ND-QUESTS

Basic Course
TEXT BOOK
Automotive Engineering
CHASSIS

June/2005
NISSAN DIESEL MOTOR Co., Ltd.
Issued by: Create Center Co., Ltd
 Contents
Section 1 Power Train 1

1. Outline of Power Train 1

2. Clutch 1
3. Transmission 7
4. Propeller Shaft 9
5. Final Gear and Differential Gear 10

Section 2 Running System 13

1. Front Axle 13
2. Rear Axle 15

Section 3 Steering System 16

1. Outline of Steering System 16

2. Ackerman Jeantaud Type Steering Link 17
3. Power Steering 17

Section 4 Brake System 18

1. Role of Brake System 18

2. Classification by Operation 18

Section 5 Reading the calipers 23

Section 1 Power Train

1. Outline of Power Train

A series of equipment that transmits the power of an engine to driving wheels is called a
power train. The power train consists mainly of the following components.

Clutch
Transmission, transfer
Power train Propeller shaft, center bearing
Final gear, differential gear
Axle drive shaft

2. Clutch

2-1 Roles of the Clutch

The clutch is mounted between the engine and the transmission, and engages and
disengages the engine to and from the transmission.
In order to start up a vehicle smoothly, engine power must be transmitted gradually to
the power train. At the same time, all the engine power must be transmitted without
slippage. Torque fluctuations due to changes in the engine speed and shocks from the
wheels must be decreased.

Clutch

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2-2 Structure and Operation of Dry Type Clutch

A typical example of a generally used dry type single disc clutch is shown below. Its
components can be divided into the clutch body and the operating mechanism.

Clutch Mechanism

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[1] Clutch Body

The clutch body directly engages and disengages torque transmission.

(1) Clutch disc (Friction plate)

A clutch disc is mounted between the flywheel and the pressure plate. It is a friction
plate that transmits torque to the transmission through the main drive shaft.

Semi-mold organic materials (mixture of asbestos and synthetic resin having heat
o
resistance of about 200 C) are often used as the facing material. Inorganic metallic
materials (ceramic grains, such as copper alloy, graphite, alumina and silica) are used
when heat resistance and abrasion resistance properties are especially important. Metallic
materials containing ceramics are called cera-metallic, and distinguished from ordinary
metallic materials.
A torsion spring and a friction spring adequately attenuate or eliminate shocks and noise
generated by clutch engagement and disengagement.

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 Example of Clutch Disc

(2) Clutch cover assembly

The pressure plate, the release levers, the pressure springs, and so on is integrated with
the clutch cover. Therefore, these parts are generally called the clutch cover assembly.
There are several types (inner lever type, outer lever type, diaphragm spring type, oval
type, etc.) of clutch cover assemblies, but all of them operate by the same principle. The
clutch cover is mounted on the flywheel and transmits torque by pressing the clutch disc
against the flywheel through the pressure plate, using the spring force of the pressure
springs. It disengages torque by lifting the pressure plate by the operation of the release
lever.

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 The inner lever type is often used for heavy-duty vehicles, while the diaphragm spring
type is usually used for medium-sized and small vehicles.
In the inner lever type clutch cover assembly, the release lever is installed and pivots on
the lever pin (A) which supports the clutch cover, so that this type is structurally simple.

Operation of Inner Lever Type Clutch

[2] Operating Mechanism of Clutch

The clutch is operated by depressing the clutch pedal or releasing it. Clutch operating
mechanisms can be classified into the mechanical type and the hydraulic type by the
method for transmitting the pedal effort to the clutch.
The mechanical type transmits pedal motions using a rod or cable wire.
The hydraulic
type engages the
clutch lever by
converting pedal
motions to
hydraulic pressure.
(Brake fluid is
usually used as
hydraulic fluid.)
Large vehicles
often have a clutch
booster connected
to the hydraulic
pipe to decrease
the required pedal
effort. Hydraulic Clutch Operating Mechanism
(Hanging type Pedal)

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(1) Clutch pedal
Clutch pedals can be classified into the hanging type
and the floor type by the mounting position. The motions
of the hanging type and the floor type clutch pedal are
divided as illustrated.

Motion of pedal
Hydraulic devices
1) Master cylinder
Master cylinders vary
structurally. However,
all of them operate by
the following principle:
when the clutch pedal is
depressed, the piston
assembly of a master
cylinder is pushed
through the push rod and generates hydraulic pressure. This force is transmitted to the
operating cylinder.

2) Clutch booster
The role of the clutch booster is to reduce the pedal effort. In general, there are two types
of such power assisting devices. One uses vacuum pressure and the other uses compressed
air pressure as the source of
assisting force. The clutch
booster uses compressed air
to booster power so that the
may be depressed more
lightly. Structurally, a clutch
booster consists mainly of a
control valve assembly, a
power cylinder assembly,
and a hydraulic cylinder
assembly.
When hydraulic pressure,
which corresponds to the
clutch pedal effort, is applied
to the control valve, the valve
is opened by the hydraulic pressure and leads compressed air to the power cylinder
assembly. The boosted force pushes the piston of the hydraulic cylinder assembly and is
transmitted to the clutch body.

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3. Transmission

3-1 Role and Principle of Transmission

[1] Purpose
A vehicle needs a large driving force when starting to move, climbing a slope, and
carrying a large load. It also needs to turn the driving wheels at high speed when running
on a flat road.
An engine has nearly constant torque regardless of its speed. Therefore, if the engine
torque is to directly drive tires, a huge engine should be necessary for supplying sufficient
torque under any running conditions. Such a huge engine would be too heavy to attain the
required vehicle performance. Therefore, there must be a device that increases torque
between the engine and the drive axles. Since the engine cannot rotate in the reverse
direction, a component that can reverse the direction of rotation must also be provided so
that a vehicle can be driven backward. This component is called the transmission.

[2] Principle
A combination of gears is usually
used for increasing torque as shown in
the illustration on the right. The
illustrated mechanism decreases the
wheel speed, but increases the torque.

Torque Increase by Gears

3-2 Gear Ratio Driven gear
Decreasing speed by the use of Drive gear
gears and so on is called speed Input
Output
reduction. The ratio of speed
reduction is called gear ratio (or
speed reduction ratio).
Let's assume the combination of
gears illustrated on the right.
When the shaft 1 is turned by
certain torque, the torque is
transmitted to the gears A, B, C
and D in that order. In this case,
the gears A and C are the driving
gear, while B and D are the driven
gear. The torque of the shaft 2
will be the result obtained by
multiplying the initial torque by Driven gear Drive gear
the following value:
Gear Combination

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 If the number of teeth on each gear is taken as A=15, B=25, C=10 and D=30, the gear
ratio is 5.000.

The shaft 2 will be driven by a torque that is five

times greater, at one-fifth the speed. If an
intermediate gear E (7 teeth) is inserted between the
gears C and D, torque will be transmitted to A, B, C,
E and D in that order.
In this case, the shaft 2 will be turned in the reverse
direction.

Reverse

The gear ratio remains 1:5, so the speed is reduced to one-fifth, and the torque is five times
greater. That is, the intermediate gear is simply to change the direction of rotation without
influencing the gear ratio.

The gear ratio is generally expressed by the following formula:

Because high-speed rotation is more desirable than large torque while a vehicle is
running at high speed, a gear ratio below 1.0 is sometimes used. This is called overdrive.
In case of overdrive, the speed of a vehicle can be higher at the same engine speed.

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3-3 Structure

[1] Outline
A transmission consists mainly following components:

Gear mechanism ….. Gears, shafts, etc,

Transmission Transmission case ….. Housing for gear mechanism
Operation mechanism …. Mechanism for gear shifting

4. Propeller Shaft

4-1 Role of Propeller Shaft

Angular/Lengthwise Fluctuations of Propeller Shaft

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 A front engine, rear drive vehicle has a propeller shaft that transmits power from the
transmission to the rear axle.
Ordinarily, a transmission is installed to the engine, which is mounted on the chassis
frame with rubber mountings. On the other hand, the rear axle is installed under the frame
with springs. Therefore, both the transmission side and the rear axle side move up and
down independently while the vehicle is running.
The propeller shaft constantly moves up and down due to these vertical vibrations, and
its relative position with the transmission also changes slightly in the lengthwise direction.
In other words, the relative position of the transmission and the rear axle is constantly
changing in the lengthwise, vertical and crosswise directions while the vehicle is running.
To transmit power from the transmission to the rear axle completely and smoothly in
spite of these vibrations, the propeller shaft has a universal joint and a splined sleeve yoke
that absorb angular fluctuations and lengthwise fluctuations, respectively.

4-2 Structure and Operation of Propeller Shaft

Structure of Propeller Shaft

Structurally, a propeller shaft consists of three parts: a universal joint, a propeller shaft
tube and a sliding joint (sleeve, yoke, sliding yoke, splined yoke).

5. Final Gear and Differential Gear

5-1 Role of Final Gear

After speed reduction and torque increase by a transmission, power is transmitted
through the propeller shaft and turns the tires. The torque is not large enough even if it is
increased three to five times by selecting the first speed gear of the transmission. To
further increase torque, it is necessary to provide one more additional reduction by gears.
This combination of gears is called final reduction gear. This is called final gear because
it is the last (final) gear set for reduction of the engine speed.
A final gear must distribute and change the direction of power from the propeller shaft to
the left and right driving wheels. Therefore, a combination of bevel gears is generally
used.

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5-2 Classification and Characteristics of Final Gears

[1] Classification
The following types of final gears are available. Generally, (a) and (b) are used. They
are designed and manufactured by Gleason's method (American gear manufacturer).

(a) Spiral bevel gear (b) Hypoid gear

[2]Classification and Characteristics of Various Gears

(1) Spiral bevel gear
A spiral bevel gear is characterized by continuous,
smooth and quiet meshing, large torque capacity, and
high transmission efficiency. For this reason, it has
been used for fuel efficient vehicles.
The pinion gear and ring gear of a spiral bevel gear
are aligned as in the illustration.

(2) Hypoid gear

A hypoid gear is a type of a spiral bevel gear.
These two types of gears have nearly the same shape, but the driving axis and the driven
axis of a hypoid gear are not aligned. (The pinion gear center is lower than the ring gear
center.) The pinion gear is large compared to a ring gear of the same reduction ratio and
outer diameter. (Since the pinion gear position is low, the spiral angle is large and the
contact area of teeth can be large.) As a result, the teeth and bearing strength (size) can be
made large. Because the number of meshed teeth in same time is larger than that of spiral
gear, a hypoid gear is very durable and quiet.
Although hypoid gears are somewhat difficult to
manufacture and their tooth contact is rather difficult to
adjust, they are widely used for passenger cars and for
medium and heavy-duty vehicles as well.
Because sliding occurs in the tooth trace direction as
well, the extreme pressure type lubricant (GL-5 and
GL-6 of API performance classification) must be used
as the gear oil.

5-3 Structure and Operation of Final Gear

Two types of final gears are available: the spiral bevel gear type and the hypoid gear
type. Their structures are illustrated next page.
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 When a spiral bevel gear or a hypoid gear rotate in mesh, they generate thrusting force
(thrust) in the axial direction. The angle of the teeth is designed so that the thrust pushes the
pinion gear (drive pinion) in the direction of forward of vehicle. The front end of the
pinion gear consists of two sets of tapered roller bearings, which are supported by bearing
sleeves. The sleeves are mounted on the carrier. Since the drive pinion of a hypoid gear
receives especially large thrust, the other end of the pinion gear is also supported by a
bearing, as illustrated next page, for heavy-duty vehicles, that is, the pinion gear is
supported at both ends by bearings.
The pinion gear position is fine adjusted backward or forward by adjusting shims that are
inserted between the bearing sleeve and the differential carrier.

A ring-shape bevel gear (ring gear) which meshes with a pinion gear is fixed to the
circumference of the differential case with bolts. The differential case is supported by the
differential carrier by two sets of tapered roller bearings, right and left. The transverse
position of the ring gear is fine adjusted by the adjust nuts provided on both sides.

Spiral bevel
Spiral gear
Bevel

Hypoid
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Section 2 Running System

1. Front Axle

1-1 Roles and Types of Front Axles

The front axle plays the roles of supporting the load on the front wheels and steering
the vehicle. Front axles can be classified broadly into the rigid axle suspension type and
the independent suspension type.
Rigid axle suspension type front axles are used mainly for trucks and buses that must
support a large load. Independent suspension type front axles are used for passenger cars
because riding comfort is especially important for such cars. Recently, the independent
suspension type has also been used for medium-sized and small trucks in order to decrease
rolling on rough roads.
Some off-road heavy-duty dump trucks have independent suspension type front axles.

1-2 Types and Structures of Rigid Axle Suspension Type Front Axles
Rigid axle suspension type axles are available in different suspension methods but all of
them feature a small inclination of
vehicle body during cornering and easy
maintenance because of their structural
simplicity.
However, they are inferior to the
independent suspension type in riding
comfort because they are heavy. When
one wheel goes up on a projection on a
road, the vehicle body tilts and rolls.

Comparison between Rigid Axle Suspension

Type and Independent Suspension Type

1-3 Structure
The structural drawing on the next page shows an example of a reverse Elliot type
front axle.
An axle beam usually has an I-shaped cross section, and is manufactured by forging. In
order to lower the center of gravity, the axle beam has a drop center structure so that the
spring seat part and the central part may be lower than the wheel center. An axle beam
made of round steel pipe is used for some vehicles.
A knuckle is mounted on each end of the axle beam with a kingpin. The knuckle can
turn around the kingpin. A steering arm is fixed to the knuckle. The knuckles at both
ends are coupled with tie-rod arms and a tie rod. A hub supported by two tapered roller
bearings is mounted on the spindle part of the knuckle. A wheel and a brake drum are
fixed to the flange part of the hub with hub bolts.

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 Structure of Front Axle

A thrust bearing is inserted between the center of the axle beam and the knuckle so that a
vehicle can be steered easily even under a large load. The clearance with a thrust bearing
can be adjusted with shims. The position of the thrust bearing in an Elliot type axle is
shown above.
The brake unit is mounted to the flange part of the knuckle.

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2. Rear Axle

2-1 Roles and Types of Rear Axles

A rear axle plays the role of supporting the load of the rear wheels and transmitting
driving force from the final gear. The rear axle includes a rear axle housing, axle shafts,
and wheel bearings. Some rear double-axle trucks have both a driving axle as mentioned
above and a dead axle. A dead axle does not transmit driving force, but simply supports
the load of the rear wheels.

2-2 Classification by Supporting Method

Rear axles of the rigid axle suspension type are used for medium and heavy-duty
vehicles. They support the load of the rear wheels and transmit driving force as explained
above. A rear axle consists of an axle housing, axle shafts, wheel bearings, and so on.
Rear axles can be classified broadly into the following three types by axle shaft supporting
methods.

(1) Full Floating Type

As illustrated, the wheel is supported by
the axle housing through two wheel bearings
(tapered rollers) on each side.
Bending moment produced by vertical,
transverse and lengthwise loads from the
wheel is supported entirely by the axle
housing. The axle shaft transmits driving
force, and receives only the torsional moment
produced by driving force. This structure is
suitable for medium and heavy-duty vehicles.
The axle shaft can be dismounted and
re-mounted more easily than with the other types of rear axles.

(2) Half Floating Type

The wheel is mounted directly on an axle
shaft, as shown in the illustration. The axle
shaft is supported by the axle housing through
the wheel bearing, and transmits driving force.
The axle shaft and the axle housing equally
share the load applied to the wheels.
Therefore, the axle shaft receives both
bending moment, produced by the vertical,
transverse and lengthwise loads applied to the
wheels, and torsional moment, produced by
driving force. The half floating type is used
for small lightweight cars because of its
structural simplicity and light weight.

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Section 3 Steering System

1. Outline of Steering System

A steering system that is used for most vehicles consists of the following three
components:
1) System consisting of a steering wheel, a steering shaft and a steering gear (worm gear
and sector gear)
2) Steering linkage system that transmits pitman arm motions (back and forth movement,
converted by the steering gear) to the left and right front steered wheels
3) Pivot shafts of front steered wheels, consisting of a steering knuckle, etc. This part is
ordinarily coupled with the front axle and the suspension. They form a mechanism
which determines the so-called front wheel alignment according to the characteristics of
the vehicle's turning motions.

Steering System

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2. Ackerman Jeantaud Type Steering Link
Current vehicles are designed in such a way that the turning angles of the left and right
front wheels intersect at one point on the extension line of the rear axle. The shape of the
tetragon formed by the front axle, the knuckle arms, and the tie-rod is determined in such a
way that the above intersection takes place. Such a link system is called an Ackerman
Jeantaud type link system.

The minimum turning radius can generally be obtained by the following formula:

R: Minimum turning radius (m)

L: Wheel base (m)
α : Steering angle of outer wheel

3. Power Steering

(1) Principle of Power Steering

The illustration shows the

principal of power steering.
When the pump sucks water from
the tank, hydraulic pressure is
generated. This pressure is led to
the valve. The driver operates the
steering wheel, which is directly
connected to the valve. By
leading hydraulic pressure to the
left side or right side of the
cylinder by changing the valve
position, the cylinder or piston is driven by the relationship between the hydraulic
pressure and the operating area of piston. If this power is led to the steering system, large
steering force can be obtained by only very small input force. Ordinarily the pump is
driven by the engine.

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(2) Outline of Hydraulic System

The system has an additional line to return the fluid supplied from the fluid reservoir can
be returned directly to the fluid reservoir from the hydraulic pump. Since fluid is
forcefully fed from the pump, it is heated and placed under extremely severe working
conditions. Therefore, high quality power steering fluid (hydraulic fluid) must be used.

Section 4 Brake

1. Role of Brake System

A brake system is used for slowing down or stopping a running vehicle, or preventing
it from rolling while parked on a slope.
The brake system of a vehicle must have sufficient braking capacity for the its speed and gross
weight. It must be easy to operate, inspect and adjust. It should have good durability. It not
prevents any wheel from rotating when the brakes are not being applied.

2. Classifications by Operation
(1) Non-servo Brake
A non-servo brake transmits the input of a hand or a foot to the output devices of brake
system without assistance by external force. Non-servo brakes are used for small
vehicles.
1) Mechanical type (This type is not
used for four-wheel vehicles
because the brake is not effective
unless the pedal is depressed with
considerable force.)

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2) Hydraulic type (Pascal's principle is
applied. Depressing force is enlarged
and transmitted to each braking wheel
through tubes.)

(2) Hydraulic Servo Type

Since a driver's braking force is limited, the servo method is used for heavy-duty vehicles.
A servo type brake system transmits input (depressing force) directly to the output parts
(wheel cylinders) and at the same time, boosts it proportionally by the external force
(vacuum or compressed air). Servo device is provided in the middle of the tubing system
to increase braking force before transmission to the wheels. This type is used in medium
and heavy-duty vehicles and some small trucks and passenger cars.

Hydraulic Brake with Vacuum Mechanism

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 Hydraulic Brake with Compressed Air Servo Mechanism

(3) Full Air Type

A full air type brake system uses compressed air, which is generated by the air
compressor driven by engine and stored in a reservoir, as the energy source. The driver's
pedal depressing force is not applied to the braking wheels at all. Since the role of the
brake pedal is simply to open or close the brake valve (air valve), great braking force can be
obtained by only depressing the pedal with a small force. The maximum air pressure that
2
is usually used is about 7 – 8 kg/cm . The actuating substance used for this system is
freely available air (in contrast to the oil used for the hydraulic type), and can be discharged
without any loss or harmful influence at the time of pressure release. A full air type brake
has no such troubles as freezing or vapor lock. When it is used for trailers, it is very easy
connection and disconnection.
However, it has the following shortcomings:
1) It requires quite complicated parts and components, such as the air compressor,
reservoirs, various valves and safety devices.
2) Power transmission is delayed (time lag) due to the compressibility of air.
3) The actuating pressure is low, so the brake chambers that convert air pressure to
mechanical force at the final stage must have a large diameter.
4) It produces air discharge noise.

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 (4) Air Over Hydraulic Type
An air over hydraulic system controls air pressure by a brake valve (air valve), converts
the air pressure to hydraulic pressure, and applies it to the brake. It has both the
characteristics of an air brake (flexible and easy power selection) and those of a hydraulic

brake (short time lag and small cylinders), but it is structurally complicated.

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Section 5 Reading the calipers

Standard calipers (1/20)

No. 1
Main scale reading 52.0
Sub scale reading 0.70

Total 52.70

No. 2
Main scale reading 232.0
Sub scale reading 0.65

Total 232.65

No. 3
Main scale reading 122.0
Sub scale reading 0.60

Total 122.60

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