonal. used in prose and verse) it concerns,
it is an object of concern to (+ dat. of person + inf.
or + gen. of thing)
hT'tJ1.Efl.OJ1.Ut or E7f't- take care of, have charge of (+ gen.)
J1.Efl.EOJ1.Ut. hT'tJ1.EfI.-
rwoJ1.ut. hT'tJ1.EJ1.E-
fl.YJJ1.Ut. E7TEJ1.EfI.~8YJv
(JKE7TTOJ1.Ut. (JKE'/JOJ1.at. view, examine, consider [sceptic]
E(JKE'/JG.J1.YJV. E(JKEJ1.J1.Ut 2
(JK07TEW or (JK07TEOJ1.Ut look at; examine, consider [telescope]
(J"7TEVOW. (J7TEV(JW. E(J7TEV(JU seek eagerly, strive (+ inf.); (intrans.) rush, hasten
(J7TOVoa.(W. (J7TOVOG.(J0J1.Ut. be serious, be earnest; be eager (+ inf.)
E(J7TOVOU(JU. E(J7TOVOUKU.
E(J7TOVOU(JJ1.Ut. E(J7TOVoa.(J8YJv
EXERCISES
I. Render into Greek ..1
( 1) And let no one of you believe that we Greeks are in a worse condition
because the soldiers of Cyrus, though formerly positioned with us, have now
revolted. (2) For these men are still more cowardly than the ones we have
defeated. (3) For they abandoned us and fled from those men. (4) And it is
much better to see those who are willing to begin a flight stationed with the
enemy than (to see them) in our ranks [use sing. of TCitLS'. TatEwS', f.]. (5) And
do not be afraid of the cavalrymen of the enemy, though they are numerous.
I. The t is short by etymology and short in fut., perf., and aor. pass .. but long in pres. and aor.
act. (both because of compensatory lengthening in the development of the form).
2. The present is used only in poetry (prose uses (J"Komiw); the other tenses serve as the remain-
ing tenses of ITKOTrEW.
3. Note to instructor: loosely based on Anab. 3.2.17-18.
II. Reading: Thucydides, History of the Peloponnesian War, 1.1-2 (two lines
omitted): the proem to his work.
00VKVO/.(Yr]S 'Ae1]val.os CTVVEypatE TOV 7fOAEjJ.OV TWV flEA07fOVV?]CT[WV
Kat. 'Ae1]va[wv, ~~ E7fOAEjJ.1]CTaV 7fPOS aAA~AOVS, aptajJ.EVOS EVeVS
KaeLCTTagEvov Kat. EA7fLCTas jJ.Eyav TE ECTweaL Kat. atwAOYWTaTOV TWV
7fPOYEYEV'UgEVWV . ... KiV?]CTLS yap aih1] jJ.qLCTT1] Qiz TOl.s "EAA1]CTW EYEVETO
Kat. }J-EPEL TLVt. TWV (3ap(3apwv, £.Os OE Ei7fEl.v Kat. E7ft. 7fAEI.CTTOV aVepW7fWV. TO.
yap 7fpO aVTWV Kat. TO. ETL 7faAa[TEpa CTa<pws jJ.Ev dJpEI.V OLa xpovov 7fAr,eOS
aovvaTa ryv, EK oE TEKJj.?]PLWV (;;v E7ft. jJ.aKp0TaTOV CTK07fOVVTi jJ.OL 7fLCTTEVCTaL
CTvjJ.(3aLvH ov jJ.qaAa vOjJ.[(w YEVECTeaL OVTE KaTa TOVS 7fOAE}J-OVS OVTE Eis TO.
r,
aAAa. <pa[VETaL yap vvv 'EAAaS KaAovgEVYJ OV 7faAaL BEf3aLws oiKovjJ.EV1],
aAAa gETavaCTTaCTHS TE OVCTaL TO. 7fpOTEpa Kat. Pq.O[ws EKaCTTOL TrW EaVTWV
, \.' .Q f.' " " \.
a7fO/\~L7fO~!ES jJLa~OgEVOL V7fO TWWV aLH 7f/\EWVWV.
I
Underlined Words
aOVvaTa: to be translated as if singular KiVW)L" -EW" f. = movement, unrest
(aovvaTov ryv EVPEtV); this use of the }J.ETaVaITTW)L', -EW" f. = migration
plural neuter predicate adj. is archaic. (with this noun and with EKaITTOL in
Note that the phrase TO. yap . .. the next phrase, understand the verb
7rall.ainpa is thus acc., serving first cpaiVOVTaL to govern the
as object of EVPEtV, then as subject of supplementary participles)
indirect-discourse info YEvEIT8aL. nEII.07rOVV~ITWL, -wv, m. =
aiEi = (here) on each occasion Peloponnesians (that is, the
a~LOlI.oyO', -ov = noteworthy Lacedaemonians and their allies, most
a7roIl.Ei7rw: compound of a7ro-; guess of whom were located in the
the meaning Peloponnese [southern Greece])
f3Ef3aw" -a, -ov = secure, firm, fixed 7rIl.EtITTOV: supply a noun like extent or
f3La(o}J.aL = be forced, be constrained portion in translating this word
o~ = (adv.) indeed (emphasizes 7rpoyiyvo}J.aL = happen before
preceding adj.) ITvyypacpw = compose (an account of)
flTElTeaL: indirect-discourse inf. with TO. 7rponpa = (adv. acc.) previously
subject TOV 7rOIl.E}J.OV understood nK}J.~pwv, -ov, n. = indication, piece of
from context evidence
fTL = (adv.) still, even Tr/V i.avn'vv: understand xwpa or yi1 =
EVeV, = (adv.) immediately, straightaway land
~ vvv 'EII.II.QS KaIl.Ov}J.Ev17: understand W, = (here) how
xwpa or yi1 = land (the land that is w> Et7rEtV = so to speak (frozen idiom;
now called Hellas) epexegetic [result) infinitive)
KaeLITTa}J.EVOV: temporal genitive
absolute, with noun TOV 7rOIl.E}J.OV
understood from the context
UNIT THIRTY -NINE
Temporal Clauses with EWs and the

Like; 7Tpiv; Assimilation of Mood
1. Temporal Clauses with EW~ and the Like. The conjunctions EW~,
faTE, jJ.EXPL, jJ.EXPL OV, axpL, and axpL ov mean so long as, while (introducing
temporal clauses expressing time the same as that of the main verb) or until
(introducing temporal clauses expressing time after that of the main verb).
Many clauses introduced by these words have the same contructions as other
temporal clauses (with simple, general, and future conditional force: U34), but
there are also special patterns for certain types of until-clause.
a. Temporal clauses with EW~, etc., referring to definite action in the

present or past have the indicative (cf. simple conditions and simple temporal
clauses with OTE, E7TEi, etc.):
EM EZp~VY'/ ryv, T0 pa(HAEL E7TEieoVTO.
So long as there was peace [during one specific period of time 1. they
obeyed the king.
EKEiV!1 Tnr,jJ.Epq. EjJ.aXOVTO jJ.EXPL oi 'AeY'/vaLoL (J.7TE1rAEV(Jav.
On that day they fought until the Athenians sailed away.
b. Temporal clauses with EW~, etc., referring to customary or repeated

action in the present or past follow the pattern of general conditions (cf.
general conditional temporal clauses with OTE, E7TEi, etc.):
present time
EW~ av Eip~vY'/ n,
T0 j3a(HAEL 7TEieoVTaL
So long as there is peace [during any number of periods of time], they
obey the king.
EKa(J"ToTE jJ.aXOVTaL jJ.EXPL av 61jAw~ OV!1'
They fight on each occasion until the sun sets.
past time [not found with meaning so long as]
EKa(J"ToTE EjJ.axovTo jJ.EXPL 61jAw~ OVat.
They used to fight on each occasion until the sun set.
300
Temporal Clauses with tWf and the Like; 7TPt'V; Assimilation of Mood 301
c. Temporal clauses with EW~, etc., referring to action in the future

usually take the construction of a future more vivid protasis, that is, subjunc-
tive with Q.v. The main clause may have either a future indicative or, if the
temporal clause expresses an anticipated action (until), a present indicative.
main clause future
EW~ av EipryvYJ ii,
T0 /3a(TLA.EL 7rEL(TOVTaL.
So long as there is peace, they will obey the king.
jJ.axovvTaL jJ.f.XPL av 01. 'AeYJvaLoL C).7f'07rA.E1)(TW(TLV.
They will fight until the Athenians sail away.
main clause present
jJ.f.VOjJ.EV EW~ av EMn 6 Q.YYEA.O~.
We are waiting until the messenger comes (in expectation that he will
come, in anticipation that he may come).
If the main clause contains the potential optative, the temporal clause with EW~,
etc., referring to action in the future contains the optative (without Q.v: cf.
future less vivid condition). This is a rare construction.
Kat. vvv jJ.axoLVTo av jJ.f.xpL 01. 'AeYJvaLoL C).7f'07rA.EV(TELav.
And now they wouldfight (on) until the Athenians (should) sail away.
d. Temporal clauses with EW~, etc., referring to an action that was anti-
cipated in the past contain the optative (without Q.v); the main verb may be
imperfect or aorist. This pattern does not correspond to any of the conditional
patterns, but may be viewed as a transposition into past time of the construc-
tion illustrated under §c above (main clause present, temporal clause subj. +
av), with a corresponding shift of subordinate mood because of the sequence
of moods. I
EjJ.EVOV EW~ EMoL.
They remained, waiting for him to come or
They waited in expectation that he would (might) come.
Contrast the more factual form (as in §a above):
EjJ.EVOV EW~ r,MEV.
They waited until he (actually) arrived.
2. 7rpLV. The use of 7rPLV as a conjunction (= before, until) developed

from early uses of the adverb 7fPLV = before. The usage of this word is in part
1. Grammarians speak of this kind of subordinate-clause optative as due to implied indirect

discourse: that is, the writer or speaker retains the sense of expectation and non-fulfillment that
is felt by those who experience the action as present; with the shift to a secondary-tense main
verb, the sequence of moods applies, as for indirect discourse.
302 UNIT THIRTY -NINE
parallel to that of EWIJ, etc., but is somewhat more complicated because 7Tpiv
often introduces an infinitive rather than a finite verb.
a. 7Tpiv with Finite Verbs. In these constructions, the main clause is nor-
mally negative and a temporal adverb meaning before (7Tpo(JBw or 7Tponpov)
is often present in it. The patterns are similar to those illustrated in § 1a-d
above:
definite action: indicative
ov 7TpoCJ8w E7TavCJavTo 7TPLV T1JV 7TOAW EiAOV.
They didn't stop until they (had) captured the city.
present general: subjunctive with Q.v
ov 7TpoCJ8w 7TaVOVTaL 7TPLV Q.v mJ.vTaIJ 7TEiCJwCJw.
They don't stop [on each occasion] until they convince everyone.
future more vivid: subjunctive with Q.v
ov 7Tponpov 7TavCJoVTaL 7TPLV Q.v T~V 7TOAW EAWCJW.
They will not stop until they capture the city.
depending on clause containing optative: optative without Q.v
d nlJ JJ.~ aVEL1J aVTov 7TpLV E~EAKVCJELW EZIJ TO TOV 1]Aiov CPWIJ
if one should not let him go until one had dragged him into the light of
the sun
anticipated action in past time: optative without Q.v
E7TEL8ov aVTOVIJ JJ.~ 7ToLELCJ8aL JJ.aX1Jv 7TPLV o~ 'A81JvaLOL 7TapayEvowTO.
They urged them not to fight (but to wait) until the Athenians should
have arrived.
b. 7Tpiv with Infinitive. In this construction, the main verb is normally

affirmative, but the infinitive is sometimes found with a negative main verb;
again a temporal adverb meaning before (7TpoCJ8w or 7Tponpov) often accom-
panies the main verb. The infinitive construction must be used instead of a
finite-verb construction in any case where a before-after contrast is empha-
sized (that is, where in English translation before cannot be replaced by until
without altering the meaning). The infinitive expresses the action absolutely
and implies nothing about anticipation or actual occurrence. The infinitive
with 7Tpiv is usually aorist, but the present is used for continuing, repeated, or
attempted action. The subject of the infinitive is unexpressed when it is the
same as that of the main verb, accusative otherwise.
EJJ.axovTo 7TPLV TOVIJ 'A81JvaiovlJ 7TapaywECJ8aL.
They fought (at some time) before the Athenians arrived.
[not the same as They fought until (the moment when) the Athenians
arrived.]
Temporal Clauses with lWf and the Like; 7Tp/V; Assimilation of Mood 303
a7TUpa7roVTO lOtI) T1JV 7TOAW 7TpLV v7TEp(3aivEtv.

They turned back toward the city before attempting to scale (the wall).
[until impossible since the action scale never occurred; present info to
express attempt]
<pop,ovjJ.aL jJ.ry 7TPOTEPOV TL 7TaeVl) 7TPLV TEAOl) E7TLeELVaL TOLl) 7TpaTTo-
jJ.EVOLI).
I fear that something may happen to you before you complete what you
are doing.
3. Assimilation of Mood. The mood of a subordinate clause is sometimes

assimilated to the mood of the clause on which it depends if the subordinate
clause is an integral part of the entire thought. The most important examples of
assimilation of mood involve the optative.
a. The future less vivid conditional scheme may be interpreted as an
instance of assimilation. Under the influence of the potential optative in the
apodosis, the unfulfilled future action expressed in the protasis is normally in
the optative (instead of subj. + Q.v as in future more vivid).
b. The optative in a EWI)-c1ause or 7Tpiv-c1ause referring to a possible
future action and dependent on an optative verb is also an instance of assimi-
lation. So in the final example under § I c the subordinate verb is assimilated in
mood to the potential optative on which it depends, and in the fourth example
under §2a it is assimilated to the optative of the lOt-clause, which is a future
less vivid protasis.
C. Likewise, a future condition that depends on a dependent optative is
assimilated to the optative, and is more properly explained as "optative in a
future condition by assimilation of mood" than as "optative in a future less
vivid condition":
E7TEtDry Kvp0l) EKaAEt. Aa(3wv vjJ.al) E7TOPEVOjJ.Y/v. Lva Ei'TL DEOLTO w<pE-
Aoir/V alJTov ave' ~v EV E7TaeOV V7T' EKEivov.
When Cyrus summoned me. I came, taking you along. in order that. if he
should have any need. I might aid him in return for the favors I had
received from him.
[future condition dependent on optative of purpose clause]

1. Study the constructions presented above.
VOCABULARY
nouns
eEpO,. eEpOV,. n. summer; summer harvest
7rUeo,. 7rUeoV'>, n. incident; experience; suffering, state, condition
[pathos, pathology]
(TTpan)" (TTpaTOV, m. army, host
cpvAaK~. cpVAaKr", f. watching, guarding; garrison
XEL/1-wv. XEL/1-WVO" m. winter; storm, stormy weather
'fEVOO,. 'fE1JOOV" n. falsehood, lie
wpa. wpa" f. period, season; time of day; the fitting time [hour]
verbs
E7rtXELpEW. E7rtXELP~CTW. E7rE- put one's hand to, attempt (+ dat. or + inf.)
XE ip1JCTa• E7rtKEXE ip1JKa•
, ,
E7rtKEXELp1J/1-aL.
E7rEXELp~e1JV (E7rd
7rELpuw. 7rELPUCTW [ a I. (more frequently used in middle in same sense as
E7rE ipaCTa. 7rE7rdpaKa. 7rE- active) make trial of(+ gen.); try (+ inf.) [pirate]
7rEipa/1-aL. E7rELPUe1JV [ a 1
7rAEW. 7rAE1)CTO/1-aL or sail, go by sea [pleopod]
7rAEVCTEO/1-aL. E7rAEVCTa.
7rE7rAEVKa. 7rE7rAEVCT/1-aL I
a7r07rAEW (a7ro) sail away
7rpOCT~KW (7rpo,) have come; belong to, be related to (+ dat.)
7rpOCT~KEL (impersonal) it belongs to, it concerns, it is fitting
(+ dat. + inf.)
pEW. pV~CTO/1-aL. EppV1JV. flow [rheostat, rheumatism]
EPP V1J Ka2
CTVAAEyW. CTVAAE~W. CTVVE- gather, bring together, collect [syllogism]
AE~a. CTVvEiAoxa. CTvvd-
AEYJ1.UL. CTVVEAEY1JV or
CTVVEAEXe1JV (CTVV)
CTci{w. CTWCTW (or CT~CTW), ECTW- save, keep alive; preserve; bring safely; (pass.) reach
CTa (ECT't1CTa). CTECTwKa. CTE- safely, arrive safely
CTW/1-aL kECT't1CT/1-ad. ECTWe1JV
I. Recall that monosyllabic verbs in -EW have contraction in present and imperfect only when
the ending begins with E OrEt: cf. U 13 Vocabulary, footnote 2.
2. Present and imperfect treated like oEw. 7rAEW (see previous note); the future principal part of
this verb is actually its future passive. and the aorist principal part is its aorist passive (no middle
or active forms exist in these tenses, but these passive forms have intransitive "active"
translation in English).
Temporal Clauses with fWf and the Like; 7Tp/V; Assimilation of Mood 305
iJ7T07l'TEVW. iJ7T07l'TEV(J"W. be suspicious; suspect, hold in suspicion

lJ7Tw7I'TEv(J"a. V7I'W7I'TEVeT/V
cpeEipw. cpeEpEW. {cpenpa. destroy; corrupt, bribe; seduce
{cpeapKa. {cpeap}J.aL. EcpeapT]V
clLacpeEipw (ow) destroy utterly; corrupt, bribe; seduce; (intrans.
(also has intrans. 2nd 2nd perf.) have been ruined, destroyed
perf. OLEcpeOpa)
cppatw. cppa(J"w. {cppa(J"a. point out, show; tell, declare, explain [phrase,
71'EcppaKa. 71'Ecppa(J"}J.aL, periphrastic J
Ecppa(J"8T]v [ii in all stems]
adverbs, etc.
yE (enclitic particle adding emphasis to previous word
or to whole clause; sometimes untranslatable in
English) at least, at any rate
(postpositive particle adding emphasis to preceding
word, esp. to conjunctions and pronouns) in fact,
of course, certainly
Kat O~ Kai and in fact, and in particular
Kat yap for indeed, for in fact, and in fact
,
}J.T]V (postpositive particle adding strength to declarations)
truly, surely
, ,
KaL }J.T]V and what is more (introducing something new or
esp. important)
(preposition) (+ gen., poetic) about, for the sake of;
(+ dat., poetic) on both sides of, for the sake of; (+
acc.) around, associated with (a person), occupied
with (a task) [amphitheater]
{TL yet, still
, , ,
OVKETL. }J.T]KETL no longer
immediately, forthwith [euthynterion, euthytropic]
with toil; scarcely, hardly
behind; hereafter, in future; (sometimes + gen.)
behind [opisthodomos]
71'EAa<; near; (sometimes + gen.) near
xwpi<; separately, apart; (+ gen.) without, separate from
temporal conjunctions
"
EW<; until; so long as, while
"
E(J"TE (rare in prose) until; so long as, while
}J.EXPL or }J.EXPL ov until; (also adv. or prep. + gen.) as far as, up to
G.XPL or G.XPL ov until; (also adv. or prep. + gen.) as far as, up to
71'piv before (+ clause or + inf.); (adverb) before, formerly
EXERCISES

I. Cyrus continued to gather soldiers and money until the king suspected I that
his brother was plotting something.
2. As long as the rivers flow into the sea, mankind will try to preserve itself.
3. May I die before any such thing happens!
4. Those who sail during the winter ought to beware that the winds do not
deceive them.
5. Philip was not allowing the ambassadors to meet him until his friends
should utterly ruin [= corrupt] the affairs of the city.
II. Reading: Lysias, Oration 12.13-15: Lysias, just arrested by order of the
Thirty, has been brought to the house of Damnippus, where Theognis is guard-
ing various detainees.
EV TOW1JTCfl 0' Qvn P.OL KWOVVEVEW EOOKH. W'i' TOV yE a7To8avE~v
v7TCIPXOVTO'i' ~ory. KaA.ECTa'i' oE D.ap.VL7T7TOV A.Eyw 7TPO'i' aiJTov TaoE. "E7TL-
nlOHO'i' P.EV P.OL TVYXaVH'i' wv. 17Kw 0' EL'i' TrJV CTr]V oLKiav. aOLKw 0' OVOEV.
xpryp.aTwv 0' EVEKa a7TOA.A.vp.aL. CTV ovv TaVTa 7TaCTxovTi P.OL 7Tpo8vp.ov
7TapaCTXOV TrW CTWVTOV ovvap.w EL'i' TryV EP.ryV CTwTrypiav." 6 0' V7TECTXETO
TavTa 7T0L17CTHV. EOOKH 0' aVT0 {3EA.nOV ElvaL 7TPO'i' 8EOYVW p.vryCT8r,vaL·
r,YE~TO yap a7Tav 7T0L17CTHV aVTOV. EL n'i' apyvpwv oLooiry. EKEivov OE
OWA.EYOP.EVOV 8EOYVLOL (Eg7THP0'i' yap WV ETVYXavov Tr,'i' OLKia'i'. KaL nOEW
on agpi8vpo'i' ELry) EOOKH P.OL TaVT[l 7THpo.CT8aL CTw8r,vaL. Ev8vgoVgEVCfl on,
EaV p.Ev A.a8w. CTwerwop.aL. EaV OE A.rycjl8w. r,YOVp.ryv P.EV. EL 8EOyVL'i' ELry
7TE7THCTP.EVO'i' V7TO TOV D.ap.vi7T7TOV xpryp.aTa A.a{3E~V. OVOEv rynov acjlE8ry-
CTECT8aL. EL OE p.ry. ogoiw'i' a7To8avE~CT8aL
Underlined Words
a}J.cpievpo'>, -ov =with doors on both ends o}J.oiw'> = all the same, just the same
apyvpwv. -OV. n. = (silver) money ovv = therefore
E}J.7TELPO'>, -ov = experienced in, 7Tap(J.(rxov = aor. mid. imperative of
knowledgeable about (+ gen.) 7TapExw. here furnish me your power
EVeV}J.Eo}J.aL = ponder, consider eagerly disposed [pred. adj.] toward
E7TL T~OELO' = (here) close acquaintance my salvation. or apply your influence
0EOYVL'>, -LOO'>. m., dat. -LOL. acc. -LV = with ;:eal to save me
Theognis iJ7Tapxw = be ready at hand
KLVOVVElJW = take a risk
I. V7r07rTflJW takes the info construction for indirect discourse.

Temporal Clauses with E'wf and the Like; 7Tp/V; Assimilation of Mood 307
III. Reading: Plato, Gorgias 484c-e: Callicles explains to Socrates the danger
of attributing too much importance to philosophy.
TO p.Ev ovv aAYj8E~ OVTW~ EXEt, yvwO"Tl OE, Q.v hTt TO. p.d(w EMTl~ EaO"a~
ryoYj CPLAoO"opiaL!.. q>LAoO"ocj>ia yap TOi EO"TLV, ;;; ~WKpaTE~, xapiEV, av TL~
aiJTov g£Ef2iw~ (1.j!Jl~a_L EV TV iAl_KiCf' EaV OE 7T-ti2J1.L2EpW TOV OEOVTO~
EVOLaTpitTl, OLacp8opa TWV av8pW7TWV. EaV yap Kat 7Tavv EVCPVr,~ :;, Kat
7TOppW T1J~ r,ALKia~ CPLAOO"OCPfz, avaYKYj 7TaVTWV a7TEtpOV YEYOVEvaL EO"TtV ~V
XP1] Eg7TELPOV ElvaL TOV P.EAAOVTa KaAOV Kaya80~ Kat (YOOKLj.J..QQ EO"w8aL
avopa. Kat yap TWV VOP.WV a7TEtpOL yiYVOVTaL TWV KaTa T1]V 7TOAW, Kat TWV
AOYWV or~ Mi XPWP.EVOV OIJ,.LAE'iV EV TO'i~ O"vg3oAaioL~ TO'i~ av8pw7TOL~ Kat
~Qfu Kat ~k, Kat TWV r,OOVWV TE Kat E7TL8vP.LWv TWV aV8pW7T(iwv, Kat
O"VAAri30T]V TWV iz8wv 7TavTa7TaO"w a7TEtpOL yiyvOVTaL. E7TELOaV OVV EMwO"w
E;:~ Twa ioiav 17 7TOALTLKr,V 7Tpatw, KaTaYEAaO"ToL yiYVOVTaL, WO"7TEP yE olp.aL
oi. 7TOALTLKOi, E7TEtOaV av Ei~ Ta~ vp.ETEpa~ OLaTptJi~'i EMwO"w Kat TOV~
AOyOV~, KaTaYEAaO"Toi EiO"w.
Underlined Words
av8pW7THO<;, -a, -ov = human }J.ETpW<;, -a, -ov = moderate
G.7THPO<;, -ov = inexperienced (+ gen.) O}J.LAEW = associate with (+ dat.)
a7TTw, aor. ~..ya = join, (mid.) touch (+ o~v = (postpositive) therefore; (com-
gen.) bined with }J.EV, in transitions) now
OT]}J.olTiq. = (idiomatic fern. dat. s. adv. then
of manner) publicly, in public life 7TaVTa7TaITLV = (adv.) completely
OtaTPLj3~, -f]<;, f. = pastime, pursuit 7Tavv = (adv.) very much, exceedingly
Otacp80pa, ..Q.<;, f. = ruination 7TEpaLTEpw = (compar. adv.)farther
E}J.7THPO<;, -ov = experienced in (+ gen.) along
EVOtaTpif3w, aor. EVOLETpL..ya = spend 7TOALTLK(k -~, -Ov = political
one's time in 7TOppW = (adv.)far along in (+ gen.)
EVOOKL}J.O<;, -ov = of good repute,jamous 7TpatL<;, -EW<;, f. = activity, action
EVCPV~<;, -E<; = innately gifted ITVA.A.~;3OT]v = (adv.) taken all together,
7180<;, -ov<;, n. = (in pI.) human to put it in a nutshell
character, human behavior ITv}J.poAawv, -av, n. = contractual
~ALKia, -a<;, f. = prime of one '.I' youth transaction
tOw<;, -a, -ov = private; (fern. dat. sing. TOL = (enclitic particle) surely, you know
as adverb) privately, in private life CPLAOITOCPEW = engage in philosophical
Kaya80v = Kat aya80v (crasis) pursuits
KaTaYEAaITTo<;, -ov = ridiculous CPLAOlTocpia, -a<;, f. = philosophy
UNIT FORTY
Imperative Mood
I. Imperative Mood. The fourth of the finite moods of ancient Greek is

the imperative (Latin imperativus, Greek 7TPOcrTaKTLKry, "of command"). The
imperative is used to express commands in the second and third persons (for
the first person, the hortatory subjunctive is available), and is found mainly in
the present and aorist tenses to express the contrasting aspects associated with
these stems of the verb (see §6 below). In Attic Greek no perfect active
imperative forms are found, and the perfect middle/passive imperative is rare,
found mainly in verbs whose perfects are common as present-tense equivalents
and in third person passive imperatives in certain fixed expressions.
The English imperative of the second person is simply the present
principal part of the verb with no pronoun subject expressed: go, eat, read,
study, be. The Greek third person imperative may be translated with the
English phrase let him (her, it, them) do X.
2. Formation of Imperative
a. Thematic Verbs. Imperatival personal endings (mainly distinct from

those of the other moods) are added to the present stem plus theme vowel 0/ E
and to the strong aorist stem plus theme vowel 0/ E or to the weak aorist stem
plus tense vowel a (and for a few verbs directly to the middle/passive perfect
stem with no intervening vowel). For the active the imper2.tival personal end-
ings are: - , -TW, (-TOV, -TWV,) -TE, -VTWV; for the middle/passive, -(cr)o,
-crew, (-creov, -crew V,) -creE, -crew V. The second person singular weak aorist
forms have anomalous endings: -ov in the active, -at in the middle. The
accentuation of the imperative is normally recessive, but strong aorist middle
-ov from -E(cr)O (with accent on theme vowel) is an exception (cf. accentuation
of strong aorist info and part.: UI9.4a, U26.1a).
Note that the third plural active imperatives happen to be identical in
form to the masc.lneuter gen. pI. of the active participle. Note the difference in
accent and meaning between (3ovAEVcrOV (2nd sing. aor. act. imper.) and (3ov-
AEVcrOV (neuter nom.lacc. sing. fut. act. part.); also between (3ovAEvcrat (2nd
308
Imperative Mood 309
sing. aor. mid. imper.), povAE'i)rrat (aor. act. inf.), and j3ovAd)rrat (3rd sing.
aor. act. opt.). 1
PRESENT ACTIVE IMPERATIVE
f3ovlv::uw 7roLEw
.,
opaw 071t..OW
,
sing. 2nd {30VAEVE 7TOLH opa O~AOV
3rd f30VAEVETw 7TOLtLTW OpQ.TW 071AOVTW
(dual 2nd (30VAEVETOV 7TOLELTOV
. ~
opaTov °71A01ITOV)
(3rd (30VAEVETWV 7TOLEiTWV OpQ.TWV °71AOVTWV)
plur. 2nd {30VAEVEH 7TOLELH OPQH °71 AOVH
3rd {30VAEVOVTWV 7TOWVVTWV OPWVTWV °71AOVVTwv
PRESENT MIDDLE/PASSIVE IMPERATIVE
{30VAEvw 7TOLEW opQ.w °71 AOW
sing. 2nd {30VAEVOV 2 7TOWV opw °71 AOV

3rd {3ovAEVEa-ew 7TOLtLrr()w 0pQ.rr()w °71Aovrr()w
(dual 2nd (3ovAEvErr()ov 7ToLELrr()ov °PQrr()ov °71Aovrr()ov)
(3rd (3ovAEvErr()wv 7TOLE irr()wv 0pQ.rr()wv °71Aovrr()wv)
plur. 2nd {3ovAEvErr()E 7ToLELrr()E °PQrr()E °71Aovrr()E
3rd {3ovAEVErr()wv 7TOLE irr()wv 0pQ.rr()wv °71Aovrr()wv
STRONG AND WEAK AORIST IMPERATIVES
AEi7TW {30VAEvw
active middle active middle
sing. 2nd Ai7TE AL7TOV {3ovAEVrrov {3ovAEVrraL

3rd AL7TETW AL7TErr()w {3ovAEVrrQ.Tw {3ovAEVrrQ.rr()w
(dual 2nd Ai7TETOV Ai7TEIT()OV (3ovAEvrraTov (3ovAEvrrarr()ov)
(3rd AL7TETWV AL7TErr()wv (3ovAEVrrQ.Twv povAEVrrQ.rr()wv)
plur. 2nd Ai7TEH Ai 7Tf.(r()E {3ovAEvrraH {3ovAEvrrarr()E
3rd AL7TOVTWV AL7TErr()wv {3ovAEVrrQ.vTwv {3ovAEVrrQ.rr()wv
1. In a verb with monosyllabic stem, these distinctions may be partially or totally lost: e.g.,
7rEJl"'aL (imper., inf., and opt.); AVCTaL (imper. and inf.) vs. AVCTaL (opt.).
2. The 2nd sing. middle forms are based on POVAf:Vf:CTO, 7rOLEfCTO, Opaf:CTO, lrqAOfCTo.
310 UNIT FORTY
Perfect imperatives: the only simple perfect imperative forms found in

Attic l are the second and third singular middle/passive (e.g., p..~p..v.,.,a-o.
p..Ep..vrya-eW) and the second plural middle/passive (e.g., p..~p..v.,.,a-eE). But peri-
phrastic perfect imperatives may be formed in both active and middle/passive
by using the perfect participle with the present imperative of ELp..i (presented in
§4 below): e.g., AEAVKW') La-et. f3E(:30VAEVp..~VO') La-et.
b. Athematic Verbs. Imperatival personal endings (the same as for the-

matic verbs except in the second singular active) are added directly to the tense
stem, which normally displays its short-vowel form. The second singular
active in some verbs has the personal ending -et, in some verbs has -,), and in
the present of the major p..t-verbs is formed by the addition of E, which
contracts with the stem vowel (the E is a borrowing from the w-verbs, as in the
sing. act. imperfect forms).
PRESENT IMPERATIVES (MI-VERBS)
~- --------
TiOY/}J-L OiOW}J-L
active mid./pass. active mid./pa.l's.
-------~
sing. 2nd TiOEt TiOHTO oioov oioolJ"o

3rd nOETw nOEIJ"OW OLOOTW OLOOIJ"OW
(dual 2nd TiOnov TiOEIJ"OOV OiOOTOV oioolJ"Oov)
(3rd nOi.Twv nOEIJ"OWV OLOOTWV OLOOIJ"8wv)
plur. 2nd Ti8ETE Ti8EIJ"8E OiOOTE oioolJ"8E
3rd nOEvTwv n8EIJ"8wv OLOOVTWV OLOOlJ"8wv
-----
LIJ"Ty/}.I.L
active mid./pass.
sing. 2nd "LIJ"Ty/ "LIJ"TalJ"O

3rd LIJ"TaTW LIJ"TalJ"8w
(dual 2nd LIJ"TaTOV LIJ"TaIJ"80v)
(3rd LIJ"TaTWV LIJ"Ta1J"8wv)
plur. 2nd "LIJ"Tan LIJ"TalJ"8E
3rd LIJ"TaVTWV LIJ"TalJ"OWV
I. Outside of Attic one finds. very rarely. perfect active forms like AiAvKE. AEAvKfTW.
AEAvKETE.
Imperative Mood 311
AORIST IMPERATIVES (MI-VERBS)

----------
Tt()TJIlL OtOwllL "LITTTJIlL
active middle active middle active
s. 2nd ()E, ()ov 00, oov ITTfj()L

,
3rd ()hw ()EIT()W OOTW OOIT()w ITTTJTW
(d. 2nd ()hov ()EIT()OV OOTOV OOIT()ov ITTfjTOV)
(3rd ()hwv ()EIT()WV OOTWV OOIT()wv ITT~TWV)
pI. 2nd ()ETf. ()EIT()f. 00Tf. OOIT()f. ITTfjTf.
,
3rd ()EVTWV ()EIT()WV OOVTWV OOIT()wv ITTaVTWV
The aorist passive, being an athematic tense, is treated in the same way as the
J.lt-verbs; the second singular active has the ending -Ot, which is changed to -Tt
after tense suffix -81]- in first (weak) aorist passives (by Grassmann's law).
AORIST PASSIVE IMPERATIVE
~------ --------- - - -
cpatvw AVW
strong aor. pass. weak aor. pass.
sing. 2nd cpaVTJ()L AV()TJTL

3rd cpav~Tw AV()~TW
(dual 2nd cpavTJTOv AV()TJTOV)

(3rd cpav~Twv AV()~TWV )
plur. 2nd cpavTJTf. AV()TJTf.

3rd cpavEvTwv AV()i.VTwV
3. Other J.lt- Verb Imperatives and Irregular Imperatives. Other J.lt-verbs

are treated similarly, but again there is variation in the second singular active
ending. In addition, the third plural active ending is reduced to -TwV when
added to a stem ending in sigma (f./pi and oLoa).
EiJ.li: La-Ot, EITTW. (EITTOV. EITTWV.) EITTE. EITTWV
ELJ.lt: Let. LTW. (LTOV. LTWV.) LTE. iOVTWV
L1]J.lt: (like Ti01]J.lt) pres. act. LEt. LETw, etc.; pres. mid./pass. LEITo. LEITOW,
etc.; aor. act. (in prose, compounds only) a<jlE~. Q.<jlETw, etc.; aor. mid.
Q.<jlov. Q.<jlEITOW, etc.
<jl1]J.li: <jlaOt or <jlaOi. <jlaTw. (<jlaTOv. <jlaTwv,) <jlaTE. <jlavTwv
OELKVVJ.lt: act. oEiKVV. OEtKV1JTw, etc.; mid./pass. OEiKVVITO. OEtKV1)ITOW,
etc.
yt YVWITKW: (aor.) yvwOt, YVWTW, (YVWTOV, YVWTWV.) YVWTE. YVOVTWV
ovw: (aor.) oV8t, OliTW, (OVTOV, OVTWV,) OVTE, OVVTWV
312 UNIT FORTY
(3ULVW: (aor.) i:3i}8t (in compounds also -(30.), j3ryTw, ((3~TOV, j3ryTWV,)
j3~TE, j3avTwv
hrL(JTajlut: 2nd s. both E7TL(JTa(Jo and E7TL(JTw, otherwise like mid./pass.
of Z(JT1)jlL
olou: L(Jet, I L(JTW, (L(JTOV, L(JTWV,) L(JTE, L(JTWV
Two other verbs have irregular second singular aorist active imperative forms:
EXW (E(JXOV) yields (JXEs, and 7TLVW (E7TtOV) yields 7T'ieL
Five strong aorists show exceptional accentuation in the second singular
active. Instead of the usual recessive accentuation, the theme vowel E is
accented (as in 2nd aor. inf., part., and 2nd sing. mid./pass. imper.): thus, Ei7TE,
iOE (from Eloov), EME, EVPE, AUj3E.
4. Accentuation of Imperatives of Compounds

a. Compounds of the five strong aorists with non-recessive accentuation
do have recessive accentuation: e.g., KaTH7TE, a7TEAeE.
b. Since the accent of a verb cannot precede the first preverb element, a
double compound form of a monosyllabic imperative is accented on P
even if U is short (e.g., (JVVEKOO~ from (JVV-EK-l!iOWjlt).
c. When a prepositional prefix is disyllabic, the compound form of a
monosyllabic imperative is accented on P even if U is short: e.g.,
7TEpLeE~, a7Tooo~.
d. The accentuation of the second singular strong aorist middle imper-
ative of thematic verbs is retained in compounds: e.g., (3UAOV, 7TUpU-
(3UAOV. But in the case of monosyllabic second singular aorist middle
imperatives of the major jlt-verbs, the simple-verb accent is retained with
a monosyllabic prepositional prefix, but recessive accent is found with a
disyllabic prepositional prefix: thus, from oov (oiowjld 7TPOOOV but
a7Tooov; from -ov (ZY]}ld acpov but from eov (Tie1)jlt) 7TEpLeOV.
5. Aspect in the Imperative. As for the other non-indicative moods, the

tense stems in the imperative convey distinctions of aspect rather than of time.
The present refers to an action viewed as attempted, continuous, repeated, or
customary. The aorist refers to an action viewed as unique or instantaneous.
The perfect, which is rare, refers to an action viewed as having a permanent
result.
Ex. Tijlu TOV 7TUTEPU (Jov. Honor thy father.
[stated as a general principle]
(3aAE TOV 7TOV1)pOV. Stone the wretch (right now).
I. 2nd sing. imper. of ELIlL and o('oa are identical; the context makes clear which is meant.
Imperative Mood 313
ELp1]jJ.EVOV E(J"TW. Let it be said.

[implying that the statement is permanently available as public
knowledge]
6. Negation of the Imperative. The negative with the imperative mood is

jJ..,]. But the aorist imperative is very rarely negated (in prose the third person is
found negated a few times, and the second person is found negated only a few
times in poetry). A negative command (prohibition) with aorist aspect is nor-
mally expressed by the aorist subjunctive of prohibition (U31.3b); one with
present aspect is expressed by the imperative.
" , I
Ex. jJ.1] TV7rTE TOV 7raTEpa. Don't (ever) strike your father!
jJ.~ 'f!EVOfj AEYE. Don't (ever) tel/lies.
, I , I
jJ.1] 7ra~(J"Tl'> TOV 7raTEpa. Don't (right now) strike your father!
jJ. ~ d7rTl'> 'f!EVOfj. Don't (on this occasion) tel/lies.
I. Study the conjugational patterns of the imperative mood.

VOCABULARY
number adjectives
OtaKC)(TtOt, OtaKOITtat, two hundred
OtaKOITta
TptaKOITWt, -at, -a three hundred
HTpaKOITWt, -at, -a four hundred
7rEVTaKOITWt, -at, -a five hundred
f.taKOITWt, -at, -a six hundred
f.7rTaKOITWt, -at, -a seven hundred
OKTaKOITWt, -at, -a eight hundred
, ,
EVaKOITWt, -at, -a nine hundred
Xit...Wt, Xit...tat, Xit... ta a thousand [kilometer, kilobyte I
otITXit...Wt, two thousand,
TPtITXit...Wt, etc. three thousand, etc.
Xtt...t(is-, Xtt...taoo" f. a group of 1,000; a large number
, , ,
jJ.vpw<;, jJ.vpta, jJ.vpWV numberless, countless
jJ.vPWt, -at, -a (note ten thousand
different position of
accent)
jJ.vpta" jJ.vptaoo" f. a group of 10,000; a countless number [myriad]
314 UNIT FORTY
other adjectives
aA.A.c)TpWC;, aA.AoTpLa, belonging to another; foreign; hostile, ill-disposed
aA.A.c)TpWV
avopELoC;, avopELa, avopELoV manly, courageous [Andrew]
YVIlVOC;, YVIlV~, YVilVOV naked; unarmed [gymnosperm, gymnosophist]
OELA.OC;, OELA.~, OELA.OV cowardly; miserable, wretched
EA.EVeEpOC;, EA.EVeEpa, free; characteristic of a freeman
EA.EVeEpOV
dJpvc;, EvpELa, EVPV wide, broad [eurygnathous]
'"
EVP0C;, "
EVPOVC;, n. width, breadth
EVCTEj3~C;, EVCTEj3EC; pious, dutiful (toward the gods or one's elders); holy
aCTEj3~c;, aCTEj3E'> ungodly, unholy
OVCTCTEj3~,>, OVCTCTEj3E'> (mainly poetic) impious, unholy
epaCTv,>, epaCTELa, epaCTv bold, rash, audacious
LOW'>, iOLa, LOWV pertaining to oneself; private, personal; separate,
distinct [idiom, idiograph]
iKavo'>, iKav~, iKavov sufficient, competent; suitable, adequate
IlECTO'>, IlECTy/, IlECTOV middle, in the middle; moderate [mesolithic]
IlOVO'>, IlOVy/, IlOVOV alone; only, single (used in predicate position)
[monotone, monarchy]
IlOVOV (adv. acc.) only, solely
VEO'>, vEa, VEOV young; new; unexpected, strange [neolithic,
neologism]
tEVO'>, tEVy/, tEVOV foreign; strange, unusual [xenophobia]
tEVO'>, -ov, m. foreigner; guest-friend; host of guest-friend
oLo'> TE, OLa TE, oLov TE fit, able, possible (+ inf.)
011.0'>, OA.y/, OA.OV whole, entire [holography]
0llOW'>, oiloLa, 0llOWV like, similar, resembling (+ dat.) [homeopathy]
7Taxv,>, 7TaXELa, 7Taxv thick, stout [pachyderm)
Tpaxv'>, TpaXELa, Tpaxv rugged, rough [trachodon, trachyte]
verbs
EPya.(ollaL, EPya.CTollaL, work; work at, make; do, perform
, , "
Y/pyaCTaily/v, ELpyaCTIlaL,
~pya.CTey/V 1
7TaLW, 7Ta LCTW , E7TaLCTa, strike, beat
7TE7TaLKa, (E7TaLCTey/V rare)
CTEj30llaL (active CTEPW feel awe (before the gods); revere, worship, honor
mainly poetic)
I. The augment of this verb is sometimes found in the spell ing dpy- rather than ~py-.
Imperative Mood 315
Ei)(J"E PEW live or act piously

QIYEPEW live or act impiously; sin against
, , t. "
TtKTW, TEC;O}.J.aL, ETEKOV, (of father) beget, sire; (of mother) bring into the
,
TETOKa world, give birth to; (in general) bear, produce,
generate [tocodynamometer]
, ,
o TEKWV father, parent
CPVW, CPVIYW, EcpVIYa, intrans. (pres., fut., weak aor. active) produce, make grow;
aor. ECPVV, 7l"EcpVKa I beget; (pres. passive, intrans. strong aor., intrans.
perfect) grow, be begotten, be born; (perfect with
present meaning) be by nature, be by nature prone
to (+ inf.) [physics, physiology]
xaipW, xaLp~IYW, KEXapy/Ka, rejoice, be glad, delight in (+ dat. or + suppl.
EXapy/V [intrans.] participle)
EXERCISES
I. Identify completely the following verb forms.

1. TEeEta"UL 12. KEKTwvTaL 23. f3 OVAE f)(J"UL
2. ~a-eiWE(J-eE 13. Aaew 24. 7fE7fELpaKaCTL
' ,
3. 7fat(Jov 14. Eppvrwav 25. VLK-r](TELa~
4. paYEiY}~ 15. POVAE1)(JE(JeE 26. c1.yayov
5. KpLeY}(J()}J-EVO~ 16. }J-v-r](JeY}TL 27. c1.7faTWVTWv
6. opa}J-o'iTo 17. oLwtaTw 28. KaTaAL7fE
7. O}J-OAOyy}eEV 18. (JK07fELTE 29. (JKEta(JeE
' , 19. 30.
8. ELpya(J}J-wa XatpE 7fE7faVKOTL
9. c1.7fOAapE 20. El)(JEPEL 31. EAY}AEY}J-EvaL Ei(Ji
10. TEKov(Ja 21. "L(JTE 32. KaTaeE~
11. c1.7fO(JXELV 22. w}J-OAOYY}KOTE~ 33. TETEAE(J}J-EVOV
"
E(JTWV "
E(JTW
II. Give the 2nd and 3rd pers. sing. and pI. imperatives of the following:
1. aor. act. of 7fE}J-7fW 4. aor. pass. of (J0(w
2. pres. m/p of yi yvo}J-aL 5. aor. mid. of 7fapEXW
3. pres. mJp of E7fLTieYf}J-L 6. aor. act. of c1.VaYLyvw(JKW
I. The strong aorist Ecf>VV is conjugated like EOVV. The v of the stem is generally long, but in the
present may be long or short.
316 UNIT FORTY
III. Reading: Plato, Protagoras 320c-321c (abridged): Prot agoras uses a

myth to explain to Socrates why all men are allowed to participate in political
decisions, whereas technical decisions related to skilled crafts are made only
by experts in those crafts.
ryv yap 7rOTE x.povo,,> OTE eEO~ JJ.Ev ryo-av. eV1)To. OE yEVYJ OVK ryv. E7rHO~ OE
Ka~ T01JTOL"> x.povo,,> ryA.eEV ELgapgEVO'i, }'EV&"@">. TV7rOVo-W aVTo. eEO~ yili
EVOOV EK YIJ"> Ka~ 7rVp0"> gE LtavTE"> Ka~ TWV oo-a 7rVP~ Ka~ yfl KEpaVVVTaL
E7rELO~ o· G.yEW aVTo. 7rp0"> <pw"> EJJ.EAAOV. 7rpoo-Eratav npog?]eEL Ka~
'f,7rJY.YLeEl K~o-jJ.~ai TE Ka~ vELgaL OVVaJJ.H"> EKao-TOL"> OJ"> 7rPE7rEL npOJJ.YJeEa
oE 7rapaLTELTaL 'E7rLJJ.YJeEV,,> aVTo,,> vELJJ.aL. "vELJJ.avTo,,> OE JJ.0v," E<PYJ,
"E7rLo-Kn/IUL. " Ka~ OVTW 7rELo-a"> VEJJ.H. VEJJ.WV oE TO'i,,> JJ.Ev io-xvv G.VEV TaXOV,,>
o·
7rJ2 0rLfuITDJ, TOV"> ao-eEVEO"TEpOV"> TO. xH EKOo-JJ.H· ... aTE~1r QVV OV 7La~lJ
H o-o<p0"> WV 6 'E7rLJJ.YJeEV,,> EAaeEV allTov KaTavaAwo-a,,> TO.,,> OVvaJJ.EL"> Ei"> TO.
G.Aoya· AOL7rOV O~ aKoo-g?]TOV EH aVT0 ryv TO aVepW7rWV YEVO">, Kat ry7rOPH 0
H x.prio-aLTO. a7rOpOVVH OE aVT0 EPXETaL np0JJ.YJeEV,,> E7rLo-Kn/toJJ.EVo"> T~V
vogriv. Ka~ 6p~ TO. JJ.Ev G.AAa (0a EggEAW"> 7raVTWV EXOVTa, TOV oE G.vepW7rOV
YVJJ.vov TE Ka~ aVV7rOO?]TOV Ka~ G.o-TPWTOV Ka~ G.07rAOV· ~oYJ oE Ka~ 7]
ELJJ.apJJ.EvYJ 7]JJ.Epa 7rapf]v, EV f, EOH Kat G.vepW7rOV EtLEvaL fK YIJ"> Ei"> <pW,,>.
Underlined Words
aKOUfl1]TO, -OV = unadorned, 'E7rtfl1]8d)" -EW" m. = Epimetheus
unequipped (Afterthought), brother of Prometheus
0.1..01'0" -OV = without reason (neut. pI. E7rtUKE7rTOflUt (E7rd = investi!:ate,
as substantive = brute animals) inspect
aVV7rOD1]TO" -av = without coverin!: for C4'JOv,-OV, n. = animal
the feet 8V1]TO" -ry, --av = mortal
o.07rAO" -ov = without armor KUTUVUALUKw, aor. KUTuvryAwuu =
o.UTPWTO" -ov = without beddin!: expend completely
aTE Dry = particles marking the KEpavVVflt = mix, blend
wv
participle as causal KOUflEW = adorn, equip
YEVWt" -EW" f. = birth AOt7rO" -ry, --av = remainin!:
yry, yry" f. = earth (declension: U42) flELYVVflt, aor. EflHtU = mix, combine
ELflUPflEVO" -1], -ov = fated, destined VEflw, aor. EVEtflU = distribute, apportion
(perf. pass. part. of flELPOflUt) vOflry, -r", f. = distribution
EflflEAw, EXHV + gen. = be in a suitable ovv = (particle) then, therefore, so then
condition with re!:ard to, be suitably 7ravv Tt = (adv.) very much at all
provided with 7rUpUt TEOflUt = ask as a favor (+ acc. of
EVDOV = (adv.) inside (+ gen.) person + complementary inf.)
Imperative Mood 317
np0J.lYJ8EV,. -f.W" m. = Prometheus TWV o(J"a = of those things, however

(Forethought), a cunning Titan who many are . .. (TWV here is pronominal)
functioned as a sort of "patron saint" xprwatTO with internal acc. 0 Tt = what
of mankind produces the idiom what use he could
7Tpo(J"a71"TW (7TpO,) = fasten to. bestow make of (a situation), how could he
7Tpo(J"TaTTw (7TpO,) = order, assign a cope with (a situation); the opt. here
task represents Epimetheus' s direct
7TVp. 7TVPO" n. = fire deliberative question Tt xp~(J"wJ.lat:
TV7TOW = form, mold
UNIT FORTY -ONE
Pluperfect and Future Perfect;

Irregular Perfects
I. The Greek Pluperfect. The Greek pluperfect indicative corresponds to

the Greek perfect as the Greek imperfect indicative corresponds to the Greek
present: the perfect expresses an action completed in the past with permanent
results in the present, while the pluperfect expresses an action completed in the
deeper past with permanent results over a period of time in the more recent
past. Like the imperfect, the pluperfect has only indicative forms. The Greek
pluperfect is not at all common, except in those verbs whose perfects are
regularly used with a present meaning. The English pluperfect had Xed has a
different meaning (expressing an action antecedent to another action expressed
in a past tense) and is more common. Note that in many cases the English
pluperfect is equivalent to a Greek aorist:
When they had arrived, we performed the sacrifices.
End acpiKovTO, E8vIJufJ.w.
2. Conjugation of the Pluperfect. The pluperfect active and middle/
passive indicative are formed from the perfect active and perfect middle/pas-
sive stems with augment added at the beginning of the stem and with secon-
dary personal endings.
a. Pluperfect Active Indicative. In the active the endings are mainly

based on a tense vowel E plus secondary active personal endings. In the first
and second person singular, however, the endings were originally -Ea, -Ea~,
and these endings, along with the third singular -EE, suffered contraction in
Attic. Pluperfects may be termed "first" or "second" depending on the form of
the perfect stem (with or without suffix K), but this distinction has no relevance
to the conjugation.
On the facing page are shown the pluperfect active of AVW (perfect stem
AEAVK-, augmented EAEAvK-), ayw (perfect stem T,X-, augment not apparent),
and aKovw (perfect stem aK1]KO-, augmented T,K1]KO-).
318
Pluperfect and Future Perfect; Irregular Perfects 319
PLUPERFECT ACTIVE INDICATIVE
AVW "
ayw aKOVW
1st ' ,
sing. {AEAVKTJ TJXTJ l"/KTJKOl"/
2nd ' ,
(AEAVKTJ'> 17XTJ'> l"/KTJKOTJ,>
3rd (AEAVKf.L(V) 17Xf.L(v) ryKTJKOf.L(V)
(dual 2nd (AEAVKETOV 17XETov ryKTJKOETOV)
(3rd ' ,
EAEAVKfTTJV TJXETTJV ryKTJKOfTTJV)
plur. 1st EAEAVKE}.I.f.V 17XE}.I.f.V ryKTJKOE}.I.f.V
' ,
2nd EAEAVKETf. 17XETE TJKTJKOETf.
3rd EAEAvKmav 17XEITav ryKTJKOmaV
After about 350 S.C.E. the 1st and 2nd sing. take the form EAEAVKEW, EAEAV-
KEL~(and to avoid ambiguity the 3rd sing. no longer takes nu-movable).'
b. Pluperfect Middle/Passive Indicative. In the middle/passive, the per-

sonal endings are added directly to the stem, and the same euphonic changes
observed in the perfect middle/passive (U37.6) appear in the pluperfect as
well. For all consonant stems the 3rd pI. form is periphrastic (perfect
mid./pass. part. plus imperfect of d}1i).2
PLUPERFECT MIDDLE/PASSIVE INDICATIVE
vowel stem dental plosive stem lahial plosive stem

AVW 7TELOW ypacpw
stem: AEAV- stem: 7TE7THIT- stem: ycypa7T-
' ,
sing. 1st EAEAV}.I.TJV E7TE7THIT}.I.TJV Eycypa}.l.}.I.TJv
2nd EAEAVITO E7TE7Tf.LITO EyEypa"'o
3rd EAEAVTO E7TE7Tf.LITTO EyEypa7TTo
(dual 2nd EAEAVITOOV E7TE7TwrOov EyEypacpOov)
(3rd EAEAVITOTJV E7TE7TELITOTJV EycypacpOTJv)
plur. 1st EAEAV}.I.EOa E7TE7TELIT}.I.EOa Eycypa}.l.}.I.f.Oa
2nd EAEAVITOE E7TE7Tf.LITOE EyEypacpOE
, ,
3rd EAEAVVTO 7TE7TE tIT}.I.E VOt ycypa}.l.}.I.f.VOt
9
TJITav "
TJITav
I. In postc1assical Greek. the complete conjugation uses H as tense vowel. so that the endings
are -HV. -H>. -H. -H}.I.EV. -HTE. -{LlTav.
2. Occasionally a simple 3rd pI. form is found. such as fTETUxaTO = TEmY}.I.EVOL J]lTav.
320 UNIT FORTY -ONE

,
7TpaTTw o.yyEAAw cpaivw
stem: 7TE7Tpay- stem: ~yyEA- stem: 7TEcpav-,
7TEcpau-
sing. 1st f.7TE7TpaYJlYJv ~yyEAJlYJv E7TEcpaUJlYJv

2nd f.7TE7Tpa t o ~yYEAuO
3rd f.7TE7TpaKTo ~yYEATo f.7TEcpavTo
(dual 2nd f.7TE7TpaX$OV ~yyEMov E7TEcpav$ov)
(3rd E7TE7Tpax8YJv ~yyEMYJv E7TEcpav$YJv)
plur. 1st E7TE7TpaYJlE8a ~yYEAJlE8a E7TEcpaUJlE8a
2nd E7TE7Tpax8E ~yyEME E7TEcpav8E
3rd 7TE7TpaYJlEVOL ~yyEAJlEVOL 7TEcpaUJlEVOL
"
YJCTav "
YJuav "
YJuav
3. The Future Perfect. In English the future perfect is used to refer to an

action that will be completed prior to some point in time in the future (will
have Xed). The Greek future perfect is formed from the perfect stem and
normally refers to a future state which will be the permanent result of an action
completed at an earlier point in the future.
4. Conjugation of the Future Perfect
a. Active. The future perfect active indicative (subj., opt., etc.) is nor-
mally formed periphrastically, from perfect active participle plus future
indicative (subj., opt., etc.) of Eip.L: thus, AEAVKW~ {(J"op.aL, / will have released
(strictly, / will be in the state of having released). In Attic, there are three
verbs that form a simple future perfect active, and they are all perfects
commonly used with a present meaning (so that the Greek speakers felt as if
they were forming a plain future, with -(J"w): from TEeV1]Ka, / am dead, fut.
perf. indo TEeV7}~W, I'll be dead (/ will have died); from E(J"T1]Ka, / stand, fut.
perf. opt. E(J"T7}~OL (once in Plato), and from {OLKa, / am like, fut. perf. indo
Er~W, I'll be like (once in Aristophanes).'
b. Middle/Passive. These forms too may be formed periphrastically,

from the perfect middle/passive participle plus the future of Eip.i: thus, AEAV-
p.Evo'.) {(J"op.aL, J'II have ransomed or J'II have been released (the future
perfect is more often passive in meaning than middle). But simple forms are
also found, more commonly than for the active. The suffix -(J"op.aL (inflected
I. Also, in epic KfXap-q(]"w fromxaipw and in the Syracusan dialect OfOOLK1)UW from oEooLKa.
just like future middle indicative) is added to the perfect middle stem, with
lengthening of preceding vowel if the stem ends in a short vowel or with
combination of the sigma with a final consonant of the stem.
Ex. A:VW, perfect middle stem AEAv-, future perfect middle/passive
indicative AEAV(JOjJ.W [ v I
ypacpw, perfect middle stem YEYpa7T-, future perfect middle/
passive indicative YEYpa"'ojJ.aL
The future perfect mid./pass. infinitive ends in -(Jw8aL, with accent on A. The
most frequent infinitive of this type is jJ.EjJ.v~(JE(J8aL (= will remember, corres-
ponding to present meaning of jJ.fjJ.V1]jJ.aL = I remember). Only one instance of
a future perfect mid./pass. participle is extant (l'na7TE7ToAEjJ.1](}()jJ.EVOV in Thucy-
dides).' The future perfect mid./pass. optative is extant once in Plato (KEKA~
(JOLTO, from KfKA1]jJ.aL, a perfect with present meaning).
5. Athematic Perfects. t(JT1]jJ.L and a few other verbs (in Attic 8Vy7(JKW
and OfOOLKa) form a perfect active athematically, that is, by adding personal
endings directly to a reduplicated stem without tense suffix or tense vowel.
The athematic forms are found mainly in the dual and plural numbers, coex-
isting with regular perfect forms; in the singular the regular perfect forms are
normal, and athematic forms are found only for ofooLKa. The athematic per-
fects are called "second," while the regular forms with K-suffix are called
"first" perfects.
a. The perfect active system Oft(JT1]jJ.L is as follows: 2

1st perf indo 2nd perf indo 1st pluperf 2ndpluperf
sing. 1st "

EU"T7]Ka Eiu"T~K7]
, ,
2nd "
EU"T7]Ka" Etu"T7]K7]"
, ,
3rd Eu"T7]Kdv) Etu"T7]KEL
' , , ,
(dual 2nd EU"T7]KaTOV EU"TaTOV EtU"T7]KETOV EU"TaTov)
' ,
(3rd Eu"T7]KaT7]V EU"TaTOV Etu"T7]KET7]V EU"TClT7]V)
' , , ,
plur. 1st Eu"T7]KajlEV "
Eu"TajlEV Etu"T7]KEjlEV "
Eu"TajlEV
, ,
2nd Eu"T~KaTE "
EU"TaTE Etu"T7]KETE "
EU"TaTE
3rd Eu"T~Kam(v) EU"TGm(v) Eiu"T~KEU"av "
EU"TaU"av
The infinitive is usually E(JTavaL (late classical E(JT1]KfvaL), the participle usu-
ally EU"TW'>, E(JTw(Ja, EU"TO'> (masc./neut. stem E(JTWT-),3 less commonly E(JT1]-
I. There are a couple of other examples in non-Attic and postclassicaI Greek.

2. There is no augment in the 2nd pluperfect ofZ(J'TTJIlL; this is a very archaic feature.
3. For declension of f(J'TWS (and H8vfWS), see Appendix 3: Paradigms.
322 UNIT FORTY -ONE
- - - - - - - -------
KW'.;, -VLa, -0'.;. In the sUbjunctive ErrT17Kw is more common than ErrTw, -fl'.;, etc.
Optative may be ErrT17Ko~/U or ErrTYJKw'.; EL'YJV (in poetry also ErrTaiYJv). Also
poetic are 2nd perfect imperative ErrTa8~, ErrT(hw, etc.
b. 8vvrrKw has first perfect stem TE8vYJK- and second perfect stem TE8va-.
In addition to the regular first perfect forms, the following second perfect
forms are found in Attic:
indicative: (dual TE8vaTov, TE8vaTov,) pI. TE8vafJ.EV, TE8vaTE, TE8vu-

rr~(v); pluperfect 3rd pI. ETE8varrav
infinitive: TE8vava~
participle: TE8vEW'.;, TE8vEwrra, TE8vEO'.; (masc./neut. stem TE8vEWT-)
optative: TE8vaiYJv, etc.
imperative: (poetic TE8va8~), TE8vaTw
c. oEoo~Ka (a perfect with present meaning, I fear) has second perfect

forms from stem OEO~-.
indicative: first perfect common in singular, rare in plural; second perfect

rare in singular (OEOW, OEOW'.;, OEO~E), common in dual and plural
(OEO~TOV, OEO~TOV, OEO~fJ.EV, OEO~TE, oEoiarrdv])
pluperfect: sing. EOEOOLKYJ, -YJ'.;, -EL common, pI. EOEOoiKErrav less com-
mon; sing. (late classical) EOEOiEW, -EL'.;, -EL; plural EOEO~fJ.EV, EOEO~TE,
EOEoiErrav or EOEo~rrav
infinitive: oEo~Eva~ more common than OEoo~KEva~
participle: OEO~W'.;, OEOwLa, OEO~O'.; more common than OEOO~KW'.;, -vLa, -0'.;
subjunctive: normally oEooiKW (oEoiw rare)
optative: not found
imperative: (rare) oEo~8~
1. Study the conjugations presented above.

VOCABULARY
nouns
o.vopa:rrooov, o.vopa7T()oov, n. war captive sold into slavery; slave
OEM, oEov" n. fear
message, order sent by messenger; letter [epistle I
()r,pa, ()r,pa'>, f. hunting, the chase

KVKAO'>, KVKAOV, m. ring, circle; wheel [cycle)
KVKACfJ (adv.) in a circle, all around
KVWV, KVVO'>, m. or f. 1 dog; shameless creature [cynic, cynosure)
IlfjKO'>, Ilr,KOV'>, n. length; size, greatness
vfja-o,>, vr,a-ov, f. island [Peloponnese)
ovpavo,>, ovpavov, m. heaven, the heavens, sky [Uranus]
ova-La, ova-La,>, f. property; (philosophy) being, essence, reality
o~()aAllo,>, o~()aAllov,m. eye [ophthalmologist)
7TVP, 7TVPO'>, n. 2 fire [pyromaniac, pyrite, empyrean]
a-7TOVOr" a-7TOVOfj,>, f. haste, speed; trouble, effort; regard, esteem, good
will
crxOAr" crxOAfj,>, f. leisure, rest; talk which occupies one's leisure,
learned discussion [school, scholastic]
crxOAfi (adv.) in a leisurely way; scarcely, not at all
a-wlla, a-wllaTo'>, n. body; person [psychosomatic, chromosome I
Tvpavvo,>, Tvpavvov, m. absolute ruler, tyrant [tyrannosaurus]
adjectives
apLa-TEpo'>, apLa-TEpa, on the left, left; ominous
apLa-TEpoV
apLa-TEpa, -a,>, f. left hand
Of:tLO'>, Of:tLa, Of:tLOV on the right; fortunate; dexterous, skillful, clever
Of:tLa, -a,>, f. right hand
EvavTLo,>, EvavTLa, EvavTLov opposite, opposing
oi EvavTLoL the adversary, the enemy
E7TL Tr,OHO'>, E7TL T1]Of: La, made for a purpose, suitable; useful, necessary
E7TLTr,OHOV
TO. E7TL Tr,OHa provisions
fcrxaTO'>, EcrxaT1], fa-XaTOv farthest, extreme, utmost, last [eschatology]
ETOLIlO'>, ETOLIl1], ETOLIlOV ready, prepared
()avllaa-w,>, ()avllaa-La, wonderful, marvelous, admirable
()avllG.a-wv
()avllaa-To,>, ()avllaa-Tr" wonderful, marvelous, admirable
()avlla(J"TOV
, I , 1
VyL 1]'>, vyLf:'> healthy, sound; (of statements or persons) wise, good
V",1]AO'>, V",1]Ar" V",1]AOV high, lofty [hypsography, hypsicephalic)
~o!3f:PO'>, ~o!3f:PG., ~of3f:pOV causing fear, fearful; regarded with fear or dread
I. Vocative KVOV, dat. pI. KVIT[(V).

2. This word is not found in the plural.
324 UNIT FORTY -ONE
verbs
aAAaTTW, aAAa~W, ij'\'\a~a, change, alter; exchange (+ gen. of thing received in
ijAAaxa, ij'\'\aY}J-aL, return); (mid.) take in exchange (+ gen. of thing
~'\'\aXe1JV and ~AAaY1JV 1 given in return) [allagitel
OEOOLKa or OEOLa (perfects fear
with present meaning).
(poetic fut. OELU"o}J-aL).
(oELU"a
(OLKa (perf. with present be like, look like (+ dat.); seem likely, seem probable
meaning). fut. (perf.) Er~w2 (+ inf.)
u"TEAAW. (poetic u"TEAEW). make ready. fit out; send. dispatch
(U"TELAa, -Eu"TQAKa,
(U"TQA}J-aL, EU"TaA1JV
E7TLU"TEAAW (hTd send a message; order. command (+ dat. or acc. +
inf.)
EXERCISES
I. Identify each fonn completely.

1.
2.
.
r,8poiKHTaV
,
W}J.W}J.OKEL
8. EOEOELtO
9. OEooLKEvaL
15.
16.
YVwf3L
Ef3Ef3ry K17
3. aAAat, rw8E 10. E7wTTaAKvLav 17. EA17Avf3EvaL
4. 7rE7ravU"o}J.aL 11. acpELvaL 18. "
EOLKa~
" ' ,
5. ELpyau"To 12. a7rLWaL 19. KEKAryO"ETaL
, ,
6. YEYpajJ.}J.Eva 13. TE8va}J.Ev 20. YEYv}J.vaU"}J.waL
7. 1]AY,AEyKTO 14. aq)E(TTaVaL EO"ovTaL
II. Write the following Greek fonns.

1. masc. s. gen. pres. act. part. of cpaivw
2. 2nd s. aor. mid. subj. of iJ7rLU"xvEo}J.aL
3. perf. mJp info of opaw
4. fern. dat. pI. perf. mJp part. of TE}J.VW
5. 1st pI. pres. act. opt. of TEAEW
6. 3rd S. pluperf. act. indo of O"VVTif317}J.L
7. neut. S. nom. aor. pass. part. 0 f pL7rTW
"
8. 2nd pI. fut. act. opt. of OLQo"KEOQ.VVV}J.L
I. Non-Attic ciMQ.uuw.
2. In poetry an athematic I st pI. fonn EOtY/lW is found, and in poetry and prose the 3rd pI. is
sometimes ELtaUt, sometimes EoLKaut. The infinitive is EOtKfVat or rarely ELKfVat; the participle
EOtKW> or EiKW>, -via, -0>. For the pluperfect one finds both fonns from EcPK1) and the 3rd S.
1/KHV.
9. aor. pass. info of TrpooiowJ1.~

10. masc. pI. acc. fut. act. part. of TrOAEJ1.EW
11. 1st S. aor. act. opt. ofEJ1.TriJ1.TrA1]J1.~
12. fern. S. dat. pres. mJp part. of OpxEOJ1.a~
13. 2nd S. pluperf. act. indo of aJ1.apTCww
14. 1st pI. fut. perf. mJp indo of J1.~J1.Vry(J"KW
15. 3rd pI. pluperf. act. indo of oEoo~Ka
16. 2nd pI. pluperf. mJp indo of paAAw
17. 1st S. pluperf. m/p indo of apTra(w
18. 3rd S. pres. act. imperat. of E7I"L(J"TEAAW
19. 3rd pI. neuter pluperf. m/p indo of ayyEAAw
20. aor. mid. inf. of KOTrTW
III. Render into Greek. l
(l) In response to [= with regard to] these things Xenophon stood up and
spoke on behalf of the soldiers: (2) "We have come, gentlemen of the
embassy, having with difficulty saved our bodies and our arms. (3) For it was
not possible to carry our possessions and to fight the enemy at the same time.
(4) And wherever we go and do not have a marketplace, we take what is
necessary, not in arrogance [use dat. of manner] but by necessity."
IV. Reading: Plato, Protagoras 32 1c-322b (abridged; continued from U40).
a Tr-02_ig. ovv CLX.O}J.Q'9~ 0 npOJ1.1]eEV~ ryvTLva (J"wT1]piav T0 avepw7I"<-,?
EVPO~, KAETrTH 'Hpai(J"Tov Kat. 'Aevva~ Tr]V EVTEXVOV (J"o</>iav (J"vv Trvpi-
aMuxavov yap -ryv avEV TrVPO~ alJTr]V KTVTUV T'{J ~ XP'I](J"iMVV YEVE(J"ea~-Kat.
OVTW o~ ~WPELTa.l aVepWTr'{J. T~V J1.EV ovv TrEPt. TOV f3iov (J"o</>iav aVepWTrO~
TaVT'[1 E(J"XEV, T~V OE TrOA~TLK!7V OUK ElXEV' -ryv yap Trap a T0 t:.Li . ... ETrHO~
OE 0 aVepWTrO~ eE ia~ J1.ETE(J"XE J1.oipa~, TrpWTOV J1.EV o~a T~V TOV eEOV
1L'lln.fIJELaV Gi(~JV J1.0VOV eEOV~ EVOJ1.~(J"EV, Kat. ETrEXEipH !3wMov~ TE iOpVE(J"ea~
Kat. ayaAMam eEWV' ETrHTa </>WV~V Kat. OVOJ1.am Taxv O~npepW(J"aTO Tfl
TEXVTI, Kat. OiKU(J"H~ Kat. E(J"eilTa~ Kat. iJ7l"OOE(J"H~ Kat. (J"TPWMVa~ Kat. Ta~ EK yfu
~£ 1]VPETO. OVTW O~ TrapE(J"KEva(J"J1.EVO~ KaT' apXa~ aVepWTrO~ 0KOVV
(J"TrOpaOnV, TrOAH~ OE OUK -ry(J"av' aTrWAAVVTO OVV 1mo TWV e1]piwv O~a TO
TraVTaxfl aUTWV a(J"eEVE(J"TEpO~ Elva~, Kat. iJ OrzMWVpy~Kr, TEXV1] aUTOL~ TrpO~
J1.EV TPO</>~V tKaV~ QQ1JeO~ ryv. TrPO~ OE TOV TWV e1]piwv TrOAEJ1.0V h;OEU~
TrOA~TLK~V yap TEXvrW OVTrW Elxov. ~~ J1.EpO~ TrOAE}J.LKU - E(ryTOVV O~
aepOi(E(J"ea~ Kat. (J"0(E(J"ea~ KTi(OVTE~ TrOAE~~' OT' OVV aepOWeELEV. -ryOiKOVV
aAAryAov~ ~TE OUK EXOVTE~ T~V TrOA~TLK~V TEXV1]V. W(J"TE TraAW (J"KEOav-
VVJ1.EVO~ O~E</>eEipoVTO.
I. Note to instructor: loosely based on Allah. 5.5.13 and 16.

326 UNIT FORTY -ONE
Underlined Words
ayailp.a, -flaTo~, n. = statue, image "H<paw"To~, -av, m. = Hephaestus, god
'A8r/Vu, -a~, f. = Athena, goddess of of fire and metallurgy
wisdom and crafts (declension: U42) 8ELO~, -a, -ov = divine, godly
aflr]XaVO~, -av = impossible tOpvw = establish; (mid.)found, dedicate
a7ropia, -a~, f. = pu-;.-;.lement, KTy/TO~, -r], -Ov = capable of being
uncertainty what to do acquired or possessed
aTE = particle marking the participle KTi(w = found, establish
EXOVTfS as causal O;:KYJ(J"L~, -EW~, f. = dwelling
(3oy/8o~, -ov = (adj. as substantive) ovv = (postpositive particle) therefore,
assistant, helper then
(3wflo~, -av, m. = altar OV7rW = not yet
yr" yi7~, f. = earth (declension: U42) 7rOAEflLKO~, -r], -ov = related to war
oy/flWVPYLKO~, -r], -Ov = pertaining to 7rOALHKO~, -r], -ov = political
the crafts (J"7ropaoy/v = (adv.) scattered here and
owp8pow (ow) = divide up by joints, there
articulate (J"TpwflVr], -i7~, f. = bedding
6.Li = dat. of Zd)~, 6.LO~, m., Zeus, the (J"VYYEVEW, -a~, f. = kinship
chief god (J"XOflEVO~: recall that EXW is the only
owpEoflaL = make a gift, give a gift verb in Attic prose whose aorist
EVOEr]~, -E~ = lacking, deficient "middle" form can be used as a
EVTEXVO~, -av = artistic, relating to passive (UI9.6)
craftsmanship TP0<Pr], -i7~, f. = nourishment
E(JBr]~, f.(JBi7TO~, f. = clothing iJ7rOOE(J"L~, -EW~, f. = footwear
(<tJOv, -av, n. = animal XPr](J"LflO~, -71, -ov = useful
UNIT FORTY-TWO
Contract-Vowel Declension; Attic

Declension; Verbal Adjectives in -T6~
and -TEO~
1. O-Declension Nouns with Contraction. A few o-declension nouns

have stems ending in -00- or -W-, and these suffer contraction in Attic. The
relevant contractions are as follows:
0+0 -> OV (sp.) 0+ OV (sp.) -> OV (sp.) o+w ->w
o+'r ->'r 0+ E -> OV (sp.) 0+ OL ->OL
E+O -> OV (sp.) E + OV -> OV (sp.) E+W ->w

E+'r ->'r E + OL ->OL E+a ->ii
The accentuation is in general in accordance with the rule given in U 13.2. But
compounds retain the accentuation of the nominative throughout (e.g., 7TEpi-
7TAOV despite uncontracted 7TEPL7TAOOV), and the nom. acc. voc. dual of uncom-
pounded words has acute (e.g., vw instead of vw from vow).
,
Ex. uncontracted: voos 7rEpi 7rI\oOS KavEOv
"mind" "voyage around" "basket"
sing. nom. vovs 7rEpi7r AOvS Kavovv

!?en. vov 7rEpi7r Aov Kavov
dat. vijJ 7rEpi 7r Acp KavijJ
acc. vovv 7rEpi7r Aovv Kavovv
voc. vov 7rEpi7r AOv Kavovv
(dual n. a. v. vw 7rEpi7rAw Kavw)
(g. d. VOLV 7rEpi7r AOw KavoLv)
plur. n. v. VOL 7rEpi7r Aot Kava.
gen. vwv 7rEpi7r Awv Kavwv
dat. VOLS 7rEpi7r AotS KavoLS
acc. vovs 7rEpi7r AOvs Kava.
327
328 UNIT FORTY -TWO
2. A-Declension Nouns with Contraction. A few a-declension nouns

have stems ending in -Ea- or -aa-, and these suffer contraction in Attic. In all
of the contractions in these nouns, the E or a is simply absorbed in the
following vowel, and the endings turn out to be exactly the same as for
uncontracted a-declension nouns, except that all forms have circumflex accent
on the ending. Some contract nouns are also exceptions to the general rule
about the treatment of original long alpha in Attic (e.g., (}VKE1] has 1] after E,
p..vaa has a after a).
Ex.
, ,
uncontracted: (}VKET/ p.vaa 'EpP.ET/'
"earth" "fig tree" "mina" "Hermes"
sing. nom. yf] (}VKf] p.vu 'Epp.f],

gen. yf], (J"VKf], p.vu, 'Epp.ov
dat. yfJ (J"VKfJ p.vq. 'Epp.fJ
acc. yf]v (J"VKf]V p.vuv 'Epp.f]v
voc. yf] (J"VKf] p.vu 'Epp.f]
(dual n. a. v. (J"VKU p.vu 'Epp.u)
(g. d. (J"vKa'iv p.va'iv 'Epp.a'iv)
plUTo n. v. (J"vKa'i p.va'i 'Epp.a'i
gen. (J"VKWV p.vwv 'Epp.wv
dat. (J"vKa'i, p.va'i, 'Epp.a'i,
acc. (J"VKU, p.vu, 'Epp.u,
3. Contract Adjectives. Most vowel-declension adjectives with mascu-

line stem in -EO- or -00- have contracted inflection. The masculine and neuter
are like contract o-declension nouns, and the fern. is like contract a-declension
nouns (stems in -00- form the feminine from a stem in -Ea- rather than from
the expected -oa-). Regardless of the accentuation of the uncontracted form of
the adjective, the contracted forms of a simple adjective have circumflex on U
in all cases and numbers (except acute on nom. acc. voc. dual masc. and
neuter); contracted forms of compound adjectives retain the accentuation of
the nom. sing. throughout (e.g., EVVOV" EVVOV, etc.).
As an example, the declension of x.pV(}OV" golden (uncontracted x.pV(}E-
0" x.pV(}Ea, x.pV(}EOV) is shown at the top of the next page. The same pattern
applies to apyvpEO" "of silver," contracted apyvpov" apyvpu, apyvpovv,
except that the fern. singular has alpha instead of eta (apyvpu, apyvpu"
apyvpq, apyvpuv). Note also that in compound adjectives, the neuter plural
nom. acc. ends in -oa without contraction (e.g., Evvoa, a:rrA-Oa).
Contract and Attic Declensions; Verbal Adjectives in -TOS' and -TEOS' 329
CONTRACT-DECLENSION ADJECTIVE
masc. fern. neuter
sing. n. v. xpv(J"ov> xpv(J"TJ xpv(J"ovv

gen. xpv(J"ov xpv(J"TJ> xpv(J"ov
dat. xpv(J"ip xpv(J"Tl xpv(J"ip
acc. xpv(J"ovv xpv(J"TJV xpv(J"ovv
,
(dual n. a. v. XPV(J"W xpv(J"u xpv(J"w)
(g. d. xpv(J"OI.V xpv(J"al.v xpv(J"Ol.v)
plur. n. v. xpv(J"OI. xpv(J"al. xpv(J"u
gen. xpv(J"wv xpv(J"wv xpv(J"wv
dat. xpv(J"OI.> xpv(J"al.> xpv(J"OI.>
acc. xpv(J"ov> xpv(J"u> xpv(J"u
4. Attic Declension. A few nouns in Attic have nom. sing. in -Ewe;; and
have the vowel omega in all endings, replacing the 0 or ov found in regular 0-
declension nouns. The -Ewe;; ending is the product of quantitative metathesis (as
seen in Attic also in 7ToAEwe;; for 7TOAYfOe;; and vEwe;; for vYfoe;; [from vave;;]).
Declension of this kind was termed "Attic" because in Koine such nouns took
a non-Attic/Ionic form, ending in -aoe;;. The term was also applied to other
nouns showing omega in the case endings, even though these nouns are of
different origin. In both kinds of w-nouns the accent of the nominative singular
is retained in all other cases (including acute on gen. and dat. for a noun
accented on U). A paradigm showing the most common nouns of the Attic
declension is shown on the upper half of the next page .
5. Other Nouns in -we;;. There are a few other nouns which have nomi-
native in -we;;. (l) aLowe;; is a consonant-declension sigma-stem with strong-
grade vowel in nom. and normal-grade vowel in the other cases, which also
lose intervocalic sigma. No other common noun in Attic has this pattern, but it
is found in some feminine proper names, such as ~a7TCpw. AYfTW, which have
nom. in -w but are otherwise declined like aLowe;;. (2) 1Jpwe;; is also a consonant-
declension noun,l but the consonant which has disappeared is vau instead of
sigma and the long vowel omega is found throughout the declension. Among
the few other nouns declined in this way are 7T{lTpWe;; = paternal uncle and
J1~Tpwe;; = maternal uncle.
The paradigm for aLowe;; and 1Jpwe;; is shown on the lower half of the next
page.
I. The alternative gen. fonn ~pw is by assimilation to the Attic-declension pattern.

330 UNIT FORTY -TWO
ATIIC DECLENSION NOUNS
"temple" "people" "dawn") "hare"

(Doric vaoS', (Doric AaoS', (Ionic r,wS'. (epic AaywoS'.
Ionic VlIoS') Ionic AlIOS') gen. r,ovS') gen. Aaywov)
,
sing. nom. VEWS' AEwS' "
EWS' AaywS'
gen. VEW AEw EW Aayw
dat. VE<tJ AE0 "
E<tJ Aay0
aec. VEWV AEwv "
EW Aaywv
or Aayw
(dual n. a. v. VEW Aayw)
,
(g. d. VE<tJV Aay0v)
,
plur. n. v. VE<tJ, AE0 Aay0
gen. VEWV AEwV Aaywv
,
dat. VE<tJS' AE0S' Aay0S'
,
aec. VEWS' AEwS' AaywS'
NOUNS IN -{OS'
"shame" "hero"
sing. n. v. aLOwS' "

lIpwS'
gen. aLOovS' "
lIpwOS' or~pw
dat. aLooL ~PWL or ~P<tJ
acc. aLow "
lIpwa "
orllpw
(dual n. a. v. ~pwf.)
(g. d. ~pWOLV)
plur. n. v. "
lIpwES' or~pwS'
gen. ~pwwv
dat. ~pw(n(v)
ace. ~pwaS' "
or lIpwS'
6. Adjectives of the Attic Declension. A few adjectives in Attic have

masc. and neuter forms in -EM" -EWV following the pattern of the Attic-declen-
sion nouns. Again, quantitative metathesis or contraction lies behind the Attic
I. The noun "dawn" is in origin a consonant-declension (T-stem, with sigma lost between
vowels in cases other than the nom. (e.g., *~6(T0~ -> ~oi)~): but in Attic it is partly assimilated
to the omega-stem pattern. The accusative has the original consonant-declension ending (cf.
Ionic ~w from *~6a) and has not been assimilated to the w-declension ending -wv, based on 0-
declension -av. The Attic version of the noun "hare" may be viewed as a contraction of the epic
version, but the alternative accusative sing. form shows assimilation to the pattern of EW~.
Contract and Attic Declensions; Verbal Adjectives in -ro> and -rEor 331
forms. Two important examples are ZAEW" (epic ZAa.O"), propitious, and 7TAEw"
(epic 7TAEi.o,,),jull. Note retention of the original acute on A despite the long U
in the Attic form (as in 7TOAEW").
"propitious" "full"
masc./fem. neuter masc. fem. neuter
s. nom. ZAEWS' ZAEWV 7TAEWS' 7TAEii 7TAEWV

gen. ZAEW /.'AEW 7TAEW 7TAEiiS' 7TAEW
dat. ZAE<r ZAE<r 7T AE<r 7TAEq. 7TAE<r
acc. ZAEWV ZAEWV 7TAEWV 7TAEiiv 7TAEWV
(d. n. a. v. ZAEW ZAEW 7TAEW 7T AEii 7TAEW)
(g. d. ZAE<rV ZII.E<rV 7TII.E<rV 7TII.EaW 7TAE<rV)
pl. n. v. ZAE<r ZAW 7TAE<r 7T AEat 7TAEii
gen. ZAEWV ZII.EWV 7TAEWV 7TII.EWV 7TAEWV
dat. ZAE<rS' ZAE<rS' 7T II.E<rS' 7TAEatS' 7T AE<rS'
ace. ZAEWS' ZAW 7TAEWS' 7T AEiiS' 7TAEa
7. Verbal Adjectives in -T()" and -TEO". In addition to the very frequently

used participle, many Greek verbs also possess one or two less commonly
used verbal adjectives formed by the addition of the suffixes -TO", -71}, -TOV
and -TEO", -TEa., -TEov to a form of the verb stem (often the form apparent in
the aorist passive). To ascertain whether one or both of these verbal adjectives
exist for a given verb, one must consult a good Greek dictionary.
The verbal adjectives in -TO" denote possibility or are equivalent to a
perfect passive participle. I
,
Ex. KPV7TTW
, ,
-> KPV7TTO", hidden
opaw -> Opa. TO", visible
</HAEw -> </>LA1]TO", loved, capable of being loved
Verbal adjectives in -TEO", on the other hand, denote necessity.
Ex. AEyw - > AEKTEO", to be said, that must be said
7TpaTTw -> 7Tpa.KTEO", to be done, that must be done
The verbal adjective in -TEO" is only rarely used as an attributive or predicate
adjective agreeing with a noun (and then only when the corresponding verb is
transitive and governs the acc.). Its most common use is in the neuter singular
nominative (occasionally in early Attic neut. pI. nom.) in combination with
E(JTi (or with E(TTi understood) to express obligation or necessity. In this con-
1. Note that the suffix is etymologically the same as the standard suffix -(us used in the
formation of Latin past passive participles.
332 UNIT FORTY -TWO
struction the verbal adjective may govern an object in the acc., gen., or dat.
(whichever is appropriate to the corresponding verb). In either usage, the
agent, if expressed, must be put in the dative of agent without a preposition
(cf. U37.7).
personal constuction:
6 7fOTaiJ.O~ r,iJ.LV EaTL (JLaf3aTEo~.
The river is to be crossed by us.
= We must cross the river.
TO. 7fpaKTEa, the things which must be done
impersonal construction:
Tcf1 aOLKOVVTL OOTEOV OLKTlV.
The wrongdoer must pay the penalty.
[OLKTlV is acc. obj. of the verbal adj.]
r,iJ.LV (rviJ.iJ.aXOL ayaeOL. ov~ ov 7fapaOOTEa TO'i~ 'AeYJvaLoL~.
We have good allies. whom we must not surrender to the
Athenians.
TWV 7faLOLWV E7fLiJ.EATlTEOV.
One must take care of the children.
[7faLOLWV gen. obj. of the verbal adj.]
1. Study the declensional patterns presented above and the use of verbal
adjectives.
VOCABULARY
nouns
aiow,>. aioov'>, f. awe; sense of shame; respect for others
apyvpo,>. apyupov, m. silver [argyrocephalous]
yf/. yi)'>, f. earth. land, country [geology]
'EpJ.Lr,,>. 'EpJ.Lov. m. the god Hermes (Roman Mercury); herm (pillar sur-
mounted by a bust, usually with male genitals on
the pillar, set up by the door to ward off evil)
EW~, €W, f. dawn; the east [Eohippus]
ZElJ'>, gen. ~LO'> (dat. ~Li. Zeus (chief god of the Hellenic pantheon; Roman
acc. ~ia. voc. ZfV). m. Jupiter)
Contract and Attic Declensions; Verbal Adjectives in -n)f and -TfOf 333
fI ff
TJPW'. TJPWO" m. hero, i.e., an epic warrior from the Age of Heroes
and/or a cult figure with powers for good and evil
worshipped at a hero shrine or tomb
KavoVv. Kavov, n.1 basket
Aayw,. Aayw, m. hare [lagophthalmus,lagopodous]
j1vu. j1VU" f. mina (a unit of weight and currency, = 100 drachmai
= 1/60 talent)2
, , 3
VC:W,. vc:w, m. temple; inner shrine of a temple [pronaos]
vov,. vov, m.4 mind; sense; intellect [noumenal]
vovv EXC:W be sensible, be reasonable
7rP0(TEXC:W Tav vovv pay attention to (+ dat.)
7rAov,. 7rAOV, m. voyage
7rc:pL7rAov,. circumnavigation [peri plus ]
7rC:PL7rAOV, m.
(TL'OTJPO'. (TL'Or/POV, m. iron
(TVKOV. (TVKOV, n. fig [sycophant]
(TVKi]. (TVKi]" f. 5 fig tree
XaAK()" xaAKov, m. copper, bronze; weapon made of bronze
[chalcograph]
gold [chryselephantine]
adjectives
o.7rAov,. o.7rAOVV [o.7rAoo,1 not navigable; (ships) not seaworthy
U7rAov,. U7rAi]. U7rAOVV single; simple, straightforward [haplography]
IU7rAoo,1
'OL7rAov,. 'OL7rAi]. double, twofold [diploma]
'OL7r AOVV ['OL7r11.00, I
apyvpov,. apyvpu. of silver
apyvpovv lapyvpw,l
c:vvov,. c:vvovv Ic:vvoo>l well-disposed, friendly
OV(Tvov,. OV(TVOVV ill-disposed, disaffected
lov(Tvoo,1
LAc:w,. LAc:wv 6 (esp. of gods) propitious, gracious; kindly [hilarity]
7rAEw,. 7rAEa. 7rAEWV full, filled (+ gen.)
xaAKov,. xaAKi]. xaAKovv of copper, of bronze
[XaAKw>l
I. Non-Attic Kavwv.
2. See U29 Vocabulary.
3. Non-Attic vao~.
4. Non-Attic voo~.
5. Non-Attic (J"VKf.a.. (J"VKf.TJ.
6. Non-Attic Z'\a.o~.
334 UNIT FORTY-TWO
xpv~OV', xpv~~, xpV~OVV of gold

IXPV~EO,I
verbs
, I " ,
VOEW, VOYWW, EV01/~a, VEVO- perceive; apprehend; think, deem (+ inf. of indo
1/Ka, VEV01/~al, EVO~e1/V disc.); intend (+ inf.) [noetic 1
OtaVOEo~al intend, be minded to (+ inf.); think, suppose (+ inf.
of indo disc.); be disposed
adverb/particle
"
ovv (postpositive) therefore, then
EXERCISES
I. Identify each form completely.

1. EOECJlJ.l.EV 8. opaJ.l.0VVTaL
,
15. <TVyyvw8L
' ,
2. a</>E~Ta~av 9. yrwa Tf.
(J"L 16. 0J.l.wJ.l.0KEVaL
' ,
3. TETP°</>OTf.S 10. W</>EAELV 17. E7TE7TaVKYl
4. Tf.V~HJ-eaL 11. O</>EAELV 18. 7TOPEV8E L<TL
5. </>avELYlV 12. TETEAEVTYlJ.l.EVa ryv 19. VEVLKyw8aL
6. ~(Evx~aL 13. EAEY~OV 20. Eiof}Tf.
7. EpWT'{JYl 14. </>vAaKTEOS 21. OLaVOfi
II. Write the following forms in Greek.
I. 3rd pI. pres. m/p subj. of 0pyL(0J.l.aL
2. pres. act. info of OJ.l.VVJ.l.L
3. neut. pI. gen. perf. act. part. of J.l.UTEW
4. 2nd S. aor. pass. subj. of KAE1rTw
5. 1st pI. perf. m/p indo of KaTaAEL7Tw
6. masc. S. acc. aor. act. part. of (EVyvVJ.l.L
7. 3rd S. pres. act. subj. of E7noELKvvJ.l.L
8. fut. pass. info of OL<.oKW
9. fern. pI. acc. fut. pass. part. of OLOa<TKW
10. 2nd pI. aor. pass. opt. of OLaj3aAAw
II. I st sing. fut. mid. indo of a</>L<TTYlJ.l.L
12. 3rd pI. (masc.) pJuperf. m/p indo of ayvoEw
Contract and Attic Declensions; Verbal Adjectives in -nl) and -7(0) 335
III. Render into Greek. I

(1) And now, when we came to Hellenic cities, in that one, on the one
hand, (for they provided us a marketplace) we had what was necessary and, in
return for the ways in which they honored us, we aided them. (2) We hanned
their enemies, as much as we were able to, whichever enemies they themselves
led us against. (3) But these people, who you say are yours, are themselves to
blame if we have taken anything from them. (4) For they were not friendly to
us, neither receiving [deponent bfX0J.lad us within [Ero-wl nor sending a
marketplace outside [Etw I.
IV. Reading: Plato, Protagoras 322c-323a (continued from U41).
ZEV~ ovv bEio-a~ 7rEpt T0 'If VEL ~J.lC;JV J.l17 a7rOAOLTO 7rUV, 'Ep}J.'r,v 7rfJ.l7rEL
ayovTa E;S av8pw7rov~ aibw TE Kat biK1]V, Zv' ELEV 7rOAEWV KOo-gOL TE Kat
bwgot cpLAia~ o-vva~. EPWT~ ovv 'EpJ.lr,~ tlia Tiva ovv TP07rOV ooi1]
biK1]V Kat aibw aV8pW7rOL~' "7rOTEPOV W~ aL TfxvaL VEVfgrzVTaL, OVTW Kat
TaVTa~ VEiJ.lW; VEVfJ.l1]VTaL bE ~bE' Et~ EXWV iaTpLKTzv 7rOAAOL~ LKaVO~
ibLwTaL~. Kat OL aAAOL brzgwvpyoi· Kat biK1]V 017 Kat dbw OVTW ew EV TOL~
aV8pW7rOL~. i7 E7rt 7ravTa~ vEiJ.lw;" "E7rt 7ravTa~. " Ecp1] 6 ZEV~. "Kat 7f(:LVTE~
J.lETEXOVTWV· ov yap o.v YfVOWTO 7rOAEL~. Ei oAiyOL aVTwv J.lETEXOLEV Wo-7rEP
aAAwv TEXVWV' Kat VOJ.lOV 'IE 8E~ 7rap' EJ.lOV TOV J.l17 bvvaJ.lEVov aibov~ Kat
biK1]~ J.lETfXEW KTEivEW W~ VOO-OV 7rOAEW~." OVTW 01]. ~ ~WKpaTH. Kat OLa
TaVTa oZ TE aAAOL Kat' A81]vaLOL. OTaV J.lEV 7rEpt apETr,~ TEKTOVLKij~ AOyo~ i7 n
aAA1]~ nvo~ Q-rw.lQ]JjlJ/JKfu. OAiyOL~ OrOVTaL gETELvaL fLVjJ.{3ovAfu. Kat Eav n~
EKTO) WV TWV oAiywv o-VJ.lPOvAEVT!. OVK aVfXOVTaL, w)
o-v CPV)-EiKOTW). w)
Eyw cp1]J.lL-OTaV bE Ei) o-VJ.lPOvA17v 7rOALHKij) apETr,) rwo-w. 1}V bEL bLa
bLKawo-vvT/) 7ruo-av ifvaL Kat o-wCPPOo-VV1]). EiKOTW~ G.7raVTO) avopo)
aVfXOVTaL. w)7raVTt 7rpOo-r,KOV TaVT1]) 'IE J.lETfXELV Tr,) apETr,) i7 J.l17 ELvaL
7rOAEL~.
Underlined Words
G.VOP().;: gen. depending on G.viXOVTat = Ota OtKaWIJ"l)V1]'>. . . ii vat Kat
put up with (listening to) IJ"wCPPOIJ"l)V1]'> = involve justice and
Of.apl)" OtlJ")J.ov, m. = bond moderation (idiomatic phrase with
01])J.WVPYtKO,>, -1], -Ov = relating to the Our + gen. of abstract noun with verb
crafts of motion)
01])J.wvPY(J." -OV, m. = craftsman
I. Note to instructor: loosely based on Anah. 5.5.14 and 19.

336 UNIT FORTY -TWO
ELKOTW'> = reasonably (adv. fonned 7rOA.LTLKO,>, --,j, -ov = political

from participle of EOLKa) 7rOTEPOV = (adv. acc.) whether
EKTO'> = (adv. + gen.) outside of (introduces an alternative question;
LaTpLK-,j, -77'>, f. = physician's skill often, as here, not to be translated
KOO"}-tO'>, -OV, m. = arrangement, into English; here the alternative "or
organization some other way" is implied but not
KTELVW = simple fonn of G.7rOKTELVW, expressed)
kill o"v}-t/30vA.-,j, -77'>, f. = deliberation,
}-tETELVaL = info of impersonal }-tETEo"TL, debate
there is a share of{+ partitive gen. O"vvaywyo,>, -av = unifying, bringing
and dat. of possession) together
VE}-tW, aor. EVEL}-ta, perf. mJp vEVE}-tY/}-taL TEKTOVLKO'>, --,j, -av = related to
= distribute carpentry or building
APPENDIX ONE
Table of Contractions
This is a guide to the most frequent vowel contractions in Attic Greek,

applicable to contract verbs and contract nouns and adjectives.
For the distinction between "genuine" and "spurious" EL or av, see page
10, note 2, and page 11, note 2.
a+a E+a 1/ + t
a+a
a+a
} a E+a
E+1/
} 1/ 1/ + at
1/ + H gen } !l
1/+!l
a+t
a + at
} at
E +at
E+!l } !l
1/+1/
a+t
a+q. } q.
E+ E
E + EL sp } H sp
1/ + E
1/ + EL sp
} 1/
a+E E+ t
1/ + Ot } 'P
a+1/ } a E + EL gen } EL gen
O+E
a + EL sp
E+O } ov sp 0+ EL sp
OV sp
a+
a+!l
EL gen
} q. E + Ot } Ot
0+0
0+ OV sp
}
a+o
E+V } EV
0+ EL gen
a + ov sp
a+w
} W E+W
E+'P
}
}
W 0+ Ot
o+!l
} OL*
'P
a + Ot } 'P 0+1/
} W
O+W
0+'P } 'P
*NOTE: in the present and aorist subjunctive of OtOw/.I.L, 0 + !l -> 'P instead of Ot (as
if from W +!l: cf. the aorist subjunctive of ytYVWG"KW and aAtG"Kop..at).
337
APPENDIX TWO
Verb List
Advice on Learning Principal Parts. Although some Greek verbs exhibit

such irregularity in the formation of their principal parts that ad hoc memori-
zation is the only reliable method of mastery, there are several patterns of
formation that do apply to a large number of verbs. Awareness of these pat-
terns may assist students in learning the principal parts of verbs presented in
this book and in recognizing the dictionary forms of new verbs they meet in
reading. In addition to the endings shown in the following patterns, remember
that the 3rd and 6th principal parts (aorist) will of course have augment and the
4th and 5th principal parts (perfect) will of course have reduplication.
I. Vowel verbs.
Pattern: -(I), -uw, -ua, -lCa, -",a" -8T/V
Examples:
(regular) $vw, KWAVW, AVW; 7ravw; POVAEVW, 7rt(JHVW, 7rOAtHVw
(some parts lacking) pa(JtAEVw, OOVAEVW, 7r0PEVW, (JTpaHvw, lJ7r07rHVW, cpvw
Cf. also aKovw (fut. mid.; -(J$rw in aor. pass.; irreg. perfect); Kaiw (parts other than
present based on Kav-); KEAEVW (-(JJ.l.at, -(J$TfV in perf. mJp and aor. pass.); 7raiw
(-a-8Tfv in aor. pass.)
II. Verbs in -EW.

Pattern: -EW, -~(Jw, -T/(Ja, -T/lCa, -T/",a" -~OT/V
Examples:
(regular) ayvoEw, aOtKEw, aLTEw, a7r0pEW, E7rtXEtPEW, ElJEPYETEW, KaTTfYOPEW,
KpaTEw, J.l.t(JEW, VOEW, OLKEW, 0J.l.0AOyEW, 7rOtEw, 7rOAEJ.l.EW, cptAEw, WCPEAEW
(some parts lacking) a7rOAoyE0J.l.at, a(J$EvEw, POTf$EW, E7rt$VJ.l.EW, EVAapE0J.l.at,
(TfTEW, ~yEOJ.l.at, VO(JEW, 0PxE0J.l.at, 7rOAWPKEW, (JWCPPOVEW, CPOPEW
Cf. aipEw (2nd aor. ELAOV, aor. pass. -E$TfV); also verbs in which E of stem is not
lengthened to Tf: E7raWEW (Tf in perf. m/p; -E(J$TfV in aor. pass.), KaAEw (some
parts from KATf-), HAEW (-wJ.l.at, -E(J$TfV in perf. m/p and aor. pass.)
III. Verbs in -aw.

Pattern: -aw, -~(Jw, -T/CTa, -T/lCa, -T/",a" -~OT/V
or after stem ending in E, t, p:
-aw, -o'CTW lal, -aCTa, alCa, -a",a" -aOT/V la]
338
Verb List 339
Examples:
(regular) a7TaTClw. oa7Tavaw. EpwTaw. vLKaw. opp.aw. TEAwTaw. np.aw
Cf. cTLyaw (future middle)
(with ii for 7]) ainaop.aL. Eaw. 7THpaw
(some parts lacking) a7TavTaw. ~TTaop.aL. KTaop.aL. x.paw/x.paop.aL
IV. Verbs in -Ow.

Pattern: -Ow. -WCTW. -WCTa. -wlea. -wJ.LaL. -wOrw
Examples: atu)w. 07]AOW. (7]AOW
V. Verbs in -<i(w.
Pattern: -cl(w. -«CTW. -aCTa. -alea, -aCTJ.LaL. -clCTOT/V [ii in all stems]
Examples:
(regular) anp.a(w. yvp.va(w. oLKa(w. cf>pa(w
(with future middle -<iuop.aL) ap7Ta(w. Oavp.a(w. U7TOVoa(W
(perf. act. lacking) 7TapauKwa(w
VI. Verbs in -i(w.

~
Pattern: -L~W. , -LCTa. -Llea. -LCTJ.LaL. -LU
-LEW. '071v
Examples:
(regular) Kop.i(w. vop.i(w
(some parts lacking) EA7Ti(w. opyi(w/opyi(op.aL
Cf. aOpoi(w (future aOpoiuw)
VII. Labial plosive verbs.

Pattern: -7rTwl -'TrW I -</>w. -'/Iw. -'/10.. -</>0.. -1-LJ.LaL. -</>071V or 2nd aorist
-7rI7 v I -~71V I -</>71V
Examples:
(regular) j3Aa7TTw. KAf.7TTW. K07TTW. jJi7TTW; 7Tf.P.7TW. Tpf.7TW; ypacf>w. TPf.cf>w
(some parts lacking) Kp1J7TTw. UKf.7TTOp.aL. UTPf.cf>W
Cf. AEi7TW (2nd aorist; no aspiration in perfect)
VIII. Velar plosive verbs.

Pattern: -TTWI -ywi -xwi -leW. -fw. -fa, -xal -yo.. -YJ.LaL. -X071V I -Y71v
Examples:
(regular) aAAaTTw. 7TA~TTW. 7TpaTTw. TaTTw. cf>VAaTTW; UVAAEyw; apxw
(some parts lacking) OLWKW. ryKw; OtaAf.yop.aL. Af.yW. cf>ElJYw; f.Af.yXW. Evxop.aL
Cf. ayw (2nd aorist); also (with additional present-stem suffixes) acf>LKVf.op.aL.
oEiKVVP.L. OLoaUKW. OOKEW. (ElJYVVP.L. jJ~yVVP.L
IX. Dental plosive verbs.

Pattern: -Owl ~w. -(TW. -(To.. -lea. -(TJ.LaL, -(TOT/V
Examples:
(regular) 7TEiOw
(some parts missing) U7TElJOW
Cf. ryoop.aL. U7TEVOW
340 APPENDIX TWO
X. Liquid verbs. In these verbs, present-tense suffix produces double lambda or

compensatory lengthening of vowel (to aL or H or L ) before rho or nu; future has
normal vowel but epsilon-contract conjugation without sigma; aorist lacks sigma
but has compensatory lengthening (to aL or EL or L ).
Patterns: -AAW, -AEw, -'Aa, -AICa, -Ap.a" -A(}r/V
-Lvw, -vEw, -,va, -ICa, -'p.a,1 -erp.a,. -v()TJVI -VTJV
-Lpw, -PEw, -'pa, -pICa, -pp.a" -p()TJV I -pTJV
Examples (most with various irregularities): ayyEAAw. anoKTEivw. (:3aAAw (some
parts from stem (:3AYJ-), KAivw. Kpivw. jJ.EVW. (TTEAAW. cpaivw. cp8Eipw
This is an alphabetical list of the verbs learned in all the unit vocabularies
with all their principal parts. The number preceding each verb indicates the
unit in which the verb is learned; refer to that unit for full definitions. Principal
parts that occur only in compounds in Attic prose are preceded by a hyphen.
Principal parts that are unattested in Attic prose but are found in poetry are
shown in parentheses. Compound verbs are cross-referenced to the simple
verb: remember that E- augment in the aorist or E- reduplication in the perfect
may cause elision of the final vowel of a disyllabic prepositional prefix, and
any change in aspiration may also affect the prefix (e.g., a:TrOOLoWj.J.L, a:TrEOWICa;
E7ruTTEAAw. f.'TrE(TTaAKa; a7rExw. acpEtw or a7roo-x~O"w).
19 ayyf.AAw aYYEAf.w 71YYELAa 71YYEAKa 71YY EAfl aL ~yyf.A87]v

28 ayvof.w ayvo7]lTw ~yvoTwa ~yv07]Ka ~yv07]flaL ~yvo1]87]v
8 ayw atw 71yayov •
7]Xa .;jYflaL 71X87]v
13 aOLKf.W aOLK1]ITW ~OI.K7]lTa ~OI.K7]Ka ~OiK7]flaL ~OLK1]87]v
38 a8pol.(w a8p0l.lTw ry8poLITa ry8poLKa ry8pOLITflaL i}8p01.1T87]v
13 aLpEw aip1]ITw ELAov jip7]Ka jiP7]fl aL Vpf.87]v
(stem f.A-)
11 aiIT8avOflaL aiIT81]ITOflaL iW 8o fl7]V ii lT87]fl aL
16 aLTEW atT1]ITW iiT7]lTa W7]Ka ~T~flaL r,T1]87]v
33 aLTwoflaL at nalTOflaL nniilTafl7]V !lTwflaL ~na87]v
[ii ) , [ii )
11 aKOVW aKovlToflaL 7]KOVlTa aK7]Koa ~KO"vIT87]v
24 aAl.lTKOflaL aAwlTOflaL f.aAwvor f.aAWKa
ryAwv or
(stem aAw-) ryAwKa
41 aAAaTTw aAAatw 71 AAa ta 71 AAa xa ~AA.ax87]v
and
~AAay7]v
i}flapnje7]v
fl aL
24 ava;3al.vw: see ;3al.vw
24 avayLyvwlTKW: see yLyVWITKW
32 aVaLpf.w: see aipf.w
Verb List 341
29 G.va}lL}lV~(]"KW: see }lL}lV~o"KW

23 G.va Ti8T/}lL: see Ti8T/}lL
28 G.VEXW: see EXW
33 G.~LOW G.~LWO"W ry~iwO"a ry~iW}laL
16 G.7Tayw: see ayw
33 G.7TavTaw G.7TavT~o"o- G.7T~VTT/O"a G.7T~VTT/Ka
}laL
38 G.7TaTaw G.7TaT~o"w T/7TaTT/O"a
27 a7TEL}lL: see €l}li
23 a7TEL}lL: see EL}lL
16 G.7TEXW: see EXW
23 G.7TOOEiKVV}lL: see OEiKVV}lL
23 G.7Tooiow}lL: see OiOW}lL
24 G.7TOOVW: see ovw
8 G.7To8vVO"KW G.7To8avEo- G.7TE8avov
32 G.7TOKpivw: see Kpivw

II G.7TOKTEivw G.7TOKTEVEW a7TEKTEwa G.7TEKTova
37 G.7TOAAV}lL G.7TOAEW G.7TwAEO"a G.7ToAwAEKa
and and
G. 7TWAO}l T/V G.7ToAwAa
32 G.7TEAOYT/-
O}laL O"o}laL O"a}lT/v
39 G.7T07TAEW: see 7TAEW
29 G.7TOpEW a7TOpT/O"W ry7TOpT/O"a T/7TopT/Ka ry7TOpT/}laL ry7Top~8T/V
26 ap7Ta(w ap7TaO"O}laL ~p7TatTa T/p7TaKa T/p7TaO"}laL
, ryp7Ta0"8T/v
8 apxw ap~w ryp~a ryPxa T/pYJlaL ~pX8T/v
40 G.O"Ej3Ew
33 G.0"8EVEW G.0"8EV~o"W ry0"8EVT/O"a ry0"8EVT/Ka
33 G.TL}la(w G.TL}laO"w T/TL}laO"a ryTi}laKa
23 G.cpiT/}lL: see IT/}lL
13 G.CPLKVEO}laL G.cpi~O}laL
23 G.cpio"T7)JlL: see lo"TT/}lL
24 j3aivw - ,3~O"O}laL -EPT/V ,3Ej3T/Ka -j3Epa}laL -Epa8T/v
IO j3aAAw ,3aAEw EpaAov ,3Ej3AT/Ka ,3EPA T/}laL €pA~8T/v
29 ,3aO"LAEvw ,3aO"LAEvO"W €j3aO"iAEVO"a
9 ,3Aa7TTw ,3Aatw Ej3Aa a t €pAapT/V
and
€pAacp8T/v
pEpo~8T/Ka pEpo~8T/-
}laL
PEPOVAEV- €POVAEV-
}laL 8T/v
,3OVA~o"O ,3EPOVAT/- f.poVA~8T/v
}laL
ya}lEw
I. In postcIassical Attic, this verb often has "double augmentation," that is, imperfect
ry,3ovAO}lT/V,aoristry,3ovA~8T/v.
342 APPENDIX TWO
YEAaa-OJJ.at EyEAaa-a
[a I
II ytyvoJJ.at yw~a-oJJ.at ~ywOJJ.1}V yqw1}JJ.at EyW~01}V
19 ytyVWa-KW yvwa-oJJ.at EyvwV €yvwa-JJ.at EyVWa-01}V
(U24)
8 ypacj>w ypatw €ypata YEypacj>a ytypaJJ.JJ.at fypacj>1}V
II YVJJ.va(w YVJJ.vaa-w qVJJ.vaa-a yqvJJ.vaKa ytyvJJ.vaa-- qVJJ.vaa--
JJ.at 01}V
33 oa7Tavaw OEOa7TaV1}- OtOa7TaV1}- foa7Tav~-
Ka JJ.at 01}V
41 [oEOOtKa]l oEOOtKa or
OEOLa
23 OEiKVVJJ.t oEi~w €OH~a OEOHXa OEOHYJJ.at EOEiX01}V
13 OEW oda-w EOE1}a-a OEOf1}Ka OEOf1}JJ.at Eod01}v
9 oEL Oda-H EOE1}a-E
29 01}AOW 01}AWa-W EO~Awa-a
24 oLapaivw: see paivw
32 OtapaAAw: see paAAw
24 OLaytyvWa-KW: see ytyvWa-KW
25 OLaoiowJJ.L: see oiowJJ.t
32 OLaAEyoJJ.at OLaAE~oJJ.at OtEAEX01}V
Icf. AEywl and
OtEAEY1}V
28 OLaJJ.EVW: see JJ.EVW
42 OLaVOE0JJ.at: see VOEW
28 OLaHAEW: see HAEW
17 OLacj>EPW: see cj>EPW
39 OLacj>OEipw: see cj>OEipw
34 OtOaa-Kw OtOU~w Eoioa~a otoioaxa oEoioaYJJ.at EOLOUX01}V
23 oiowJJ.t owa-w €OWKa OEOWKa oEooJJ.at fOOO1}V
II OtKa(w OtKaa-w EOLKaa-a otoiKaKa OEOLKaa-JJ.at fOLKaa-01}V
27 OtwKw otw~oJJ.at Eoiw~a oEoiwxa fOLWX01}V
or rarely
Otw~w
13 OOKEW oo~w €Oo~a OEOOYJJ.at
9 oOKEL OO~H €OO~E OEOOKTat
30 OOVA(1)W OOVA(1)a-W foovAwa-a
25 ovvaJJ.at 2 ovv~a-oJJ.at OEOVV1}JJ.at EOVV~01}V
24 ovw [ v I -Ova-w [ v I -Eova-a and -oEovJJ.at -EOV01}V
€OVV I vI
33 ~aw ~aa-w [aI Haa-a ELaJJ.at tia01}v I a I
8 ~OEAW EOEA~a-W r,OEA1}a-a
19 E~OOV: see opaw
10 HJJ.t Ea-OJJ.at
23 €LJ.LL (for other tenses parts of EpX0}J.aL are used)
19 E~7TOV: see EPEW
I. Perfect with present meaning; no present in Attic.

2. In late classical or postclassical Attic, this verb often has "double augmentation," that is,
imperfect r,ovvaJJ.1}v, aorist r,ovv~01}v.
Verb List 343
33 IEi'poJ.taL! Epy/lToJ.taL Y/p0J.ty/v

(Ionic)
8 f.AaVVW f.AUW (U29) 7)AalTa -tAr,AaKa EAr,AaJ.taL ~AUGy/V
28 f.A~yXW f.A~ytw 7)Atyta EAr,AtyJ.taL ~AEYXGy/V
(stem
EAy/AEYX-)
19 EA7ri(w EA7rLEW 7)A7rLlTa ~A7riITGy/v
34 EJ.tpaivw: see (3aivw
29 f.J.t7riJ.t7rAY/- EJ.t7rAr,ITW EVE7rAy/lTa f.J.t7rE7rAY/Ka f.J.t7rE7rAY/IT- EVE7rAr,IT-
J.tL J.taL Gy/v
27 EtaLT~w: see aiTEw
38 Eta7raTClw: see cl7raTUW
23 EtELJ.tL: see ELJ.tL
28 f.tEAEyXW: see EAEYXW
9 EtEITTL EtEITTaL
41 EOLKa I Ei'tw
16 E7raW~W f.7raWEITW f.7rnVElTa f.7rnVEKa E7rT/VY/J.taL E7r[1VEITGy/V
28 f.7rLPOVAEVW: see POVAEVW
23 E7rLOEiKVVJ.tL: see oEiKVVJ.tL
16 f.7rLGvJ.t~w f.7rLGvJ.tr,ITW f.7rEGvJ.ty/lTa f.7rLTEGVJ.tY/-
Iv I Ka I v I
32 f.7rLAavGuvoJ.taL: see AavGuvw
38 E7rLJ.t~AoJ.taL f.7rLJ.tEAr,- E7rLJ.tEJ.tE - f.7rEJ.tEAr,-
or lToJ.tat Ay/J.tat Gy/v
f.7rtJ.tEAEoJ.tat
28 hrilTTaJ.tat E7rtITTy/ITO- ~7rtITTr,Gy/V
J.taL
41 f.7rtITTEAAW: see ITTEAAW
23 E7rLTieY/J.tL: see TiGY/J.tt
8 f.7rLTpE7rW: see TPE7rW
39 f.7rLXHpEW E7rLXEtpr,ITW E7rEXEipy/lTa f.7rtKEXEi- E7rLKEXEi- f.7rEXHPr,-
Py/Ka pY/J.tat Gy/v
33 f.pUW (f. paITG~lTo- ~pUITGy/v
J.tat)
40 f.pyu(oJ.taL EpyalToJ.tat ~pyalTuJ.tY/v . Ei'pyalTJ.taL ~pyuITGy/v
,
19 [no present EpEW H7rOV Hpy/Ka HpY/J.tat f.ppr,Gy/v
in Attic] (stem tl7r-)
II EpxoJ.tat EAEVIT0J.tat ~AGov f.Ar,AvGa
(stem EAO-)
33 EPWTUW EPWTr,ITW ~pwTY/lTa Y/pWTy/Ka Y/pwTY/J.tat ~PWTr,Gy/V
26 EITGiw EOoJ.tat Ecpayov f.or,OOKa -Eor,oEITJ.tat ~OEITGy/V
33 EVEpyETEw EVEPYETy/- y/VEPYETy/- y/VEPYETy/- y/VEPYETy/- Y/VEpyETr,-
ITW ITa 2 Ka J.tat Gy/v
38 EVAapEo- EVAapr,ITO- y/vAapr,Gy/v
J.tat J.tat
I. Perfect with present meaning; no present in Attic.

2. Verbs in EV-, like EVEpyET~w and EvpiITKW~ will be found in some texts without the aug-
mentation or reduplication to y/V-: e.g., aorist EVPOV, perfect EVEpyETy/Ka. This is a reflection of
4th-century Attic spelling, the result of the loss of distinction between the sounds EV and y/V.
344 APPENDIX TWO
10 €VpUJ"KW d)p~lJ"w 71VPOV 1 71VP71Ka 71Vp71!J.aL 71VpEe71V

40 El)IJ"€PEW ,
17 €Vxo!J.aL €Vfo!J.aL 71iJfD.!J.71v 71vY!J.aL
23 EcjJl71!J.L: see (71!J.L
23 EcjJlIJ"T71!J.L: see (IJ"T71!J.L
8 EXW Efwand EIJ"XOV El1"X71 Ka -EIJ"X71!J.aL
11"X~IJ"W
23 (€1JYVV!J.L (€1Jfw E(wfa E(WWaL E(VY71V I v I
and
E(€VXe71v
29 (71AOW (71AWIJ"W E(~AWlJ"a E(~AwKa E(~Aw!J.aL E(71AWe71V
16 (71TEW (71T~IJ"W E(~T71lJ"a E(~T71Ka E(71T~e71V
33 (w (~IJ"W [non-Attic
E(71lJ"aj
16 i}yEo!J.aL 71Y71IJ"°!J.aL 71Y71lJ"a!J.71v 77Y71!J.aL -71y~e71V
28 77ooJ.!.aL i}lJ"e~lJ"oJ.!.aL 77lJ"e71V
34 77 KW 77fw
31 71TTaoJ.!.aL i}TT~lJ"oJ.!.aL 71TT71J.!.aL i}TT~e71V
34 eavJ.!.D.(w eavJ.!.D.lJ"o- EeavJ.!.alJ"a neavJ.!.aKa nOavJ.!.alJ"- EeavJ.!.D.IJ"-
J.!.aL !J. aL e71V
38 8vw [v I eVlJ"w [ v I E8vIJ"a TEeVKa TE8vJ.!.aL ETVe71V [ v I
~ ~ ~
23 L71J.!.L 77lJ"w -71Ka -HKa -€ LJ.!.aL -€t:e71V
23 LIJ"T71J.!.L IJ"T71IJ"W EIJ"T71lJ"a and €IJ"T71Ka EIJ"Ta!J.aL EIJ"TD.071V
EIJ"T71V (cf. U41)
23 KaOlIJ"T71J.!.L: see (IJ"T71J.!.L
26 Kalwor KaVIJ"W EKaVIJ"a 2 -K€KaVKa K€KaVJ.!.aL EKaVe71V
KD.W
18 KaAEw KaAEw EKD.A€lJ"a KEKA71Ka KEKA71J.!.aL EKA~071V
24 KaTapalvw: see palvw
24 KaTaOvw: see ovw
32 KaTaAEl7rw: see A€l7rW
23 KaTaTl071J.!.L: see TlO71J.!.L
17 KaT71yopEW KaT71Yop+ KaT71YOP71- KaT71yop71- KaT71YOP71- KaT71YOP71-
IJ"W IJ"a Ka J.!.aL e71V
9 K€AEVW KEAEVIJ"W f.KEAWlJ"a KEKEAwKa KEKEAWIJ"- EKEA€VIJ"071V
J.!.aL
34 KAE7rTW KAE"'W EKAE"'a KEKAocjJa KEKAE!J.J.!.aL f.KAD.7r71V
38 KAlVW I;; I KALVEW EKMva KEKALJ.!.aL f.KAlO71VOr
-€KAlV71V
ILl
38 KOJ.!.l(W KOJ.!.LEW f.Ko!J.LlJ"a K€KOJ.!.LKa K€KO!J.LIJ"J.!.aL EKOJ.!.llJ"e71V
9 K07rTW KO"'W EKo"'a -KEKocjJa KEKo!J.J.!.aL -€K07r71V
13 Kpanw KpaT71lJ"W EKpD.T71lJ"a KEKpD.T71Ka K€KpD.T71J.!.aL EKpaT~871v
26 Kpivw I i I KpivEW EKpwa K€KpLKa K€KpL!J.aL EKpie71v I i J
17 KPV7rTW KPV"'W EKpv"'a KEKpvJ.!.J.!.aL EKpvcjJe71V
37 KTaoJ.!.aL KT71lJ"oJ.!.aL EKT71lJ"aJ.!.71v KEKT71!J.aL EKT~071V
I. See previous note.

2. Aorist participle also KEa,.
Verb List 345
16 KWAVW [v 1 KWAVUW EKWAVUa KEKWAVKa KEKwAV/laL €KWAV07}V

[v 1 [v 1
8 Aa/lpaVw A7)tO/laL fAaJ30v ELA7}cpa ELA 7J}l/laL €A7)cp07}V
28 AavOavw A7)UW fAaOov AEA7}Oa -AEA7}U/laL
8 AEYW AEtw fAEta AEAEY/laL €AEX07}V
8 AEI:rrw AELtw fAL7TOV AEAoma AEAEL/l/laL €AELCP07}V
8 AVW [ v 1 AVUW [V 1 fAvua AEAVKa AEAV/laL €AV07}V [ 1 v
18 /lavOavw /la07)UO/laL f/laOOV /lE/la07}Ka
II /laXO/laL /laXEO/laL €/laXEUa- /lE/laX7}/laL
/l7}V
18 /lEAAWI /lEAA7)UW €/lE AA 7}ua
38 /lEAW /lEA7)UW €/lEA7}ua /lE/lEA 7}Ka
8 /lWW /lWEW E/lEwa /lE/lEV7}Ka
23 /lETaOLOW/lL: see OLOW/lL
29 /lETEXW: see fXW
29 /lL/lVy/UKW /lV7}UW f/lV7}Ua /lE/lV7}/laL €/lv7)u07}V
or (poetic in
/lL/lV7)UKW act.)
33 /lLUEW /lLU7}UW E/lLU7}ua JlE /liu7} Ka /lE/lLU7}/laL €/lL(7)07}V
[ L1 I LI [ L1
29 vLKaw VLK7)UW €VLK7}Ua vWLK7}Ka VWLK7}/laL €ViK7)07}V
ILl I LI ILl
42 VOEW V07}UW €vo7}ua vW07}Ka VW07}/laL €vo7)07}V
18 VO/lL(W VO/lLEW €VO/lLUa VWO/lLKa VWO/lLU/laL €VO/lLU07}V
13 VOUEW VO(7)uw €vou7}ua VWOU7}Ka
28 oloa ELUO/laL
13 OLKEW OiK7)UW ~K7}ua ~K7}Ka ~K7}/laL 0K7)07}V
II OLO/laL or oi 7)UO/laL 07)07}v
•
oL/laL
37 OAAV/lL (poetic): see a7TOAAV/lL (prose)
37 O/lVV/lL O/lEO/laL w/loua o/lw/lOKa o/lW/lO/laL w/lo07}vor
or w/lou07}V
O/lw/lOU/laL
32 O/lOAOYEW O/lOAOY7)UW W/lOAOY7}- W/lOAOY7}Ka W/lOAOY7}- W/lOAOy7j-
ua /laL 07}v
29 opaw otO/l aL EtOOV EOpaKa Ewpa/laL or wcp07}v
(stem io-) or •
W/l/laL
EWpaKa (stem W7T-)
28 opyi(O/laL °pYLEO/laL wpYLU/laL wpyiu07}v
28 opyi(w wpyLua
33 0p/law °P/l7)uw wp/l7}ua wp/l7}Ka wp/l7}/laL wP/l7)07}V
27 °PXEO/laL °PX7)UO/laL wpX7}ua-
/l7}V
32 ocpEiAW OCPELA7)UW WCPE iA 7}ua wcpEiA7}Ka WCPELA 7)07}V
and
WCPEAOV
40 7Taiw 7Taiuw f7TaLua 7TE7TaLKa E7TaLU07}V
I. This verb sometimes shows "double augmentation," that is, imperfect 7i/lEAAOV, aorist
7J/lEAA7}Ua.
346 APPENDIX TWO
24 7fupu(3uivw: see (3uivw

16 '
7fUpuyw: "
see uyw
23 7fupuoiowJ.l.t: see OiOWJ.l.L
32 7fUPUWEW: see (f7f)UWEW
11 7fUPUKEAElJ0J.l.UL: see KEAElJW (middle fonns)
II 7fUPU(JKEV- 7fUPUCTKEV- 7fUPECTKEV- 7fUPECTKEV- 7fUPECTKEV-
a(w UCTW UCTU UCTJ.l.UL aCT01)V
27 7fapELJ.l.t: see EiJ.l.i
16 7fUPEXW: see f.XW
\0 7fUCTXW 7fELCTOJ.l.UL 'f.7ruOov 7fE7fOVOU
28 7fUVW 7fUVCTW E7fUVCTU 7fE7fUVKU 7fE7fUVJ.l.UL E7fU(01)V
8 7fEiOw 7fELCTW E7fELCTU 7fE7fELKU 7fE7fELCTJ.l.UL E7fE iCT01)V
and
7fE7fOLOU
39 7fELpUW 7fELpaCTW E7fEipaCTU 7fE 7fE LPUKU 7fE7fE iPUJ.l.UL E7fELpa01)v
[ ii I [ ii I
8 7fEJ.l.7fW 7fEJ.I.'/IW f.7fEJ.I.'/I U 7fE7fOWPU 7fE7fEJ.l.J.l.UL fnEWp01)V
28 7fEpWpaW 7fEPLO'/IO- 7fEPLELOOV
J.l.UL
29 7fiJ.l.7fA1)J.l.L: see EjJ.7fijJ.7fA1)jJ.L
26 7fivw [ L I 7fiOjJ.UL or f.7ftOV 7fE7fWKU -7fE7fOjJ.UL -E7fo01)V
7fLEOjJ.UL [ t I
18 7fi7fTW 7fECTEOjJ.UL E7fECTOV 7fE7fTWKU
30 7fLCTTEVW 7fLCTTEVCTW f.7fiCTTEVCTU 7fE7fLCTTEV- 7fE7fLCTTEV- E7fLCTTEV-
KU jJ.UL 01)V
39 7fAEW 7fAEVCTOjJ.UL f.7fAEVCTU 7fE7fAEVKU 7fE7fAEVCT-
or J.l.UL
7fAEVCTEOJ.l.UI
17 -7fAr,TTW -7fAr,tw -E7fA1)tu 7fE7fA1)yu 7fE 7f A 1)YJJ.UL f7fAr,Y1)V
and
-E7fAD.Y1)V
13 7fOLEW 7fO(1)CTW E7fO(1)CTU 7fE7foi1)KU 7fE7foi1)jJ.UL E7fOL r,01)V
27 7fOAEjJ.EW 7fOAEJ.l.r,CTW E7fOAEjJ.1)CTU 7fE7fOAEJ.l.1)- 7fE7fOAEJ.l.1)- fnOAEjJ.r,-
KU J.l.UL 01)V
33 7fOAWPKEW 7fOAWPKr,- E7fOALOPK1) - -7fE7fOALOP- f7fOALOPKT,-
CTW CTU KT/jJ.UL 01)V
II 7fOALTEVW 7fOALTE VCTW E7fOAiTEV- 7fE7fOAiTEV- 7fE7fOAiTEV- f7fOALTEV-
CTU [ i I KU [i I J.l.uL[il 01)v
34 7fOPEVW 7fOPEVCTW E7fOPEVCTU 7fE7fOpEVjJ.UL f7fOPE(01)V
\0 7fPUTTW 7fpatw [u I f.7fpiitu 7fE7fpiiyu 7fE7fpiiYjJ.UL f7fpaxOT/v
[a I and [u I
7fE7fpiixu
9 7fPE7fEL
23 7fpooiowjJ.t: see OiOWjJ.L
39 7fPOCTr,KW: see 1)KW
23 7fpoCTiT/jJ.t: see LT/jJ.L
II 7fvvOavojJ.uL 7fEVCTOjJ.UL f7fVOOjJ.T/V 7fE7fVCTJ.l.UL
39 pEW PVT/CT0J.l.UL EPPVT/KU EPPVT/V
23 PT/YVVjJ.L pr,tw f.PPT/tu -EPPWYU EppUy1)V
[ ii I
Verb List 347
37 PL7rTW I L I #twlll fpplta fpplcpa fppL}l}lal EPPLcp87]v

or
EPPLcp7]V Ii" I
40 o"Et30}lal
31 O"lyaw O"l y7]O"O}.tal fO"l y7]O"a O"E(]"L y7]Ka O"fO"lY7]J-taL Eo"ly~87]v
29 O"KfoavvvJ-tl -O"Kfoaw -fO"KfoaO"a EO"KfoaO"}laL EO"KfOclO"-
87]v
38 O"KE7rToJ-tal O"KftoJ-tal EO"Kf t aJ-t7]V fO"KfJ-tJ-taL
38 O"K07rEW or O"K07rEoJ-taL (for other tenses, parts of O"KE7rToJ-tal are used)
II O"7rEVOW O"7rfLO"W fO"7rHO"a fO"7rHO"J-taL
38 O"7rfVOW O"7rfVO"W fO"7rfvO"a
38 O"7rovoa(w O"7rOVOclO"O- EO"7rOVoaO"a EO"7rOVOaKa EO"7rOVoaO"- EO"7rOVOclO" -
J-tal J-taL 87]v
41 O"Tff..f..W (O"Tff..EW) fO"Tflf..a -feo"Taf..Ka fO"TaAJ-tal Eo"TaA7]V
30 O"TpaTfVW O"TpaTfvO"w EO"TpaTfV- fO"TpaTfVKa fO"TpaTfV-
O"a J-tal
26 O"TpECPW o"TPEtw fO"Tpf'/Fa EO"Tpa}lJ-tal Eo"TPEcp87]v
or
Eo"Tpacp7]V
32 o"VyylyVWo"KW: see ylyVWo"KW
39 o"Vf..AEyw o"VAAE(W O"vVEf..f(a O"VVfLf..°Xa O"VVfLAty- O"VVff..EY7]V
J-taL or
O"VVff..EX&,v
24 O"vJ-tpaLvw: see paLvw
32 O"VJ-tPOVf..fVW: see pOVf..fVW
32 O"VJ-tCPEPW: see CPEPW
23 O"vvTL07]J-tL: see TL87]J-tl
39 0"0(w O"wO"wor fO"wO"a or O"fO"WKa O"EO"wJ-talor EO"w87]v
(]"({iO"w fO"<{IO"a O"fO"<{IO"J-taL
32 O"WCPPOVEW O"wcppov~- Eo"WCPpOV7]- o"fo"WCPPO- o"fo"WCPPO-
O"w O"a V7]Ka V7]J-taL
9 TaTTW Ta(W ha(a TETaxa TfTayJ-taL haX87]v
29 TfAfVTaW Tff..fVT~o"W f.Tff..fVT7]- TfTfAfVT7]- TfTff..fVT7]- ETff..fVT~-
O"a Ka J-tal 87]v
33 Tff..EW TfAfeW hEf..fO"a TfTEf..fKa TfTEf..fO"J-taL ETff..E0"87]v
(or rarely
Tff..EO"W)
26 TfJ-tvw TfJ-tfW fTfJ-tovor -TETJ-t7]Ka TETJ-t7]J-tal hJ-t~87]v
(fTaJ-t0v)
23 TL87]J-tl 8~O"w f07]Ka TE87]Ka TE8HJ-tal hE87]v
40 HKTW TE(oJ-tal fTfKOV TEToKa
29 TLJ-taw TL}l~O"W fHJ-t7]O"a TfHJ-t7]Ka TfTLJ-t7]J-tal hLJ-t~87]v
Il I Ii I ILI
16 TPE7rW TpNw hpt'/Fa TETpocpa TfTpaJ-tJ-tal hPEcp87]v
and and
hpa7rov i fTpa7r7]v
I. The second aorist is poetic and intransitive in sense; in prose the second aorist middle is used
with the intransitive meaning "fled."
348 APPENDIX TWO
26 TPfCPW 8Pf'ljlW E8pf'ljla TfTpocpa Tf8pa}J.}J.aL hpacpy/v

(rarely
hPfCP°Y/V)
34 TPfXW opa}J.fo}J.aL Eopa}J.ov -ofopa}J.y/Ka -ofopa}J.Y/-
(or rarely }J.aL
8pffo}J.ad
28 Tvyxavw Hvfo}J.aL ETVXOV HTvXy/Ka
12 TV7rTW TV7rT~(JW
32 iJ7raKovw: see cl.KOVW
26 V7rLCTXVf- V7rOCTX~(JO - V7rf(JX°}J.Y/V V7rf(JXY/}J.aL
o}J.aL }J.aL
32 V7rOAa}J.f3avw: see Aa}J.f3avw
32 V7rO}J.fVW: see }J.fVW
29 V7rO}J.L}J.Vr/(JKW: see }J.L}J.V~(JKW
39 V7r07rHVW V7r07rHV(JW V7rW7rHv(Ja V7rW7rHV-
OY/v
29 cpaivw cpavfw Ecpy/va 7rfcpy/va 7rfcpa(J}J.aL Ecpavy/v
(or rarely
Ecpav8y/v)
8 CPfPW OL(JW ~VfyKOV Ev~voxa wy/vq}J.aL ~vtX8y/v
and
y/vfYKa
(stem EVfYK-)
8 cpfVyw cpfvfo}J.aL ECPVYOV rrtcpwya
and
cpwffo}J.aL
20 cpY/}J.i Cp~(Jw Ecpy/(Ja
28 cp8avw cp8~(Jo}J.aL Ecp8a(Ja or
Ecp8y/v
39 cpOfipw cpOfptw Ecp8ELpa Ecp8apKa Ecp8ap}J.aL Ecp8apy/v
and
-fcp8opa
13 CPLAfW CPLAr/(JW EcpiAy/(Ja 7rfcpiA y/Ka rrfcpiAY/}J.aL ECPLA~8y/v
13 CPOPfW cpof3~(Jw Ecpof3y/(Ja rrfcpof3Y/}J.aL Ecpo,3~8y/v
39 cppa(w cppa(Jw Ecppa(Ja 7rtcppaKa rrfcppa(J}J.aL Ecppa(J8y/v
16 cpvAaTTw cpvAafw EcpvAafa 7rfcpvAaxa rrfcpvAay- EcpvAciX8Y/v
}J.aL
40 cpvw cpv(Jw I v I Ecpv(Ja and 7rfcpvKa
I v orv I ECPVV
40 xaipw xaLp~(Jw Kfxapy/Ka EXapy/V
30 xpao}J.aL xpy/(Jo}J.aL Expy/(Ja}J. Y/V KfxpY/}J.aL Exp~(J8y/v
30 xpaw Xpy/(Jw Expy/(Ja Exp~(J8y/v
9 xp~ xp~(JTaLI
13 WCPfAEW WCPfA~(JW wcpfAy/(Ja wcpfAY/Ka wcpfAy/}J.aL WCPEAr/Oy/V
I. Contraction of XP7] E(JTaL. Cf. present infinitive xpr,vaL (= XPYT ftvaL), imperfect xpr,v (= XPYT
~v) or Expr,V.
APPENDIX THREE
Paradigms
NOUNS
O-DECLENSION (U3)'
rnase./fem. neuter
sing. nom. av8pw7To<; ~pyov

gen. av8pw7ToV ~pyov
dat. av8pw7TCp ~py~
acc. av8pw7ToV ~pyov
voc aV8pW7T{ ~pyov
dual n. a. v. av8poJ7Tw ~pyw

g.d. av8pw7ToW ~pyow
plur. n. V. av8pW7TOt ~pyu
gen. av8pw7TwV ~pywv
dat. av8pw7TOt<; ~pyOt<;
acc. av8pw7ToV<; ~pyu
A-DECLENSION (U4-U5)
long-vowel fern. short-vowel fern. rnase.
xwpii yVWIl1/ VyiHU 8aAaTTU vwviii<; aTpanwT1/<;

xwpii<; yvwll1/<; vyt{iii<; 8aAaTT1/<; vwviov aTpanWTOv
XWpcf yvwllI1 vytdq. 8aAaTTI1 VWVtq. aTpanwTI1
xwpiiv yvwll1/V vytHaV 8aAaTTUV vwviiiv aTpa nWT1/V
xwpii yvwll1/ vytHa 8aAaTTU v{avta aTpa nWTU
xwpii yvw/lii vytdii 8aAaTTii vwviii aTpa nWTii
xwpaw yvwllaw vyt{iaw 8aAaTTaW vwviaw aTpanwTaw

xwpat yvw/lat vyiHat 8aAaTTat v{avtat aTpanWTat
Xwpwv yvwllwv VytHWV 8aAaTTWV VWVtWV aTpanWTWV
xwpat<; yvwllat<; vyt{iat<; 8aAaTTat<; vwvtat<; aTpanwTat<;
xwpii<; yvwllii<; vyt{iii<; 8aAaTTii<; vwviii<; aTpanwTii<;
I. The cases in all noun, adjective, and participle paradigms will be in the order of this table; the
markings of number and case will not be repeated.
349
350 APPENDIX THREE
CONSONANT DECLENSION (Ul4-15, U21)
plosive stems (U 14)
KAW..y cpvAa~ XaPl<; arT'm<; 'EAAa<;

KAW7flJ<; cpvAaKo<; XaPlTO<; (unTioo<; 'EAAaoo<;
KAW7Ti cpvAaKl xapm a(J"7Tie)t 'EAAclOl
KAi;17TU cpvAaKu xapw armiou 'EAAclOU
KAW..y cpvAa~ XaPl a(J"7Ti 'EAAa<;
KAW7TE cpvAaKE XaPlTE a(J"7TioE 'EAAaoE
KAW7TOtV cpvAaKow XapiTow a(J"7Tioow 'EAAaoow
KAW7TE<; cpvAaKE<; XaPlTE<; a(J"7TioE<; 'EAAaoE<;
KAW7TWV cpvAaKwv XapiTwv a(J"7Tiowv 'EAAaowv
KAW..yi(v) cpvAatl(v) XaPl(J"l(V) a(J"7Ti(J"l(V) 'EAAa(J"t{v)
KAW7TU<; cpvAaKu<; XaPlTU<; a(J"7Tiou<; 'EAAcllia<;
VT-stems (U 14) neuter T -stems (U 14)
yEpwV yiyii<; doov<; 7Tpayp.a TEpa<;

YEPOVTO<; yiyavTo<; dOOVTO<; 7TpaYJ.l.aTo<; TEpaTo<;
yEpOVTl yiyavTl dooVTl 1TpaYJ.l.aTl TEpaTl
YEPOVTU ylyavm dOOVTU 1TpaYJ.l.a TEpa<;
yEpOV yiyuv doov<; 7Tpayp.a TEpa<;
yEpOVTE yiyavTE dOOVTE 1TpaYJ.l.aTE TEpaTE
YEPOVTOW YlyavTow dOOVTOW 7TpaYJ.l.aTOW TEpaTow
YEPOVTE<; yiyavTE<; dOOVTE<; 1TpaYJ.l.am TEpam
yEpovTwV ylyavTwv dOOVTWV 1TpaYJ.l.aTwV TEpaTWV
YEPOV(J"l(V) yiyii(J"l(V) OOOV(J"l(V) 7Tpayp.a(J"l(v) TEpa(J"l(v)
YEPOVTU<; YlyavTa<; OOOVTU<; 1TpaYJ.l.am TEpam
liquid and nasal stems (U 15)
iYr/TWP oaiJ.l.wv aywv aA<;

p-r,TOPO<; oaiJ.l.ovo<; aywvo<; aAo<;
p-r,TOPl OaiJ.l.OVl aywvl aAi
p-r,TOpU oaiJ.l.ovu aywvu aAu
PTJTOP oatJ.l.ov aywv
p-r,TOPE OaiJ.l.OVE aywvE aAE
PTJTOPOW OalJ.l.OVOW aywvow aAOtV
p-r,TOPE<; oaiJ.l.ovE> aywvE<; aAE<;
P7JTOPWV OalJ.l.OVwV aywvwv aAwv
p-r,TOP(J"l(V) oa iJ.l.O(J"l (v) ayw(J"l(v) aAa"i(v)
p-r,TOPU<; oaiJ.l.ovu<; aywvu<; aAu<;
Paradigms: Nouns 351
irregular p-stems (V / 5)
7raT17P J.I.~TT/P 8vyaTT/p av~p

7raTpo> J.l.T/TPO> 8vyaTpo> avopo>
7raTpi J.l.T/Tpi 8vyaTpi avopi
7raTEpa J.l.T/TEpa 8vyaTEpa Q.vopa
7raHp J.l.r,HP 8vyaHp aVEp
7raTEpE J.l.T/TEPE 8vyaTEpE Q.VOPE
7raTEpOLV J.l.T/TEpOLV 8vyaTEpoLV avopoLv
7raTEpE> J.l.TJTEPE> 8vyaTEpE> Q.VOPE>
7raTEpWV J.l.TJTEpWV 8vyaTEpwv avopwv
7raTpa(T((v) J.l.TJTpCUT((V) 8vyaTpa(T((v) avopa(T((v)
7raTEpa> J.l.TJTEpa> 8vyaTEpa> Q.vopa>
-------
(I-stems (V/5) irregular (V2 /)
TPL~PTJ> YEVO> yEpa> yVVTJ XEip

TPL~POV> YEVOV> yEPW> yvvaLKo> XELpo>
TPL~PH YEVEL yEpaL or yEPc!: yvvaLKL XELpi
TPL~PTJ YEVO> YEpa> yvvaLKii XE'ipii
TPLr,PE> YEVO> yEpa> yvvaL XEip
TPL~PH yEVEL yEpa yvva'iKE XE'ipE
TPL~POLV YEVO'iV yEpijw yvvaLKo'iv XEP°'iV
TPL~PH> YEVTJ yEpa yvva'iKE> XE'iPE>
TPL~PWV yEVwV yEpWV yvvaLKwv XHPWV
TPL~PE(J"L(V) YEVHT((V) YEpa(T((v) yvvaLfi(v) XEp(J"i(v)
TPL~PH> yEVTJ yEpa yvva'iKii> XE'ipiis
stems in L or v (V2 / )
7rOAL> 7rr,xv> a(J"TV iX8v> or -vS'

7rOAEWS' 7r~XEWS' a(J"TEW> iX8vo>
7rOAH 7r~XH Q.(J"HL iX8vL
7rOALV 7r7)XVV Q.(J"TV iX8vv
7rOAL 7r7)XV a(J"TV iX8v
7rOAH 7r~XH a(J"TH iX8vE
7rOAEOLV 7rTJXEOLV a(J"TEOLV iX8vOLV
7rOAH, 7r~XH> a(J"TTJ iX8vES'
7rOAEWV 7r~XEWV a(J"HWV iX8vwv
7rOAE(J"L(V) 7r~XE(J"L(V ) Q.(J"H(J"L(V) iX8v(J"L(V)
7rOAH> 7r~XH> Q.(J"TTJ iX8v>
352 APPENDIX THREE
stems in EV. avo ov (U2 J)
L7r7rEV, ypav, vav, pov,

L7r7rEW, ypao, VEW, poo,
-.< .<
L7r7rEt ypat V7Jt f30t
L7r7rEa ypavv vf]a f30vv
L7r7rEV ypav vav f30v
L7r7rf] ypaE Vf]E (30E
L7r7rEOW ypaotv VEOtV (300tV
L7r7rf], or -ct, ypaE, vf]H POE,
L7r7rEWV ypawv VEWV pOWV
L7r7rEV(n(v) ypavrrl.(v) vavrrl.(v) povrrl.(v)
L7r7rEa, ypav, vav, (3ov,
NOUNS WITH CONTRACTION (U42)
o-declension a-declension
vov, 7rEPI.7r AOV, Kavovv yf] rrvKf] JlVa 'EpJlf],

vov 7rEpl.7rAOV Kavov yf], rrvKf], JlVa, 'EpJloV
vip 7rEpl.7rA'{l Kav0 YV rrvKV JlV~ 'EpJlV
vovv 7rEpi 7r AOvv Kavovv yf]v rrvKf]v Jlvav 'EpJlf]v
vov 7rEpl.7rAOV Kavovv yf] rTVKf] Jlva 'EpJlf]
vw mpl.7rAw Kavw rrVKa JlVa 'EpJla
VOtV 7rEpl.7rAOW KaVOtV rrVKatV Jlvatv 'EpJlatv
VOt 7rEpl.7rAOt KaVa rrVKat Jlvat 'EpJlat
vwv 7rEpl.7rAWV Kavwv rTVKWV Jlvwv 'EpJlwV
VOt, 7rEpl.7rAOt, KaVOt, rTVKat, Jlvat, 'EpJlat,
vov, 7rEpi7rAOV, KaVa rrVKa, JlVa, 'EpJla,
ATIIC DECLENSION AND NOUNS IN -WS· (U42)
Attic declension nouns in -w,

VEW, AEw, EW, Aayw, aibw, ~pw,
VEW AEw EW Aayw aibov, ~pwo, or~pw
VE'{l AE0 E'{l Aay0 aibot ~pw;: or~p'{l
VEWV AEwv EW Aaywv or Aayw aibw ~pwii or~pw
VEW Aayw ~PWE
VE'{lV Aay0v ~pwow
VE0 AE0 Aay0 ~PWE' or ~pw,

VEWV AEwv Aaywv ~pwwv
VE'{l' AE0, Aay0, ~pwrrt(v)
VEW, AEw, Aayw, ~pwa, or~pw,
Paradigms: Adjectives 353
ADJECTIVES
VOWEL-DECLENSION ADJECTIVES WITH THREE ENDINGS (U7)
with fem. in -0. withfem. in -1)
masc. fem. neuter masc. fem. neuter
atw~ atin atwv aya8o, aya8~ aya80v

atiov atin, atiov aya80v aya87j~ aya80v
aticr atiCf aticr aya80 aya8f1 aya80
atwv atinv atwv aya80v aya8~v aya80v
attE atin atwv aya8f. aya8~ aya80v
atiw atin atiw aya8w aya8a aya8w
atiow atiaw atiow aya80Lv aya8aLv aya80Lv
atwt attat attii aya80i aya8aL aya8a
atLwv atiwv atLwv aya8wv aya8wv aya8wv
atiot~ atiat~ atLOt, aya8oL~ aya8aL~ aya8oL~
atiov~ atin~ attii aya8ov~ aya8a~ aya8a
VOWEL-DECLENSION ADJECTIVES WITH TWO ENDINGS (U9)
masc./fem. neuter
aOtKO~ aOtKOV
aOLKov aOLKov
aOLKcr aOLKcr
aOtKOV aOtKOV
aOtKf aOtKOV
aOLKw aoiKw
aOLKow aOLKow
aOtKOt aOtKii
aoiKwv aOLKwv
aoiKOt~ aOLKOt~
aOLKov~ aOtKii
CONSONANT-DECLENSION ADJECTIVES (U22)
with two endings

masc.lfem. neuter masc.lfem. neuter
aAT/8~, aAT/8f.~ (Twcppwv (Twcppov

aAT/8ov~ aAT/8ov~ (Twcppovo~ (Twcppovo~
aAT/8EL aAT/M (TwCPPOVt (TwCPPOVt
aAT/87j aAT/8f., (Twcppovii (Twcppov
aAT/8f.~ aAT/8f.~ (Twcppov (Twcppov
354 APPENDIX THREE
mase./fem. neuter mase.lfem. neuter
ar..:rJM; aA7]$f:t ITwCPPOVf: ITwCPPOVf:

aA7]8otv aA7]$OtV ITwCPpovow ITwCPpovow
aA7]$f:t, aA7]$f] ITwCPpovc> ITwcPpovii
aA7]8wv aA7]$wv ITwCPpovwv ITwCPpovwv
aA7]8flTt(V) aA 7]$f.lTt (v) ITwCPPOlTt(v) ITwcppolTd v)
aA7]8f:t, aA7]$f] ITwcppovii, ITwcPpovii
with three endings

stems in v stems in v
mase. fem. neuter mase. fem. neuter
hov, hMii hov JJ.EAU, JJ.EAuwii JJ.EAUV

hOEO, hOf:/ii, hOEO, JJ.EAUVO, JJ.f:Auiv7]' JJ.EAUVO,
hM hOf:iq, hM JJ.EAUVt WAuivTI JJ.EAUVt
hovv hMiiv hov JJ.EAuvii JJ.fAuwiiv JJ.fAUV
hov hMii hov JJ.EAUV JJ.EAuwii JJ.fAUV
hOEf: hOf:iii hoh JJ.EAUVf: JJ.f:Auivii JJ.EAUVf:
hOEOW hOf:iuw hOEOW JJ.f:AclVOW JJ.f:Auivuw JJ.f:AclVOW
hOf:L, hOf:tut hof.u JJ.EAUVH JJ.EAUWUt JJ.f.Auvii
hOEWV hOHWV hof.wV JJ.f:AclVWV JJ.f:AUWWV JJ.€AclVWV
hOElTt(V) hOf:iut, hOElTt(V) JJ.Er...UlTt(V) JJ.€r...uivut' JJ.fr...UlTt(V)
hM, hOf:iu, hOEU JJ.Er...uvii, JJ.€r...uivii' JJ.fr...uvii
stems in VT
mase. fem. neuter mase. fem. neuter
XUpiH' xupi€lTlTii XUptW 7Tn, 7TnlTii 7Tnv

XUpiWTO, XUPtEITIT7], XUpiWTO, 7TUVTO, 7TcllT7]' 7TUVTO,
xupiwTt XUptElT1TTJ xupiwTt 7TUVTi 7TclITTI 7TUVTi
XUpiWTii xupif:lTlTiiv xupiw 7TclVTii 7TnlTiiv 7Tnv
xupiw xupi€lTlTii xupiw 7Tn, 7TnlTii 7Tnv
XUpiWTE xuptf.lTlTii XUpiWTE
XUptEVTOW xuptilTlTUW XUptWTOW
XUpiWTE' Xapi€lTlTut XUptWTa 7TclVTE, 7TnlTat 7TUVTa
XaptEVTWV XUpt€ITITWV XUptEVTWV 7TaVTWV 7TUITWV 7TclVTWV
Xapi€lTt(v) Xaptf.ITITUt, xupi€lTt(v) 7TnlTdv) 7TUlTat, 7TnlTt(v)
XUpiWTii, xuptf.lTlTii' XUpiWTii 7TclVTii, 7TcllTii, 7TclVTii
Paradigms: Adjectives 355
VOWEL-DECLENSION ADJS. WITH CONTRACTION (U42)
masc. fem. neuter
xpvuovs xpvufj xpVUOVV

xpvuov xpvufjs xpvuov
xpvUCf xpvuv xpvUCf
xpVUOVV xpvufjv xpVUOVV
xpvuw xpvun xpvuw
xpVUOI.V xpvual.v xpVUOI.V
XPVUOI. xpvua'i xpvun
xpVUWV xpVUWV xpVUWV
XPVUOI.S xpvua'is XPVUOI.S
xpvuovs xpvuns xpvun
masc. fem. neuter masc./fem. neuter
apyvpovs apyvpn apyvpovv EVVOVS EVVOVV

apyvpov apyvpns apyvpov Eiivov EVVOV
apyvPCf apyvp,+ apyvPCf EVV~ EVV~
apyvpovv apyvpnv apyvpovv EVVOVV EVVOVV
apyvpw apyvpn apyvpw EVVW EVVW
apyvpo'iv apyvpa'iv apyvpo'iv EVVOW EVVOW
apyvpo'i apyvpa'i apyvpn EVVOL EVVOa
apyvpwv apyvpwv apyvpwv EVVWV EVVWV
apyvpo'is apyvpa'is apyvpol.s EVVOLS EVVOLS

apyvpovs apyvpns apyvpn EVVOVS EVVOa
ADJECTIVES WITH ATIIC DECLENSION (U42)
masc./fem. neuter masc. fem. neuter
tA.EWS tA.EWV -rrA.€WS -rrA.€Q. -rrA.€WV

tA.EW tA.EW -rrA.€W -rrA.€Q.s -rrA.€W
tA.E~ tA.E~ -rrA.€~ -rr A.€f!: -rrA.€~
tA.EWV tA.EWV -rrA.€WV -rr A.€Q.v -rrA.€WV
tA.EW tA.EW -rrA.€W -rr A.€Q. -rrA.€W
tA.E~V tA.E~V -rrA.€~V -rrA.€aw -rrA.€~V
tA.E~ tA.Ea -rrA.€~ -rrA.€aL -rrA.€a

tA.EWV tA.EWV -rrA.€WV -rrA.€WV -rrA.€WV
tA.E~S tA.E~S -rrA.€~S -rrA.€aLS -rrA.€~S
tA.EWS tA.Ea -rrA.€WS -rrA.€Q.s -rrA.€a
356 APPENDIX THREE
PRONOUNS AND PRONOUN/ADJECTIVES

ARTICLE (U6)
masc. fem. neut.
6 T/ Tel
TOV T1], TOU
T~ Tff Tep
TOV n/v TO
TW TW (orTa) TW
TOLV TOLV (or TaLV) TOLV
Ot a! Ta
TWV TWV TWV
TOL, TaL, TOL,
TOV, Ta, Ta
PERSONAL PRONOUNS (U22)
(unem- (unem-
I st sing. phatic) Jst dual Jst plur. 2nd sing. phatic) 2nd dual 2nd plur.
EyW vw r,!J.{L, (TV (Tcf>w V!J.{L,

E!J.OV !J.OV viiJV r,!J.wv (TOU (TOV (Tcf>ej;v v!J.wv
E!J.oL !J.O! r,!J.LV (TO! (TO! V!J.LV
{!J.{ !J.{ r,!J.Q., (TE (T{ v!J.Q.,
THIRD PERSON (OBLIQUE CASES) AND INTENSIVE (ALL CASES) (U21)
aUTO, aVTT/ aUTO

aUTOV aUT1]' aUTOV
aUTej; aUTff aUTej;
aUTOV aun7v aUTO
aVTW aVTW aUTW
aUTOLV aUTOLV aUTOLV
aUToL aUTaL aura
aUTwv aUTwv aUTwv
aUToL, au TaL, aUToL,
aUTO V, aUTa, aUTa
DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS (Ul3)

~
OO{ ~O{ TOO{ OVTO, aVTT/ TOUTO
TOVO{ T1](TO{ TOVO{ TOVTOV TaVTT/, TOVTOV
Tej;O{ TffO{ Tej;O{ TOVTcp TavTT/ TOVTCP
TOVO{ T~VO{ TOO{ TOVTOV TaVTT/V TOUTO
Paradigms: Pronouns 357
demonstrative pronouns (dual and plural)
TWOf TWOf TWOf TOVTW

TOtVOf TOtVOf TOtVOf TOVTOW
~
OLOf aLof TCiof OVTOL aVTaL TailTa
TWVOf TWVOf TWVOf TOVTWV TOVTWV TOVTWV
TOtUOf TatUOf TOtUOf TOVTOL~ TavTaL~ TOVTOL~
TOVUOf TCluof TG.Of TOVTOV~ TaVTa~ TailTa
€KftVO~ €KfI.VTJ €KftVO

€KfI.VOV €KdvTJ~ EKdvov
hdv'll €KfI.VT/
€KftVOV €KfI.VTJV
hdvw fKHVW €KfI.VW
€KfI.VOW EKdvow EKdvow
€KftVOL €KftVaL €KftVa
€Kdvwv €KfI.VWV €Kdvwv
€KdvOL~ fKfwaL~ EKdvot>
€Kdvov~ EKdva~ €KftVa
INTERROGATIVE AND INDEFINITE PRONOUN/ADJECTIVE (UI5, UI7)
TI.~ TI. TL~ n

TI.VO~ (Toil) TI.VO~ (Toil) nvo~ (TOV) TWO~ (TOV)
TI.VL (np) nVL (np) nvi. (T'll) nvi. (T'll)
TI.Va TI. nvG. n
TI.Vf TWf nVE TWf
TI.VOW TI.VOW nVotv nVotv
TI.Vf~ TLva nVE~ nva (aTTa)
TI.VWV TWWV nvwv nvwv
TI.UL(V) TI.UL(V) TLUI.(v) nul.(v)
TI.Va~ TLva nvG.~ nvG. «(17Ta)
RELATIVE AND INDEFINITE RELATIVE PRONOUNS (UI2, U33)
os ~
~
?
0
?
OUTL~
?
~n~
?
on
?
ov TJ~ ov ovnvo~ (OTOV) TJUTWO~ OVTWO~ (OTOV)
~ ~ ? ? ? ?
'll T/ 'll WTWL (OT'll) T/TWL WTWL (OT'll)
OV ~v 0 ovnva ~vnva on
.
W W
. W wTtVE wnvf wnvf
? ? ~ ~ ? ?
ow ow ow ownvow ownvow OWTWOW
Ot aL a OLnVf~ aLnvf~ aTLVa (aTTa)

~ ? ? ? ? ?
wv wv wv WVTWWV (OTWV) WVTWWV WVTWWV (ihwv)
? ? ~
OL~ at> OL~ O[UTLUL(V) (OTOt» a[UTLuL(V) o[unuL(v) (OTOL~)
ov~ as a ovuTLva~ aUTwa~ aTLVa (aTTa)
358 APPENDIX THREE
REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS (U25)
Jst pers. rnasc. Jst pers.fern. 2nd pers. rnasc. 2nd pers. fern.
fJ.LaVTOV fJ.LavTry, O"WVTOV (O"avTOv) O"WVTry, (O"avTry,)

fJ.LavT0 fJ.LaVTfi O"wVT0 (O"avT0) O"wVTfi (O"avTfi)
(J.LaVTOV (J.LaVT~V O"wvn)v (O"avn)v) o"WVT~V (O"avT~v)
~J.LC:;JV aVTwv ~J.LWV aVTwv VJ.LwVaVTwv VJ.LwVaVTwv

~J.LlV aVTOl, ~J.LlV aVTal, VJ.LlVaVTOl, VJ.LlVaVTal,
~J.LU, avwv, ~J.LU, avnls VJ.LU, avwv, VJ.LU, avnl,
3rd pers. rnasc. 3rd pers.fern. 3rd pers. neuter.
faVTOV (avTOv) EavTry, (avTry,) faVTOV (avTov)

favT0 (avT0) EavTfi (avTfi) favT0 (avT0)
favHlv (avn)v) EavT~v (avT~v) favTo (avTo)
EavTwv (avTwv) EavTwv (avTwv) favTwv (avTwv)
EavTol, (avTol,) EaVTal, (aVTal,) EavTol, (avTOl,)
EavTOv, (avTov,) Eavni, (avn}s) Eavni (avni)
INDIRECT REFLEXIVE (3RD PERSON) (U25)
sing. plur. rnasc.lfern. plur. neuter

,
gen. ov (OV) O"epWV O"epWV
,
dat. Ot (oD O"epiO"t(v) (O"eptO"dv D O"epiO"t(v) (O"eptO"dvD
acc. ( W O"epa, kepa,) O"epia (O"epw)
RECIPROCAL PRONOUN (U25)
rnasc. fern. neuter
dual gen. dat. aAA~AOtv aM~Aatv aAA~AOtv

acc. aAA~AW aM~Aa aM~AW
plur. gen. aAA~AWV aM~AWV aM~AWV

dat. aM~AOt, aM~Aat, aAA~AOt,
acc. aM~AOV' aM~Aa, UAA1)Aa
TOwfJTO, (TOO-aUTO,) (U36)
TOtOVTO, TOtavT1) TOtOVTOV or TOtOVTO

TOtOVTOV TOtaVT1)' TOtOVTOV
TOtOvnr TOtavTY TOtOVnr
TOtOVTOV TOWVT1)V TOtOVTOV or TOtOVTO
Paradigms: Pronouns 359
TOWVTW TOWVTW TOWVTW

TOWVTOW TOWVTOW TOWVTOW
TOWVTOL TOLaVTUL TOLaVTU
TOWVTWV TOWVTWV TOWVTWV
TOWVTOL, TOLUVTUL, TOWVTOL,
TOWVTOV, TOLaVTU, TOLaVTU
VERBS
il-VERBS: PRESENT SYSTEM ACTIVE]
indicative subjunctive optative imperative imperj indo
~OVAf.VW ~OVAf.VW ~OVAf.VOLJ..(L Ej3OVAWOV

~OVAf.VCL' ~OVAf.VT/' ~OVAf.VOL' j30VAWf. Ej3OVAWf.>
~OVAf.VCL j30VAf.VT/ j30VAf.VOL j30vAwhw Ej3OVAWdv)
j30VAf.Vf.TOV ~OVAf.V71TOV j30VAEVOLTOV j3ovAEVf.TOV i.j3OVAEVf.TOV
~OVAf.Vf.TOV j3ovAEV71TOV j3oVAwOLT71V j30vAwhwv i.j3ovAwh71v
~OVAEVOJ..LEV j30VAEVWJ..LEV j3ovAEVOLJ..LEV i.j30VAEV0J..LEV
~OVAEVETE j30VAEV71TE j30VAEVOLTE j30VAEVETE i.j30VAEVf.TE
j30VAEVOVCTL(V) j30VAEVW(TL(V) j30VAEVOLEV j3oVAWOVTWV i.j30VAwov
infinitive: j30VAEVCLV
participle: j3ovAEVWV. j30VAf.VOVIJ'U. j3oVAEVOV
il-VERBS: PRESENT SYSTEM MIDDLE-PASSIVE
j3OVAf.V0J..LUL j3OVAEVWJ..LUL j3oVAWOLJ..L71V i.~OVAWOJ..L71V

j3OVAf.VT/ (or -f. L) j3OVAEVT/ j30VAf.VOW j30VAEVOV i.~OVAEVOV
j3OVAf.Vf.TUL j3OVAf.V71TaL j30VAf.VOLTO j30VAWf.IJ'OW i.j30VAEVETO
j3oVAf.vf.1J'8ov j3oVAf.v711J'8ov j30VAf.VOLIJ'8ov j30VAf.VEIJ'8ov i.~oVAf.vf.1J'8ov
j3oVAf.vf.1J'8ov j3oVAf.v711J'8ov j30VAWOLIJ'871v j3ovAwf.1J'8wv i.~oVAwf.1J'871v
j3ovAw0J..Lf.8u j3ovAwww8u j3OVAWOLJ..Lf.8u i. j3 ov AWO J..Lf. 8u

j3oVAf.vf.1J'8f. j3oVAf.v711J'8f. j3OVAf.VOLIJ'8f. j3oVAf.vf.1J'8f. i.j3oVAf.vf.1J'8f.
j3OVAf.VOVTaL j3OVAf.VWVTaL j3OVAf.VOWTO j3ovAwf.1J'8wv i.j30VAf.VOVTO
infinitive: j3oVAf.vf.1J'8uL
participle: POVAW0J..LEVO,. -71. -av
I. For finite forms of verbs. the listing is consistently in the order I st. 2nd, 3rd singular; 2nd, 3rd
dual; 1st, 2nd, 3rd plural; but person/number labels are omitted.
360 APPENDIX THREE
FUTURE SYSTEM
active indicative active optative middle indicative middle optative
j30VA£1)UW j3ovAEVUOLIlL j3oVAEvuOllaL j3ovAEVUoill7]V

j30VAEVUHS j30VAEVUOLS j30vAEVUTI (or -EL) j3oVAEVUOLO
j30VAEVUH j3oVAEVUOL j30vAEvuETaL j3ovAEVUOLTO
j30VAEVUETOV j3ovAEVUOLTOV j3ovAEvuEUeOV j3ovAEvuOLUeOV
j30VAEVUETOV j3ovAEVuoiT7]V j3ovAEvuEUeOV j3ovA€Vuoiue7]v
j3ovAEvuOIlW j3ovAEvuOLIlW j3ovAEVuollEea j3ovAEVuoillEea
j30VAEVUETE j3ovAEVUOL H j30vAEvuEUeE j3ovAEvuOLUeE
j3ovAEVUOVUL(V) j3ovAEvuOLW j30VAEVUOVTaL j3ovAEVUOLVTO
active infinitive: j30VAEVUE LV
middle infinitive: j30vAEvuEUeaL
active participle: j3ovAEVUWV. j3ovAEvuovua. j3ovAEVUOV
middle participle: j30vAEVuOIlWOS. -7]. -{)v
passive indicative passive optative
j3ovAEVe~UOllaL j3ovAEVe7]UOill7]V
j3ovAEVe~un (or -EL) j3ovAEVe~UOLO
j3ovAEVe~UETaL j30VAEVe~UOL TO
j3ovAEVe~UEUeOV j30VAEVe~UOLUeOV
j3ovAEVe~UEUeOV j30VAEVe7]uoiue7]V
j3ovAEVe7]UOIlEea j3ovAEVe7]UOiIlEea
j3ovAEVe~UEUeE j3ovAEVe~UOLUeE
j3ovAEVe~UOVTaL j3ovAEVe~UOLVTO
passive infinitive: j3ovAEVe~UEUeaL

passive participle: j3ovAEVe7]UOIlWOS. -7]. -{)v
STRONG (2ND) AORIST SYSTEM ACTIVE
indicative subjunctive optative imperative
~yayov ayayw ayayoLIlL

~yaYEs ayaYTls ayayoLs ayaYE
~yaydv) ayaYTl ayayoL ayayi.Tw
~yaYETov ayaY7]TOV ayayoLTov ayaYETov
~yayi.T7]v ayaY7]TOV ayayoiT7]V ayaYETwv
~yayollw ayaywllw ayayoLIlEv
~yaym ayaY7]H ayayoLH ayaYETE
~yayov ayaywuL(v) ayayoLw ayayovTwv
infinitive: ayaYELv
participle: ayaywv. ayayovua. ayayov
Paradigms: .f2-Verbs 361
STRONG (2ND) AORIST SYSTEM MIDDLE
~yayO}l77V ayo.yW}laL a ya yOL}l77V

~yo.yov ayo.YTl ayo.yOLO ayayov
~yo.y€TO ayo.Y77 TaL ayo.YOLTO ayaYEtTeW
~yo.y€(]·eOV ayo.Y77tTeOV ayo.YOLCreOV ayo.y€tTeOV
~yayEtTe77V ayo.Y77tTeOV ayaYOLtTe77V ayaYEtTeWV
~yayO}l€ea ayayw}l€ea a ya yOL}l€ea
~yo.y€tTe€ ayo.Y77tTe€ ayo.YOLtTe€ ayo.y€tTe€
~yo.yOVTO ayo.YWVTaL ayo.YOLVTO ayaYEtTeWV
infinitive: ayaYEtTeaL
participle: ayayO}lEVos. -77. -ov
WEAK (lST) AORIST SYSTEM ACTIVE
E{3ovA€VtTa {3ovA€VtTW {3oVA€VtTaL}lL

E{3ovA€VtTas {3oVA€VtTT/S {30VA€vtTELaS {30VA€VtTOV
or (3oVA€VtTaLS
E{30VA€VtTdv) {30VA€vtTT/ (30VA€VtT€L{(v) {30VA€VtTo.TW
or {3ovA€vtTaL
E{3ovA€vtTaTOV {30VA€VtT77TOV {3oVA€VtTaL TOV {3ovA€vtTaTOV
E{3oVA€VtTo. T77V {30VA€VtT77TOV {3oVA€VtTaLT77V {3oVA€VtTo.TWV
E{3oVA€vtTa}lEV {30VA€VtTW}lEV {3oVA€VtTaL}lEV
E{3ovA€vtTaTE {30VA€VtT77TE {3oVA€VtTaLTE (3oVA€VtTaTE
E{3ovA€VtTaV (3oVA€VtTWtTL(V) {30VA€VtTELaV {3oVA€VtTo.VTWV
or {3ovA€vtTaLEV
infinitive: {3ovA€vtTaL
participle: {3ovA€vtTas. {3oVA€VtTatTa. {3ovA€vtTaV
WEAK (lST) AORIST SYSTEM MIDDLE
E{30VA€VtTo.}l77V {3oVA€VtTw}laL {3ovA€VtTaL}l77V

E{30VA€VtTW {3oVA€vtTT/ {3oVA€vtTaLO {3ovA€VtTaL
E{3oVA€vtTaTO {3oVA€VtT1/TaL {3oVA€VtTaLTO {30VA€VtTo.tTeW
E{3ovA€vtTatTeOV {30VA€VtT1/tTeOV {3ovAEVtTaLtTeOV {3oVA€vtTatTeOV
E{30VA€VtTo.tTe77V {3oVA€VtT1/tTeOV {3oVA€VtTaLtTe77V {30vA€VtTo.tTewV
E{30VA€VtTo.}l€ea {30VA€VtTw}l€ea {3ovA€VtTaL}l€ea
E{3ovA€vtTatTe€ {30VA€VtT1/tTe€ {3oVA€VtTaLtTe€ {3ovA€vtTatTe€
E{3ovA€vtTaVTO {3oVA€VtTWVTaL {3ovA€vtTaLVTO {3oVA€VtTo.tTeWV
infinitive: {3ovA€VtTatTeaL
participle: {30vA€VtTo.}lEVOS. -77. -OV
362 APPENDIX THREE
AORIST SYSTEM PASSIVE
i.j30VAEV07)V j30VAWOw j30VAWOE i.,.,v

i.j30VAEV07)' j3ovAwOff, j30VAWOE i 7), j3ovAEV07)Tt
i.j30VAEV07) j3ovAwOff j30VAWOE i 7) j30VAWO~TW
i.POVAEV07)TOV POVAWOr,TOV j30VAWOE(7)TOV or -8ELTOV j30VAEV07)TOV

i.j30VAWO~T7)V POVAWOr,TOV j30VAWOEL~T7)V or -8EiT7)V j30VAWO~TWV
i.j30VAEV07)J.'EV j3ovAWOWJ.'EV j30VAWOE(7)J.'EV or -8E'iJ.'EV

i.j3ovAEvO.,.,n j3ovAwOr,n j30VAWOE i 7)n or -8E 'i n POvAEvO.,.,n
i.j3ovAEV07)ITaV POVAwOwITdv} POVAWOE(7)ITav or -8E'iEV POVAWOEVTWV
infinitive: POVAwOr,vat
participle: j30VAWOEi" j3ovAwOE'iITa, j3ovAwOEV
PERFECT SYSTEM ACTIVE
Jst perf indo 2nd perf indo sub}. (simple) subj. (periphrastic form)
AEAvKa AEAoma AEAOi7TW AEAomw, ;;; or AEAomv'ia ;;;

AEAvKa, AEAOt7Ta, AEAOi7T!/, AEAomw, (-v'ia) 77'
AEAVKE AEAomdv} AEAOi7T!/ AEAomw, (-v'ia, ~,) 77
AEAVKaTOV AEAoi7TaTov AE Aoi7T7)TOV AEAoman (-via) 77TOv
AEAvKaTov AEAoi7TaTov AE Aoi7T7)TOV AEAoman (-via) 77TOv
AEAvKaJ.'EV AEAOi7TaJ.'EV AEAOi7TWJ.'EV AEAoman, (-v'iat) ;;;J.'EV
AEAvKan AEAoi7Tan AEAOi 7T7)n AEAoman, (-v'iad 77n
AEAVKaut(V} AEAOi7TaITt(v} AEAOi7TWITdv} AEAoman, (-v'iad ;;;ITt(v)
or AEAomam i1
opt. (simple form) opt. (periphrastic form) imperative
AEAOi7TOtJ.'t AEAomw, (-v'ia) E(7)V

AEAOi7TOt, AEAomw, (-v'ia) EL.,." AEAOt7TW, (-v'ia) tITOt
AEAOi7TOt AEAomw, (-v'ia, -O,) Et.,., AEAomw, (-v'ia, -O,) €ITTW
AEAOi7TOtTOV AEAoman (-via) E(7)TOV AEAoman (-via) €ITTOV
AEAOmOLT7)V AEAoman (-via) Ei~T7)V AEAoman (-via) €ITTWV
AEAOi7TOtJ.'EV AEAoman, (-v'iat) Ei}lEv
AEAoi7TOtn AEAoman, (-v'iat) Ein AEAoman, (-v'iad €ITn
AEAOi7TOtEV AEAoman, (-v'iad ELEV AEAoman, (-v'iat) €ITTWV
or AEAomom EL.,., or AEAomom €ITTW
perfect active infinitive: AEAomEVat
perfect active participle: AEAomw" AEAomv'ia, AEAomo,
PERFECT SYSTEM: M/P INDICATIVE, INFINITIVE, PARTICIPLE
indo A€Av!J.at 7I"(7I"H(Jpat y€ypa!J.!J.at

A€AVlTat 7I"€7I"HlTat y€ypatat
A€AVTat 7I"€7I"HITTat yEypa7l"Tat
AEAVIT()OV 7I"E7I"HlTeOV yEypacpeOv
AEAVlTeOV 7I"E7I"HlTeOV yEypacp()ov
A(AV!J.(ea 7I"(7I"( LIT!J.(ea y(ypa!J.!J.(()a
AEAVlTe( 7I"E7I"HlTe( yEypacp()(
AEAVVTat 7I"mHIT!J.EVOt (-ad dlTL yqpa!J.!J.EVOt (-at) (iITL
or 7I"(7I"HIT!J.Eva flTTL or yqpa!J.!J.Eva flTTL
in! A(AVlTeat 7I"(7I"(tlTeat yqpacpeat
part. A(AV!J.EVOS. -7/. -ov 7I"(7I"HIT!J.EVOS. -7/. -ov y(ypa!J.!J.Evos. -7/.-ov
indo 7I"E7I"paY!J.at 17yy(A!J.at 7I"EcpalT!J.at

7r€7I"patat 17YY(AlTat
7rE7I"paKTat 17YY(ATat 7I"EcpaVTat
x
7rE7I"pa eOV 17yy(ABov 7I"EcpaVeOV
x
7I"E7I"pa eOV 17yy(ABov 7I"EcpaVeOV
7I"(7I"paY!J.(()a i}yyEA}J.(ea 7I"(cpalTw()a
7I"E7I"pa X()( 17YYEAe( 7I"Ecpav()E
7I"(7I"paY!J.EVOt (-at) (iITL i}yYEA!J.EVOt (-at) E(ITL 7I"(cpalT!J.EVOt (-ad ((ITL
or 7I"mpaY!J.Eva flTTL or i}yy(A!J.Eva flTTL or 7I"EcpalT!J.Eva E(nL
in! 7r(7I"pnXeat i}yYEABat 7I"(cpaveat
part. 7I"E7I"pay!J.EVos. -7/.-ov i}yy(A!J.EVOS. -7/.-ov 7I"(cpalT!J.Evos. -7/. -ov
PERFECT SYSTEM: M/P SUBJUNCTIVE, OPTATIVE, IMPERATIVE
subjunctive optative imperative
AEAV!J.€VOS (-7/) ~ A(AV!J.€VOS (-7/) E(7/V

A(AV!J.€VOS (-7/) ~s A(AV!J.€VOS (-7/) E(7/S A(AV!J.EVOS (-7/) (lTet
A(AV!J.EVOS (-7/. -OV) ~ A(AV!J.EVOS (-7/. -OV) ((7/ A(AV!J.€VOS (-7/. -OV) EITTW
A(AV!J.€VW (-a) ~TOV A(AV!J.EVW (-a) ((7/TOV AEAV!J.EVW (-a) EITTOV
AEAV!J.€VW (-a) ~TOV A(AV!J.EVW (-a) (irjT7/V A(AV!J.€VW (-a) EITTWV
AEAV!J.€VOt (-at) ~!J.EV A(AV!J.EVOt (-ad EL!J.EV
A(AV!J.€VOt (-ad ~n A(AV!J.EVOt (-at) ELn A(AV!J.EVOt (-at) ElTn
A(AV!J.€VOt (-at) ~lTt(v) AEAV!J.EVOt (-at) (LEV AEAV!J.EVOt (-ad EITTWV
or AEAv!J.€Va ~ or A(Av!J.Eva ((7/ or A(Av!J.€Va EITTW
364 APPENDIX THREE
PERFECT SYSTEM: M/P SUBJ., OPT., IMPER. (RARE SIMPLE FORM)
subjunctive optative imperative
JJ.EJJ.vwJJ.at JJ.EJJ.Vy/JJ.T/V or JJ.EJJ.VlIlWIV

JJ.EJJ.vfi JJ.EJJ.vfio JJ.EJJ. v0 o JJ.f.JJ.VT/UO
JJ.EJJ.Vr,Tat JJ.EJJ.VfiTO JJ.EJJ. v0 TO JJ.EJJ.V~UeW
JJ.EJJ.Vr,UeOv JJ.EJJ.vfiueov JJ.EJJ.v0ueov
JJ.EJJ.Vr,UeOv JJ.EJJ.Vy/UeT/V JJ.EJJ.v0UeT/V
JJ.EJJ.VWJJ.Eea JJ.EJJ.Vy/JJ.Eea JJ.EJJ.v0JJ.Eea
JJ.EJJ.Vr,UeE JJ.EJJ.vfiueE JJ.EJJ. v0 ueE
JJ.EJJ.VWVTat JJ.EJJ.vfivTO JJ.EJJ. v0 vT O
PLUPERFECT ACTIVE AND MIDDLE/PASSIVE INDICATIVE
active middle-passive
EAEAVKT/ EAEAVJJ.T/V E7fE7TE i,uJJ. T/V EYEYpaJJ.JJ.T/V

EAEAVKT/> EAf.AVUO E7ff.7fHUO Eyf.ypa"'o
EAEAVKH(V) EAf.AVTO E7ff.7fHUTO Eyf.ypa7fTO
EAEAVKETOV EAf.AVUeOV E7ff.7fHUeOV Eyf.ypacpeov
EAEAVKf.rT/V EAEAVUeT/V E7fE 7fti.ueT/V EYEYpacpeT/V
EAEAVKEJJ.W EAEAVJJ.Eea E7fE7TEi,UJJ.Eea EYEYpaJJ.JJ.Eea
EAEAVKETE EAf.AVUeE E7ff.7fHUeE Eyf.ypacpeE
EAEAvKEuav EAf.AVVTO 7fE7fHUJJ.f.VOt (-{It) ~uav YEYpaJJ.JJ.f.vot (-{It)~uav
, ~ , ~
or 7fE7fHUJJ.wa T/V or YEypaJJ.JJ.wa T/V
middle-passive
E7fE7TpaYJJ.T/V ~yyf.AJJ.T/V
E7ff.7fpa~o ~yyEMo
E7ff.7fpaKTO ~yyEATO E7f€cpaVTO
x
E7ff.7fpa eOV ~yYEAeov E7f€cpaVeov
x
E7fE7Tpa eT/V ~yyf.AeT/V E7fEcpaVeT/V
E7fE7Tpay}J.Eea ~yyf.AJJ.Eea E7fEcpauJJ.Eea
E7ff.7fpaXeE ~yyEAeE E7ff.cpaVeE
7fE7fpaYJJ.f.vot (-{ltl ~uav ~yYEAJJ.f.VOt (-{It) ~uav 7fEcpauJJ.f.Vot (-{It) ~uav
or 7fE7TpaYJJ.f.Va ~v or ~yyEAJJ.f.Va ~v or 7fEcpauJJ.f.Va ~v
FUTURE PERFECT INDICATIVE
active middle-passive
AEAVKW, (-vta) ~IJ'O/laL AEAVIJ'O/laL or AEAV/lfVO, (-1) ~IJ'O/laL

AEAVKW, (-vta) ~1J''[1 AEAVIJ''[1 AEAV/lfVO, (-1) ~1J''[1
AEAVKW, (-vta. -0,) ~IJ'TaL AEAVIJ'ETaL AEAV/lfVO, (-1). -OV) ~IJ'TaL
AEAvKon (-via) ~IJ'EIJ'Bov AEAVIJ'EIJ'Bov AEAV/lfVW ~IJ'EIJ'Bov
AEAvKon (-via) ~IJ'EIJ'Bov AEAVIJ'EIJ'Bov AEAV/lfVW ~IJ'EIJ'Bov
AEAvKon, (-VtaL) EIJ'O/lEBa AEAVIJ'O/lEBa AEAV/lfVOL (-aL) EIJ'O/lEBa
AEAvKon, (-VtaL) ~IJ'EIJ'BE AEAVIJ'EIJ'BE AEAV/lfVOL (-aL) ~IJ'EIJ'BE
AEAvKon, (-VtaL) ~IJ'OVTaL AEAVIJ'OVTaL AEAV/lfVOL (-ad ~IJ'OVTaL
or AEAVKOTa ~lJ'TaL or AEAV/lfVa ~IJ'TaL
future perfect middle-passive infinitive: AEAVIJ'EIJ'BaL
future perfect middle-passive participle: AEAVIJ'O/lEVO,. -1). -ov
ATHEMATIC PERFECTS (U41)
LIJ"T1]}.H (in addition to forms from EIJ"T1]KU)
indicative subjunctive opt. (poetic) imper. (poetic) pluperfect
€IJ'TW €lJ'Ta(1)v
€lJ'TiI' EIJ"TaL1), flJ'TaBL
€lJ'Tii EIJ'TaL1) EIJ'TaTW
flJ'TaTOV €1J'T7]TOV €IJ'TatTOV flJ'TaTOV flJ'TaTOV
flJ'TaTOV €1J'T7]TOV €IJ'TaiTrW €1J'T(lTWV €lJ'TaT1)V
flJ'Ta/lEV €IJ'TW/lEV €IJ'Tat/lEV flJ'Ta/lEV
flJ'Tan €1J'T7]n €IJ'Tatn flJ'Tan flJ'Tan
€IJ'TQ.IJ'L(V) €IJ'TWIJ'L(V) €IJ'TatEV €IJ'TllVTWV flJ'TalJ'aV
infinitive: €IJ'TCWaL
participle:
()ViWKW (in addition to forms from TE()V1]KU)

indicative subjunctive opt. (poetic) imperative pluperfect
nBva(1)v
not found nBva(1), TfBvaBL (poetic)
nBva(1) nBvaTw
TfBvaTOV nBva'iTov
TfBvaTOv nBvaiT1)V
TfBva/lEV nBVat/lEV
TfBvan nBvatn
nBVaIJ'L(V) nBVatEV
infinitive: nBvavaL
participle: nBvEw,. nBvEwlJ'a. nBvEo, (masc./neut. stem nBvEwT-)
366 APPENDIX THREE
OEOLa (in addition to forms from oEooLKa)

indicative subj. (rare) optative imperative pluperfect
~----
OEOLa OEOLW EOEOLHV

OEOLa, OEOLV' not found OEOL6L EOEoLm
OEOL.(V) OEOLV EOEOLH
OEOLTOV OEOLT/TOV
OEOLTOV OEOLT/TOV
OEOLJ.l.EV OEoiwJ.l.EV EOEOLJ.l.EV
OEOLH OEoiT/H EOEOLH
OEOLQ.ITL(V) OEoiwITL(V) EOEOiEITaV
or EOEOLITaV
infinitive: OEOLEvaL
participle: OE(iLW" oEoLVLa, OEOLO,
PRESENT SYSTEM OF CONTRACT U-VERBS'

VERBS IN -EW: ACTIVE
indicative subjunctive optatiw? imperative imperJ indo
7rOLW 7rOLW (7roWLJ.l.d or 7rOWLT/V E7roiovv

7rOLEL, 7rOL fT, (7rOWL,) 7rOWLT/, 7rOLH E7roiH,
7rOLEL 7rOL fT (7rOWL) 7rOWLT/ 7rOLHTW E7roiH
7rOLELTOV 7rOLijTOv 7rOWLTOV (7rOWL T/TOV) 7rOLELTOV E7rOLELTOV
7rOLELTOV 7rOLijTOv 7rOWLTT/V (7rOWn)TT/v) 7rOLEtTWV E7rOLEiTT/V
7rOWVJ.l.EV 7rOLWJ.l.EV 7rOWLJ.l.EV (7rOWL T/J.l.EV) E7rOWVJ.l.EV

7rOLELH 7rOLijH 7rOWLH (7rOWL T/H) 7rOLELH E7rOLELn
7rowvcn(v) 7rOLwcn(v) 7rOWLEV (7rOWL T/ITav) 7rOWVVTWV E7roiovv
infinitive: 7rOLELV
participle: 7rOLWV, 7rowvITa, 7rOWVV
VERBS IN -EW WITH MONOSYLLABIC STEM: ACTIVE
indicative subjunctive optative imperative imperJ
7rhEW 7rhEW 7r hEOLJ.l.L f7rhWV

7rhEL, 7rhEV' 7rhEOL, 7rhEL f7rhH,
7rhEL 7rhEV 7r hEOL 7rhEiTW f7rhH
~.----
I. Future system with contract conjugation (such as -EW contraction in VOJ.l.LW, aYYEhw, and -aw
contraction in EhW, ITKEOW) has the same endings for indicative, optative, infinitive, and
participle (no subjunctive or imperative in the future).
2. Less common forms in parentheses.
Paradigms: Contract Verbs 367
active a/verbs in -EW with monosyllabic stem (dual and plural)

indicative subjunctive optative imperative imperj
7rA~LTOV 7rAE-T)TOV 7rAEOtTOV 7rA~LTOV E7rA~LTOV

7rA~LTOV 7rAETJTOV 7r AWLTTJV 7rAfLTWV E7r Af LTTJV
7rAEOjlfV 7rAEWjlfV 7rAEOtjlfV E7r AEOjlfV
7rA~LTf 7rAETJTf 7rAEOtTf 7rAf(Tf E7rAf(Tf
7rAEOvln(v) 7rAEwcn(v) 7rAEOtfV 7r AH)VTWV E7rAWV
infinitive: 7rA~(V
participle: 7rAEWV. 7rAEOVITa. 7rAEOV
VERBS IN -EW: MIDDLE-PASSIVE
7rowvjlat 7rotwjlat 7rOWLjlTJV f7rOWVjlTJV

7rOt f1 7rOt f1 7rOW(O 7rOWV E7rOWV
7rOt~LTat 7rOtr,Tat 7rOWLTO 7rotELIT8w E7rOtfLTO
7rOtfL178ov 7rotr,IT8ov 7roWL178ov 7rOtfLIT8ov E7rOtf LIT80v
7rot~L178ov 7rotr,IT8ov 7roWL178TJv 7rot~LIT8wv E7rOtf LIT8TJv
7rowvjl~8a 7rotwjlf8a 7rOWLjlf8a E7rOWVjlf8a
7rOt~L178~ 7rOtr,IT8f 7rOW(178f 7rot~(IT8~ E7rOtfLIT8f
7rOWVVTat 7rOtwVTat 7rOWLVTO 7rot~LIT8wv E7rOWVVTO
infinitive: 7rotE(IT8at
participle: 7rOWVjlfVO). -TJ. -OV
VERBS IN -EW WITH MONOSYLLABIC STEM: MIDDLE-PASSIVE
OEOjlat OEwjlat OW LjlTJV EOEOjlTJV

OEn oEn OEOW OEOV EOEOV
O~LTat OETJTat OEOtTO o~LIT8w EOE(TO
o~L178ov OETJIT8ov OEotIT8ov OE(IT80V EOf(178ov
o~(IT8ov OETJIT8ov OWL178TJv OELIT8wv EOEL178TJv
OfOjlf8a Ofwjlf8a OWLjlf8a EOfOjlf8a
OfL178f OETJ178E OEot178f OE(IT8f EOf(IT8E
OEOVTat OEWVTat OEOWTO OELIT8wv EOEOVTO
infinitive: of(IT8at
participle: OfOjlfVO). -TJ. -OV
368 APPENDIX THREE
VERBS IN -aw: ACTIVE

opw opw (OP0P.l) or oPcP1/V f.WpWV

op~c; op~c; (op0c;) °PcP1/C; opa Ewpac;
op~ op~ (op0) oPcP1/ opaTw f.wpa
opnTov opnTov op0TOV (OPcP1/TOV) opnTov f.WpnTOV
opnTov opnTov oPcPT1/V (Opcp~T1/V ) opaTwv f.WpaT1/V
opwp.w opwp.w °P0p.w (opcP1/p.w) f.Wpwp.w
opnn opnn op0n (oPcP1/Td opnn f.wpnn
opwcn(v) opw(n(v) op0w (oPcPWTav) OPWVTWV f.WpWV
infinitive: opnv
participle: opwv. opwua. opwv
VERBS IN -aw WITH TJ IN CONTRACTION: ACTIVE

xpw xpw XPcP1/V £xpwv

xpnc; xpnc; XPcP1/C; XpT, £XP1/C;
xpn xpn XPcP1/ xp~TW £XP1/
XpT,TOV XpT,TOV xp0 TOV XpT,TOV fXPT,TOV
XpT,TOV XpT,TOV XPcP T1/V xp~TWV fXP~T1/V
xpwp.w xpwp.w xp0p.w fXPWP.EV
xpT,n xpT,n xp0 n xpT,n fxpT,n
xpw(n(v) xpw(n(v) xp0 w XPWVTWV £xpwv
infinitive: xpT,V
participle: xpwv. xpwua. xpwv
VERBS IN -aw: MIDDLE-PASSIVE
opwp.al opwp.al °pcPp.1/V f.Wpwp.1/V

op~ op~ op0o opw f.WpW
OpnTal OpnTal op0TO opau8w f.WpnTO
opnu8ov opnu8ov op0u8ov opnu8ov f.wpnu8ov
opnu8ov opnu8ov oPcP u81/v opau8wv f.wpau81/v
opwp.E8a opwp.E8a oPcP}lE8a f.wpwp.E8a
opnu8E opnu8E Op0u8E opnu8E f.WpnU8E
OpWVTal OPWVTal op0 VTO opau8wv f.WpWVTO
infinitive: opnu8al
participle: opwp.woc;. -1/. -{JV
Paradigms: Contract Verbs 369
VERBS IN -aw WITH 1/ IN CONTRACTION: MIDDLE-PASSIVE

xpWjJ.aL xpwjJ.aL XPtfjJ.1JV fxpWjJ.1)V

xpfi xpfi xp0 0 xpw fXPW
XPTJTaL XPTJTaL xp0 TO Wr/(jOw fXPTJTO
XPTJ(jOov XPTJ(jOov xp0(jOov XPTJ(jOov fXPTJ(jOOV
XPTJ(jOov XPTJ(jOov XPtf(jOrJV XPr](jOwv fXPr](j01)V
xpwjJ.EOa xpwjJ.EOa xptfjJ.EOa fxpwjJ.EOa
XPTJ(jOE XPTJ(jOE XP0(jOE XPTJ(jOE fXPTJ(jOE
xpwvTaL XPWVTaL xp0 VTO XPr](jOwv fXPWVTO
infinitive: XPTJ(jOaL
participle: xpWjJ.EVO,. -1). -ov
VERBS IN -ow: ACTIVE
(1)Aw (1)Aw (o1)AoLjJ.d or (1)11.01. 1)V fOr]AOVV

(1)AOL, (1)AOL, (01)AOL,) (1)11.01.1), or]Aov fOr]Aov,
(1)AOL (1)A.o'i (o1)A.o'i) (1)Ao/'1) (1)A01JTW fOr]Aov
(1)AofJTOV (1)AwTOV (1)AOLTOV (01)Ao/.1)Tov) (1)AOVTOV f(1)AOVTOV
(1)AOVTOV (1)AwTOV (1)AOLT1)V (01)AOL r]T1)V) (1)AOVTWV f(1)AOVT1)V
(1)AovjJ.Ev (1)AwjJ.EV (1)AoLjJ.EV (01)Ao/'1)jJ.EV) f(1)AovjJ.EV
(1)AOVH (1)AwH (1)AOLH (01)Ao/.1)H) (1)AOVH f(1)AovH
(1)Aov(jL(v) (1)Aw(jL(v) (1)AOLEV (01)Ao/'1)(jav) (1)AOVVTwv fOr]Aovv
infinitive: (1)AOVV
participle: (1)Awv. (1)Aov(ja. (1)AOVV
VERBS IN -ow: MIDDLE-PASSIVE
(1)AovjJ.aL (1)AwjJ.aL (1)Ao/.jJ.1)V f(1)AOVjJ.1)V

(1)AOL (1)AOL (1)AOlO (1)AOV f(1)Aov
(1)AOVTaL (1)AWTaL (1)AOlTO (1)Aov(jOw f(1)AOVTO
(1)Aov(jOov (1)Aw(jOov (1)AoL(jOov (1)Aov(jOov f(1)Aov(jOov
(1)Aov(jOov (1)Aw(jOov (1)Ao/'(j01)V (1)Aov(jOwv f(1)Aov(j01)V
(1)AovjJ.EOa (1)AwwOa (1)AoLjJ.EOa f(1)AovjJ.EOa
(1)Aov(jOE (1)Aw(jOE (1)Aol(jOE (1)Aov(jOE f(1)Aov(jOE
(1)AOVVTaL (1)AWVTaL (1)AOlVTO (1)Aov(jOwv f(1)AOVVTO
infinitive: (1)Aov(jOaL
participle: (1)AovjJ.EVo,. -1). -ov
370 APPENDIX THREE
MI-VERBS
Ti8T]}J.t: PRESENT SYSTEM ACTIVE
Ti87]llt n8w n8fi7]v hi87]v

Ti87]'> n8ff,> n8d7]'> Ti8H hi8m
Ti87](TL(v) n8ff n8fi7] n8hw hi8H
Ti8nov n8r,TOv n8fLTov Ti8nov hi8nov
Ti8nov n8r,TOv n8fiT7]V n8hwv fn8h7]v
Ti8fJlW n8w}J.w n8fLJlW hi8fJlW
Ti8fH n8r,H n8fLH Ti8nf hi8nf
n8EQ.a-t{v) n8w(TL(v) n8fLw n8EvTwv hi8HTaV
infinitive: n8EvaL
participle: n8fi,>. TL8fLa-a. n8Ev
Ti8T]}J.L: PRESENT SYSTEM MIDDLE-PASSIVE
Ti8fJlaL n8wJlaL n8fiJl7]v fn8EJl7]V

Ti8fa-aL n8ff n8fLo Ti8fa-O hi8fa-O
Ti8naL n8r,TaL n8fLTo n8Ea-8w hi8no
Ti8fa-8ov n8r,a-8ov n8fLa-8ov Ti8fa-8ov hi8fa-8ov
Ti8fa-8ov n8r,a-8ov n8da-87]v n8Ea-8wv fn8Ea-87]v
n8EJlf8a TL8WJlf8a n8dJlf8a fn8EJlf8a
Ti8fa-8f n8r,IT8f n8fLa-8f Ti8fa-8f hiOfa-8f
Ti8wTaL n8wvTaL n8fLvTo n8Ea-8wv hiOwTO
infinitive: Ti8fa-8aL
participle: n8EJlWo,>. -7]. -ov
Ti8T]}J.t: AORIST SYSTEM ACTIVE
f87]Ka 8w 8fi7]v
f87]Ka'> 8ff,> 8fi7]'> 8E'>
f87]Kdv) 8'?1 8fi7] 8hw
f8nov 8r,TOV 8fLTOV 8hov
f8h7]v 8r,TOV 8dT7]V (}hwv
f(}fJlW 8wJlw (}fL7]JlW or (}fLJlW
f(}nf 8r,H 8fi7]H or (}fLH (}EH
f8fa-av (}Wa-L(V) (}fLW (}EVTWV
infinitive: 8fLvaL
participle: 8fi,>. (}fLa-a. (}EV
Paradigms: MI-Verbs 371
Ti8r7l.I.L: AORIST SYSTEM MIDDLE
EOf./lryv OW/laL OEt/lryV

O~
{OOV '[I OELO Oof;
{OETO efjTaL OELTO Of.(J"Ow
{Om-Oov MwOov OELa-eov Of.(J"Oov
EOf.(J"Oryv OfwOo v OEt(J"OryV Of.(J"Owv
EOf./lEOa OW/lEOa OEi/lEOa
{OE(J"OE MwOE OEL(J"OE
{OEVTO OWVTaL OELVTO
infinitive: Of.(J"OaL
participle: Of./lEVO,. -ry. -ov
t"Y/J.l.t: PRESENT SYSTEM ACTIVE
indicative subjunctive optative imperative imperfect ind_

-----
Lry/lL iw iEtryV Lryv

Lry, i~, LEL ry, LEL LEL,
Lry(J"L(V) i~ LELry LETW LEL
LETOV ii]TOV iELTOV LETOV LETOV
LETOV ii]TOV iEtTryV LETWV ihryv
LE/lEV iW/lEV iEL/lEV (E/lEV
LETE ii]TE iELTE LETE (ETE
in(J"dv) iW(J"L(V) iELEV LEVTWV LEuav
infinitive: if.VaL
participle: iEt,. iEL(J"a. if.v
t"Y/J.l.t: PRESENT SYSTEM MIDDLE-PASSIVE
indicative subjunctive optative imperative imperfect indo
LE/laL iW/laL iE t/lryv LE/lryV

LE(J"aL i~ iELO LE(J"O LE(J"O
LETaL ii]TaL iELTO if.(J"Ow tETO
LE(J"OOV ii](J"Oov iEL(J"OOV LE(J"OOV LE(J"OOV

LE(J"OOV ii](J"Oov iE t(J"Oryv if.(J"Owv if.(J"Oryv
if./lEOa iW/lEOa iEt/lEOa if./lEOa
LE(J"OE i i](J"OE iEL(J"OE (E(J"OE (E(J"OE
LEVTaL iWVTaL iELVTO if.(J"Owv (EVTO
infinitive: LE(J"OaL
participle: if./lEVO,. -ry. -ov
372 APPENDIX THREE
tr/llL: AORIST SYSTEM ACTIVE
(acpH]Ka (acp)w (acp)ELT)V

(acpH]Ka> (acp)ff> (acp)EL1/> (acp)(>
(acp)i]Kdv) (acp)ff (acp)EL1/ (acp)hw
(acpkiTOv (acp)i]Tov (acplE'iTov (acp)hov
(acp)ELT1)V (acp)i]Tov (acp)ELT1/V (acp)hwv
(acpki}J.EV (acp)w}J.EV (acplE'i}J.EV
(acpkiTE (acp)i]TE (acplE'iTE or (acp)EL1/TE (acp)(TE
(acpki(}"av (acp)w(}"L(V) (acplE'iEV or (acp)EL1/(}"av (acp)(VTWV
infinitive: (acpkivaL
participle: (acp)EL>. (acpki(}"a. (acp)(v
tT/J.LL: AORIST SYSTEM MIDDLE
(acp)EL}J.1/V (acp)w}J.aL (acp)EL}J.1/V

(acpki(}"o (acp)ff (acp)ELo (acp)ov
(acpkiTO (acp)i]TaL (acp)ELTO (acp)((}"Ow
(acp)EL(}"OOV (acp)i](}"Oov (acp)E'i.(}"Oov (acp)E(}"OoV
(acp)EL(}"01/V (acp)i](}"Oov (acp)d(}"01/v (acp)((}"Owv
(acp)EL}J.EOa (acp)w}J.EOa (acp)EL}J.EOa
(acpki(}"OE (acp)i](}"OE (acp)EL(}"OE (acp)E(}"OE
(acp)ELvTO (acp)wVTaL (acp)ELvTO (acp)((}"Owv
infinitive: (acp)((}"OaL
participle: (acp)(}J.EVo>. -1/. -ov
OtOw/.u: PRESENT SYSTEM ACTIVE
indicative subjunctive optative imperative imperJ indo
OLOW}J.L OLOW OLOOL1/V f.oioovv

oiow> M0> OLooi1/> oioov f.oioov>
OiOW(}"L(V) M0 OLooi1/ OLOOTW f.oioov
OiOOTOV OLOWTOV OLOOLTOV OLOOTOV f.OiOOTOV
OiOOTOV OLOWTOV OLOOLT1/V OLOOTWV f.OLOOT1/V
oiooJ.I.Ev OLOW}J.EV OLOOL}J.EV f.OiOO}J.EV
OiOOTE OLOWTE OLOOLTE OiOOTE f.OiOOTE
oLooom(v) OLOW(}"L(V) OLOOLEV OLOOVTWV f.oioo(}"av
infinitive: oLoovaL
participle: OLOOV>. oLoov(}"a. OLOOV
OLOWjJ.L: PRESENT SYSTEM MIDDLE-PASSIVE
OLOOJ.Lat OtOwJ.LaL OLOOLJ.L71V €OtOOJ.L71V

OLOoO"aL OL00 OtOOLO OLOOO"O €OLOOO"O
OLooTaL OLOWTaL OLOOLTO oLoo0"8w €OLOOTO
oLoo0"80v oLow0"80v OLOOL0"80v oLoo0"80v €oLoo0"80v
oLoo0"80v oLow0"80v OLOOL0"871v otoo0"8wv €oLoo0"871v
oLooJ.L€8a oLowJ.L€8a OLOOLJ.L€8a €oLooJ.L€8a
oLoo0"8€ oLow0"8€ OLOOL0"8€ oLoo0"8E €oLoo0"8€
OLOOVTat OLOwvTaL OtOOLVTO oLoo0"8wv €OLOOVTO
infinitive: oLoo0"8aL
participle: OLOOJ.LEVO>. -71. -{IV
OiOWjJ.L: AORIST SYSTEM ACTIVE
EOwKa Ow OOL71V
EOWKa> 00> OOL71>
EOWKdv) 00 OOL71
EOOTOV OWTOV OOLTOV
€OOT71V OWTOV OOLT71V
EOOJ.LEV OWJ.LEV OOL71J.LEV or OOLJ.LEV
EOOTE OWTE OOL71TE OOTE
EooO"av OWO"L(V) OOLEV or OOL71O"av OOVTWV
infinitive: oovvaL
participle: oov>. oovO"a. oov
OiOWjJ.L: AORIST SYSTEM MIDDLE
€OOJ.L71V oWJ.Lat OOLJ.L71V

EOOV 00 OOLO oov
EOOTO OWTat OOLTO oo0"8w
Eoo0"80v ow0"80v 00L0"80v oo0"80v
€oo0"871v ow0"80v 00i0"871v oo0"8wv
€ooJ.LE8a oWJ.LE8a 00LJ.LE8a
EOo0"8E OW0"8E 00L0"8E OO0"8E
EOOVTO OWVTat OOLVTO oo0"8wv
infinitive: oo0"8aL
participle: OOJ.LEVO>. -71. -{IV
374 APPENDIX THREE
L(TTy//U: PRESENT SYSTEM ACTIVE
LCTT1}/..U iCTTW LCTTaL1}V LCTT1}V [ i I

LCTT1}~ iCTTff~ LCTTaL 1}~ LCTT1} LCTT1}~
LCTT1}CTL(V) iCTTff iCTTai1} iCTTaTw LCTT1}
LCTTaTOV iCTT'ryTOV iCTTatTOV LCTTaTOV LCTTaTov

LCTTaTov iCTT'ryTOV iCTTaiT1}V LCTTaTWV LCTTaT1}V
LCTTafJ.W iCTTWfJ.W iCTTaLfJ.W LCTTafJ.W

LCTTan iCTT'ryn iCTTaLn LCTTan LCTTan
iCTTUCTL(V) iCTTWCTL(V) iCTTatW LCTTaVTWV LCTTaCTav
infinitive: iCTTavaL
participle: iCTTa~. iCTTuua. iCTTav
L(TTT/J.U: PRESENT SYSTEM MIDDLE-PASSIVE
LCTTafJ.aL iCTTwfJ.aL iCTTaifJ.1}V iCTTafJ.1}V [ t I

LCTTaCTaL iCTTff iCTTatO LCTTaCTo LCTTaCTo
LCTTaTaL iCTTT;TaL iCTTatTO iCTTaCT8w LCTTaTo
LCTTaCT80v iCTTT;CT8ov iCTTaLCT80v LCTTaCT80v LCTTaCT80v

LCTTaCT80v iCTTT;CT8ov iCTTaiCT81}v iCTTaCT8wv iCTTaCT81}v
iCTTafJ.E8a iCTTwfJ.E8a iCTTaifJ.E8a iCTTafJ.E8a

LCTTaCT8E iCTTrw8E iCTTatCT8€ LCTTaCT8E LCTTaCT8E
LCTTaVTaL iCTTwvTaL iCTTatVTO iCTTaCT8wv LCTTavTo
infinitive: LCTTaCT8aL
participle: iCTTafJ.Wo~. -1}. -ov
L(TTy//.U: STRONG (INTRANSITIVE) AORIST SYSTEM ACTIVE
{CTT1}V CTTW CTTai1}v

{CTT1}'> CTTff~ CTTai1}'> CTTT;8L
{CTT1} CTTff CTTai1} CTT-qTW
{CTT1}TOV CTTT;TOV CTTaiTov CTTT;TOV

€CTT1}T1}V CTT'ryTOV CTTaLT1}V CTT-qTWV
ECTT1}fJ.W CTTWfJ.W CTTai1}fJ.w

ECTT1}n CTTT;n CTTaL1}n CTTT;n
(CTT1}CTaV CTTWCTL(V) CTTaLW CTTaVTWV
infinitive: CTTT;vaL
participle: CTTa~. CTTuCTa. CTTav

ovvap.aL (hri(TTap.ad: PRESENT SYSTEM MIDDLE-PASSIVE
lnlvaj.l.aL lnlvwj.l.aL OVVaLj.l.71V EOVVQ.j.l.71V

ovvauaL. lnlvCf. or lnlv77 lnlvaw E1rLUTaUO or Elnlvw
ovv77 E1rLuTw (~7TLUTW or
(E7TLurauaL or E7TLUTCf) ~7TLurauo)
OVVaTaL lnlv71TaL lnlvaLTo E7TLUTQ.UOW EovvaTo
lnlvauOov lnlv71uOov lnlvaLuOov E7TLurauOov ElnlvauOov
lnlvauOov lnlv71uOov ovvaLu071v E7TLUTQ.UOWV EOVVQ.U071V
OvvQ.j.l.fOa OVVwj.l.fOa OVVaLj.l.fOa EOvvQ.j.l.fOa
ovvauOf lnlv71u8f lnlvaLuOf E7TLUTaUOf ElnlvauOf
ovvavTaL lnlvwvTaL ovvawTo E7TLUTQ.UOWV ElnlvavTo
infinitive: lnlvauOaL (E7TLUTaUOaL)

participle: ovvQ.j.l.wo~. -71. -ov (E7TLUTQ.j.l.WO~. -71. -OV)
OELKVVP.L: PRESENT SYSTEM ACTIVE
OdKVVj.l.L OELKVVW OHKVVOLj.l.L EOfLKVVV

OfLKVV~ OHKvv77~ OHKVVOL~ OfLKVV EOfLKVV~
OfLKVVUL(V) OHKvv77 OHKVVOL OHKVVTW EOfLKVV
OfLKVVTOV OHKVV71TOV OHKVVOLTOV OfLKVVTOV EOELKVVTOV
OfLKVVTOV OHKVVT/TOV oHKVVOLT71V OHKVVTWV EOHKVVT71V
OfLKVVj.l.W OHKVVWj.l.W OHKVVOLj.l.W EOfLKVVj.l.W
OfLKVVH OHKVV71H OHKVVOLH OfLKVVH EodKVVH
OHKVV(iUL(V) OHKVVWUL(V) OHKVVOLW OHKVVVTWV EOfLKvvuav
infinitive: oHKvvvaL
participle: OHKVV~. oHKvvua. OHKVVV
oEiKVVP.L: PRESENT SYSTEM MIDDLE-PASSIVE
OfLKVVj.l.aL OHKVVwj.l.aL oHKVVOLj.l.71V EOHKVVj.l.71V

OfLKvvuaL OHKvv77 OHKVVOW OfLKVVUO EOfLKVVUO
OfLKVVTaL OHKvv71TaL OHKVVOLTO OHKVVUOW EOfLKVVTO
OfLKVVUOOV OHKVV71UOOV OHKVVOLUOOV OfLKVVUOOV EOfLKVVUOOV
OfLKVVUOOV OHKVV71UOOV oHKVVOLU071V OHKVVUOWV EOHKVVU071v
OHKVVj.l.fOa OHKVVwj.l.fOa OHKVVOLj.l.fOa EOHKVVj.l.fOa
OELKVVUOE OHKVV71UOf OHKVVOLUOf OfLKVVUOf EOfLKVVUOf
OfLKvvvTaL OHKvvwvTaL OHKVVOWTO OfLKVVUOWV EOfLKVVVTO
infinitive: OfLKvvuOaL
participle: OHKVVj.l.WO~. -71. -OV
376 APPENDIX THREE
t:i!J.L (BE): PRESENT SYSTEM AND FUTURE
pres. indo pres. subj. pres. optative imperat. imperJ Jut.

~ ~ ~
ELfJ-i W EL1/V 1/ or 1/V (uofJ-at
~ ~
H n~ EL1/~ Lu8t .;ju8a (uTI
~ ~
~(]"Ti(v) H1/ (UTW 1/V ((]"Tat
TI
~ ~ ~
~(]"TOV 1/TOV HTOV or EL1/TOV (UTOV 1/(]"TOV (uEu8ov
~
~(]"TOV 1/TOV ELT1/V H1/T1/V (UTWV 7](]"T1/V (uEu8ov
~ ~ ~
EUfJ-W WfJ-W HfJ-W EL1/fJ-W 1/fJ-W ~uofJ-E8a
~ ~ ~ ~
~(]"Tf. 1/H HH H1/H ((]"TE 1/H or 1/(]"TE (uEuBE
~Ut(v)
~ ~
ELUi(v) HEV Ei'1/uav EtTTWL' 1/uav (UOVTat
infinitives: Eivat, (Jut.) (uEu8at

participles: wv. owa. OV, (Jut.) ~UOfJ-wo~. -1/. -ov
t:LJ.LL (GO): PRESENT SYSTEM
indo subj. opt. imperat. imperfect

~
HfJ-t
.tw LOLfJ-L or Loi1/V
~
Tla or
~
H LTI~ LOt~ L8t 1/Hu8a
Eiut(v) tTl tOL tTW nHV
~
LTOV t1/TOV LOLTOV LTOV T/TOV
LTOV L1/TOV LoiT1/V LTWV nT1/V
~
tfJ-W LWfJ-W LOLfJ-W TlfJ- w

~
tH t1/H LOtH tH TlH
~
La.ITL(v) LwuL(v) LOLt:V LOVTWV Tluav
infinitive: Lf.VaL
participle: LWV. Lovua. LOV
CP'1J.LL: PRESENT SYSTEM
indo subj. opt. imperat. imperJ
CP1/fJ- i cpw cpai1/v (cp1/V

CPIi~ CPff~ cpai1/~ cpa8t or cpa8i (cp1/u8a or (CP1/~
cp1/ui(v) CPff cpai1/ cpaTw (cp1/
cpaTov CPr,TOV cpa'irov cpaTov (cpaTov
cpaTov CPr,TOV cpaiT1/V cpaTwv ~cpaT1/V
cpafJ-f.v cpwfJ-W cpa'ifJ-w (cpafJ-w

or cpai1/fJ-w
cpaTf. CPr,H cpai1/H cpaH (cpaH
cpa.ui(v) CPWUL(V) cpa'iw cpavTwv (cpauav
or cpai1/uav
infinitive: cpavaL
participle: (poetic) cpa~. cpaua. cpav
(3aivw: AORIST SYSTEM ACTIVE
t'.f3TfV f3w f3aiTfv

t'.f3Tf~ f3fis f3aiTf~ f3fi8L or -f3ii
t'.f3Tf f3fi f3aiTf f3r/ TW
t'.f3TfTOV f3fiTOV f3ai TfTOV or f3aL TOV f3fiTOV
if3r/TTfV f3fiTOV f3aL r/TTfV or f3ai TTfV f3r/ TWV
t'.f3TfjJ.w f3 w/lW f3ai TfjJ.W or f3aL/lw
t'.f3TfH f3fiH f3aiTfH f3fiH
t'.f3Tfuav f3wUL(V) f3aLw f3avTwv
infinitive: f3fivaL
participle: f3as. f3uua. f3av
ytYVWO"KW: AORIST SYSTEM ACTIVE
~YVWV yvw YVOLTfV

~YVW~ yvip~ yVOLTf~ yvw8L
t'.yvw yvip yvoiTf YVOJTW
t'.YVWTOV YVWTOV YVOiTfTOV or YVOLTOV YVWTOV
iyvOJTTfv YVWTOV YVOLr/TTfV or YVOiTTfV yvwTwv
t'.yvw/lW yvw/lW yvoiTf/lw or YVOL/lW
t'.yvwH yvwH YVOLTfH yvwH
t'.yvwuav YVWUL(V) YVOLW YVOVTWV
infinitive: yvwvaL
participle: yvov~. yvovua. yvov
aAio"KOllaL: AORIST SYSTEM
EaAwv or 7jAwv aAw aAoiTfv

EaAw~ 7jAw~ aAip~ aAoiTf~ not found
EaAw 7jAw aAip aAoiTf
EaAwTov 7jAwTov aAwTOv dual not found
EaAwTTfV r,AWTTfV aAwTov
EaAw/lW 7jAwjJ.W aAw/lw plural not found
EaAwH 7jAwH aAwH
EaAwuav 7jAwuav aAwuL(v)
infinitive: aAwvaL
participle: aAov~. aAovua. aAov
378 APPENDIX THREE
ovw: AORIST SYSTEM ACTIVE
fOVV ovw OVOLJ.l.L

fOVS olr[1s OVOLS OVeL
fOV olr[1 OVOL OVTW
fOVTOV olrT/Tov OVOLTOV OVTOV
Eovn/V OVYJTOV ovoiTYJv OVTWV
fOVJ.l.fV OVWJ.l.fV OVOLJ.l.fV
fOVTE OVYJTE OVOLTE OVTE
fOVrmv ovwcn(v) OVOLfV OVVTWV
infinitive: ovvaL
participle: ovs. oVeTa. ovv
olba: PERFECT SYSTEM
indo subj. optative impero pluperfect indo
oloa ELOW dod.YJV ?J"0YJ or fjOELV

oleTea dOj}s dod.YJS LeTeL fjoYJeTea fjom
olo.(v) ELOj} dOELYJ LeTTW fjOELV fjOEL
LeTTOV ELOfjTOV dOELTOV LeTTOV fjOETOV
LeTTOV ELOfjTOV dOELTYJV LCTTWV iJOET7)V
~
LeTJ.l.fV ELOWJ.l.fV ELOELJ.l.fV or dOELYJJ.l.fV fjOEJ.l.fV ?JeTJ.l.fV
~
raTE dofjTE dOELTE dOELYJTE LeTTE fjOETE TJeTTE
~
LeTCiCTL(V) ELOweTL(V) ELOELfV dOEL-T/eTav LcrTwv fjoEeTaV TJeTav
future (perfect) indicative: ELeTOJ.l.aL

infinitive: ELOEvaL
participle: ELOWS. dOvLa. ELMs
Paradigms: Participles in -lJT- 379
DECLENSION OF PARTICIPLES IN -VT-
PARTICIPLES IN -wv. -oV<Ta. -ov PARTICIPLES IN -wv. -ov<Ta. -ovv

(present and future. -EW or-Ow
(present and future. uncontracted) contraction)
rnasc. fern. neuter masc. fern. neuter
aywv ayovlTa ayov j.l.WOlV j.l.WOVlTa j.l.WOVV

ayovToe; ayovlT7/e; ayovToe; j.l.WOVVTOe; j.l.W01)IT1/e; j.l.WOVVTOe;
ayovTL ayovlT'{I ayovTL j.l.WOVVTL j.l.WOVITT! j.l.WOVVTL
ayovTa ayovlTav ayov j.l.WoVVTa j.l.WOVlTav j.l.WOVV
ayovH ayovlTa ayovn j.l.woVvn j.l.wovlTa j.l.WOVvn
ayovToLV ayovITaLV ayovToLV j.l.WOVVTOLV j.l.f.VOVlTaLV j.l.WOVVTOLV
ayovHe; ayovlTaL ayovTa j.l.f.VOVvne; j.l.WOVlTaL j.l.WOVVTa
ayovTwv ayovITOlv ayovTwv j.l.WOVVTWV j.l.woV(rOlv j.l.WOVVTWV
ayovITL(V) ayovlTaLe; ayovITL(V) j.l.WOVITL(V) j.l.WOVlTaLe; j.l.WOVITL(V)
ayovTae; ayovITae; ayovTa j.l.WOVVTae; j.l.wovlTae; j.l.WOVVTa
PARTICIPLES IN -wv. -wlTa. -wv PARTICIPLES IN -wv. -ovlTa. -ov

(present andfuture active. -aw (strong aorist active [thematic verbs] and
contraction) present active of dJ.l.{ and ELJ.l.L)
opOlv opOllTa opOlv AL71'WV AL7rOVlTa AL71'OV

opOlvToe; 0pwIT1/e; opOlvToe; AL71'OVTOe; AL71'OVIT1/e; AL71'OVTOe;
OPOlVTL OPWITT! OpOlVTL AL71'OVTL AL71'OVITT! AL71'OVTL
OPOlVTa opOllTav opOlv AL71'OVTa AL7rOVlTaV AL71'OV
opOlvn opwlTa opOlvn AL71'OVn AL71'OVlTa AL71'OVn
OPWVTOLV opwITaLV OPWVTOLV AL71'OVTOLV AL71'OVITaLV AL71'OVTOLV
opOlvne; OpOllTaL OpOlVTa AL71'OVHe; AL7rOVlTaL AL71'OVTa
OPWVTWV OpWITOlV OpWVTWV AL71'OVTWV AL7rOVITOlV AL71'OVTWV
°POlITL(V) OpWlTaLe; °POlITL(V) AL71'OVITL(V) AL71'OVlTaL e; AL71'OVITL(V)
opOlvTae; 0pwITae; OPOlVTa AL71'OVTae; AL71'OVITae; AL71'OVTa

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Introduction to

Attica in the Classical Period

UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA PRESS

BERKELEY LOS ANGELES LONDON

UNIT ONE: The Alp/whet; Pronunciation 6

UNIT TWENTY -TWO: Consonant-Declension Adjectives; Personal

APPENDIX ONE: Table of Contractions 337

l. Greek is an Indo-European tongue. Since the early nineteenth century

3. Greek-speaking peoples migrated into the "Greek world" as we know

7. Because of the military, commercial, and intellectual prominence of

The Alphabet; Pronunciation

fourth century the 24-letter Ionian/New Attic alphabet won acceptance

The relations of the vowel sounds of classical Attic can be conveniently

front central back

Consonants are classified in three important ways. First, according to

labial or bilabial lips

Thirdly, consonants are classified according to the manner in which air is

aspirated voiceless dental plosive (i.e., an aspirated tau). The th-

a "long diphthong," generally pronounced nowadays exactly like

5. Elision and Crasis. A short vowel at the end of a word (especially of

I. But the final iota of 7T€pi is never elided.

7Tapa- + ayw - > 7Tapuyw

6. Some Typographic Conventions. The following information is for

2. Gradually the Koine of the Hellenistic and Roman periods underwent

4. Contonation and Mora. The apparently complex "rules" of Greek ac-

9. The antepenult may be accented only if U is short and may receive

10. Examples of Accentuation

AOy0S'. AOYOV short accented p. acute regardless of quantity of U

12. Enclitics. Certain words (mostly monosyllabic, a few disyllabic)

c. A word accented with a circumflex on P or with an acute on A

WHAT TO STUDY AND DO

3. ,/njcpoL'> 6. H}D7 9. 8avaToo;

10. 7fOTajJ.o) 12. E7fEjJ.7fE 14. 000)

Nouns: The O-Declension

A. The Parts of Speech. The words of a language are commonly classi-

B. Noun. A noun [Greek ovop.a, Latin nomen, both = "name"] is that

Ex. intelligent: intelligence

I. Greek nouns are in general inflected according to three systems or

2. The five cases (see above) in Attic Greek are:

3. Nouns whose stems end in -0 belong to the o-declension (also called

4. There are two groups of o-declension nouns.

a. Masculine and feminine nouns with nominative in -OS'. (Genders are

sing. nom. oooS' r..oyoS' o.V$pW7TOS' -OS'

gen. oooi) r..oyov Q.v$pOJ7TOV -ov

(dual n. a. v. oow r..oyw Q.V$pW7TW) ( -w)

b. Neuter nouns with nominative in -ov. The paradigm is shown at the

5. Accentuation. The accentuation of all nouns and adjectives is per-

NEUTER NOUNS IN -{)v

Ex. "work" (n.) "gift" (n.) endings

sing. nom. EPYOV owpov -ov

6. Identification of Noun Forms. When you learn a noun, you need to

WHAT TO STUDY AND DO

ADVICE ABOUT VOCABULARY AND EXERCISES

o-declension: masculine nouns

o-declension: feminine nouns

o-declension: neuter nouns

Nouns: The A-Declension I

a. Alpha subgroup: when the noun stem ends in E, ~, or p, the vowel

Ex. "goddess" (f) "education" (l) "land" (l) endings