A.

A BRIEF SURVEY OF CHIEF EVENTS AND DEVELOPMENTS

IN THE COURSE OF BRITISH HISTORY

CHAPTER A.1: FROM THE EARLIEST TIMES TO THE END OF THE 15TH
CENTURY

This chapter describes the oldest inhabitants of Britain, the settlers and invaders who
kept coming there until 1066, and the feudal period in Britain.

A.1.1 The mingling of the races (cca.250,000 B.C. – 11th century)

1.1.1 The Iberians and the Celts (cca.250,000-55 B.C.)

The oldest human inhabitants probably came to Britain about 250,000 years ago Oldest inhabitants
over the landbridge that connected today’s British Isles and the Continent of Europe at
that time.

The so-called Iberians reached Britain between 3,500 and 3,000 B.C., probably Iberians
coming from the Iberian Peninsula. Both the Iberians and the so-called Beaker people Beaker people
(c.2,000 B.C.; named after the beaker-shaped pots they made) settled in the south of
England.

The Iberians used stone and bone tools and their settlements were based on
“henges”, great circles of earth banks and huge standing stones (e.g. Stonehenge). The
Beaker people brought the knowledge of bronze to Britain. (cf.Fig.1.)

Soon after 700 B.C., Celtic tribes began to invade Britain. Between cca.700 and Celts
100 B.C., they settled the whole of Britain. They formed tribal kingdoms that were
frequently at war with each other.

1.1.2 Roman Britain (55 B.C. – 5th century A.D.)

Britain became a sphere of Roman interest in the 1st century B.C. Julius Ceasar Caesar’s invasions
attempted to conquer Britain twice, in 55 and 54 B.C., his main aim being to prevent the
Britons from providing their kinsmen in today’s France with military aid. But the actual
Roman conquest of Britain by Emperor Claudius took place in 43 A.D. Claudius’s
conquest (43 AD)
By 80 A.D., the Romans had conquered today’s England, Wales and southern
Scotland, but problems in other parts of their empire made them withdraw behind the
so-called Hadrian’s Wall in the first half of the 2nd century.

After crushing the Britons’ resistance, the Romans Romanised the southern areas Roman rule
(i.e. they imposed their civilisation and way of life on native people); northern Britain
and Wales were placed under military control and the natives were allowed to carry on
with their own way of life. A system of roads was constructed throughout Britain.
(cf.Fig.2.)

Roman rule in Britain declined towards the end of the 4th century as the whole End of Roman
Roman Empire was falling apart. The last Roman legions were withdrawn from Britain Britain
in the 5th century.

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 1.1.3 The Anglo-Saxon period (5th -11th cc.)

Anglo-Saxons (Angles, Saxons and Jutes) were Germanic tribes living in today’s
northern Germany and Denmark. They had already started attacking the south coast of
Britain in the 3rd century, but in the 5th century they conquered and settled. the whole of Anglo-Saxon
today’s England. They destroyed the Romano-British civilization and established their conquest
own, agricultural one.

In the course of the 6th century, a number of rather unstable kingdoms arose in
England. Four of them successively held supremacy over the others: Kent, Anglo-Saxon
Northumbria, Mercia and finally Wessex. (cf.Fig.3.) kingdoms

Christianity reached England from Ireland and from Rome at the end of the 6th Christianity
century. It played a highly important role in establishing medieval society and in
developing the statehood in England: the Church served as the model for feudal
kingdoms and gave kingship a sacred character.

England was finally united under the kings of Wessex in the 10th century. Danish
Vikings had conquered a large part of north-eastern England and created a Viking invasions
confederation of Scandinavian communities called Danelaw (878-975) there. (cf.Fig.4.)
Alfred the Great of Wessex (871-c.900) defeated the Danes and his successors
reconquered the Danelaw in the 10th century. However, a new Danish invasion shattered
England in 978: in 1016, Canute (1016-35), the King of Denmark and Norway, became
the first king of a fully united England. His Scandinavian Empire, however, broke up Unification of
under his incompetent successors and the Saxon heir, Edward the Confessor (1042- England
66), was restored to the throne of England.

Edward unwittingly prepared the way for the Norman Conquest: he introduced
Norman nobles into high state offices and left behind a disputed succession. After his
death, Harold, son of the mightiest English nobleman, was chosen to become king. But
the Duke of Normandy and the King of Norway claimed the English throne too, and
both of them attacked England almost simultaneously in 1066. Harold defeated the
Norsemen, but he was himself defeated and killed in the battle of Hastings in October Battle of Hastings
1066 by William of Normandy, who succeeded him on the English throne. (1066)

The Norman Conquest had been completed by 1069, and it had far-reaching Norman Conquest:
consequences for the development of England: its consequences

• England’s relations with Scandinavia were cut off and the country came under
French cultural influence; three languages were used in England: Norman-French, the
language of the ruling aristocracy and law courts; Latin, the language of educated
people; and English, spoken by common Englishmen.

• England was given a new, Norman-French king and ruling class;

• the country was reorganised into a strong feudal state protected by the English
channel; as a result, no further conquests have since occurred.

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 A.1.2 From the Norman Conquest to the Hundred Years War: the feudal state
(11th – 13th cc.)

This period was marked by: Character of the

• a struggle between the centralising power of the king and the growing challenge period
from the leading barons;

• a considerable development of trade and towns, which helped to disintegrate the

feudal system.

The gradual character of the Conquest and the support of the Church enabled
William the Conqueror (1066-87) to establish a strong centralised state which was in Strong feudal state:
sharp contrast to the anarchy of political feudalism prevailing on the Continent. The William I
Anglo-Saxon system of shires was revived, and a royal officer was placed at the head of
each; besides, William prevented the creation of great baronies independent of the royal
power. He also established the fiscal basis of the state by ordering a detailed survey of
property value in every shire to be made (the Domesday Book, 1086-87).

The process of strengthening the power of the state was continued by William’s son
Henry I (1100-35) and especially by Henry II (1154-89), who ascended the throne Henry I and
after thirty years of anarchy (the War of Succession, 1135-54). He ruled over a vast Henry II
empire comprising England, Normandy and a larger part of France than that controlled
by the king of France. (cf.Fig.5.) He restored the royal rights, tightened the control over
sheriffs and tried to get all courts under the royal control (he failed with ecclesiastical
courts – cf. his conflict with Thomas Becket). Henry also started the English conquest of
Ireland, which was never fully completed.

Henry’s sons were weak kings: Richard I (Lion Heart, 1189-99) because he spent
most of his reign fighting in Palestine (in the Third Crusade) and in France; and John
(Lackland, 1199-1216) because his misrule alienated his barons: in 1215, they forced
John to grant them the Magna Carta (Great Charter of Liberties), which limited the Magna Carta
royal power and laid the foundations for the later Parliamentary monarchy. (1215)

Edward I (1272-1307), as able a monarch as Henry II, ascended the throne after Edward I:
another civil war (1264-66). He will always be remembered for summoning the Model Model
Parliament (1295), called so because it contained representatives of the three estates of Parliament (1295)
Barons, Clergy and Commons (i.e. all the elements of a future parliament). Edward Conquest of
conquered north Wales (1285), but failed to conquer Scotland: the Scottish kingdom Wales and failure
kept its independence from England until 1714. in Scotland

A.1.3 From the outbreak of the Hundred Years War to the end of the Wars of
the Roses: the decay of feudalism (14th + 15th cc.)

These two centuries form the period of transition from feudalism to pre-industrial
era. The long war with France helped to form a sense of national identity: a native
English culture was born and English became the official language of the country.

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 1.3.1 The Hundred Years War (1337-1453)

This long war broke out after Edward III (1327-77) claimed the throne of France, Causes of the war
but its real objective was to bring Flanders (the main English wool trade market) and
Gascony (the chief supplier of wine and salt) under English control. The long war is
traditionally divided into three stages, with periods of uneasy truce between them: Three stages of the
war:
• The first stage (1337-60) was successful for England, because the English army the first stage
consisted of well-organised professional soldiers, while the French army was an
undisciplined feudal host. The French suffered two crushing defeats at Crécy (1346) and
Poitiers (1356), and gained large territories in France.

• The second stage (1369-75) was successful for France: the French adopted the the second stage
strategy of guerrilla war, and gradually reconquered the lost territory except for two
ports.

• The third stage (1415-53): The war was resumed by Henry V (1413-22), the the third stage
second Lancastrian king: he dealt the French another crushing defeat at Agincourt
(1415) and gradually extended his territory. In 1420, he was acknowledged heir to the
French throne. Though he died in 1422, the war continued and, in 1428, the French
were defending their last stronghold at Orleans. The appearance of Joan of Arc in 1429,
however, led to a French revival. The war dragged on for more than twenty years, until
the battle of Chatillon finally ended it in 1453. (cf.Fig.6.)

The war exhausted England and led to political disruption, which enabled the its consequences
outbreak of the Wars of the Roses.

1.3.2 The Black Death (1348-51) and the Peasants’ Revolt (1381)

In the mid-14th century, an epidemic of bubonic plague called “Black Death” swept “Black Death”
across Europe. It reduced the English population by nearly a half, which caused a severe
shortage of labour. As a result, free workers were able to obtain higher wages and serfs
demanded compensation for labour services.

By the end of the 1370s, however, the population had increased and the peasants
could no longer demand either higher wages or release from serfdom. High taxes were
demanded in order to pay for the war in France: in 1379, the so-called Poll Tax was Poll Tax
imposed on every male over sixteen. This situation resulted in the outbreak of a revolt Peasants’ Revolt
in 1381: the rebels marched on London and held the government at their mercy. King (1381)
Richard II (1377-99), who was a boy of fourteen at that time, promised to meet all
their demands, but as soon as they dispersed, the revolt was brutally crushed.

Yet, there was no return to the previous system, and serfdom had disappeared by the Consequences
end of the 15th century.

1.3.3 The Wars of the Roses (1455-85)

This series of wars was a dynastic struggle between two powerful families, the Character of the
Lancastrians and the Yorkists, both descendants of Edward III: they fought for the Wars
crown. The Wars were marked by indecisive victories and defeats on both sides. During

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the thirty years of intermittent fighting, the feudal nobility was impoverished and almost Their consequences
exterminated, while the Crown became wealthy, as a result of confiscations of their
estates for the benefit of the Crown after each battle. This paved the way for the
establishing of Tudor absolutism.

Exercises:
1. Complete this table:
PEOPLE TIME OF ARRIVAL THE ORIGINAL HOME / LEADER
The first inhabitants ---------
The Iberian Peninsula
cca.2000 B.C. ---------
The Celts ---------
55 B.C.
Emperor Claudius
The 5th century
Denmark
1066

2. Explain why the coming of Christianity was so important.

3. Why can it be said that Edward the Confessor “unwittingly prepared the way for the Norman Conquest”?

4. What helped William the Conqueror establish a strong centralised state and what limited the power of English
sovereigns later?

5. What led to the outbreak of the Hundred Years War? Which of its three stages were successful for England and
why?

6. What led to the Peasants’ Revolt?

7. What caused the Wars of the Roses and how can you characterise them?

8. What were the consequences of:

a. the Norman Conquest?
b. the Hundred Years War?
c. the Peasants’ Revolt?
d. the Wars of the Roses?

9. Arrange these events in chronological order:

The Black Death ravages England.
Emperor Claudius conquers Britain.
Duke William defeats King Harold at Hastings.
The Hundred Years War ends.
Christianity reaches England.
King John grants his barons the Great Charter of Liberties.
The Wars of the Roses end.
Alfred the Great defeats the Danish Vikings.
The Peasants’ Revolt breaks out.

10. Questions for reflection:

a. Can the consequences of the Battle of Hastings be compared to those of the Battle of White Mountain near
Prague (1620)? Why (not)?
b. Would it have been good or bad for England if Henry V had become King of France? Give reasons for your
answer.
c. What do you think were the rebelling peasants’ demands in 1381, and why was their revolt unsuccessful?

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 CHAPTER A.2: FROM THE TUDOR PERIOD TO THE END OF THE
NAPOLEONIC WARS

The Tudor period can be regarded as the beginning of modern times: an absolute
monarchy and the National Church controlled by the state were established, and
England laid the foundations for its maritime supremacy. But the temporary balance of
power that marked the period collapsed in the Stuart era, and the conflict between the
Crown and Parliament resulted in the Civil War. The principles of constitutional
monarchy were laid in the 1688-89. In the 18th century, Britain became a great
maritime, trading and financial power, as a result of successful wars with France and the
Industrial Revolution.

A.2.1 The Tudor period (1485-1603)

Henry VII (1485-1509) made use of the situation after the end of the Wars of the Henry VII’s
Roses to establish an absolute monarchy. He created a new nobility from the upper absolute monarchy
middle class: the new noblemen were entrusted with state offices, especially in the
Privy Council, the predecessor of the modern Cabinet, and in the prerogative courts
Henry had set up. He avoided military conflicts, but protected trade and manufacturing
and encouraged overseas expeditions. (cf.Fig.7.) That is why Tudor absolutism was
supported by practically the whole nation.

Under Henry VIII (1509-47), the Church was subjected to the state power, as a Henry VIII’s
result of the king’s quarrel with the Pope over divorcing his first wife (the English Reformation
(the 1530s)
Reformation, the 1530s). This act removed the last power of the feudal period that
hampered the development of parliamentary government. Though Henry was
acknowledged Head of the Church of England, he remained Catholic. Protestantism
penetrated into England after his death. Mary Tudor (1553-58) unsuccessfully tried to
recatholicise the country, but the religious struggles were ended under Elizabeth I Elizabeth I
(1558-1603; the Elizabethan Settlement): the English Church became the official
Church of England and its doctrine was clearly formulated.

In 1588, England defeated its greatest rival, Spain: a huge fleet called the Defeat of the
“Armada” was crushed by the English navy and the adverse weather. This meant the Spanish Armada
(1588)
end of Spanish maritime supremacy.

Wales was fully incorporated into England in 1535. Ireland was, however, treated Wales + Ireland
like a colony: revolts against English attempts to impose Protestantism on Ireland were
crushed and followed by “clearance and plantation”, i.e. driving Irish people away
from their land and resettling it with Englishmen.

The Tudor economy was afflicted by: Economy

• galloping inflation aggravated by a rise in population;
• vagrancy resulting from intensified enclosures.
On the other hand, both internal trade and overseas commerce flourished.

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 A.2.2 The Stuart era (1603-1714)

2.2.1 The early Stuarts, the Civil War and the Republican period (1603-60)

James VI of Scotland succeeded Elizabeth on the English throne as James I (1603- The Stuart dynasty
25). His financial difficulties, combined with his belief in the “divine right of kings”
and unwise religious and foreign policy, angered Parliament.

An organised opposition to the Crown emerged, however, under his son Charles I Charles I’s policy
(1625-49) due to his desire for absolute power, as well as his unparliamentary methods
of obtaining money. The growing conflict led to the outbreak of the Civil War (1642- Civil War
49) between the supporters of the King (Royalists or “Cavaliers”) and of Parliament (1642-49)
(parliamentary party or “Roundheads”). The victory of the radical wing of the
Parliamentary party led by Oliver Cromwell (1599-1658) in the Second Civil War Cromwell’s
resulted in the king’s execution and the establishment of a republican regime, the Commonwealth
Commonwealth (1649-54). It was, however, soon followed by Cromwell’s and Protectorate
Protectorate (1654-59), a Puritan military dictatorship.

The new state became recognised and respected abroad. Ireland was cruelly
“pacified” and Ulster resettled with British settlers; Scotland and Ireland were annexed
to England. But the religious and intellectual tyranny of the Puritans and high taxes
alienated English people and, soon after Cromwell’s death, the republican regime
collapsed and the monarchy was restored.

2.2.2 From the restoration of the monarchy to the end of the Stuart era (1660-
1714)

Together with the monarchy, represented by Charles II (1660-85), the House of Restoration of the
Lords and the Anglican Church were restored in 1660. Two factions developed in monarchy (1660)
parliament, the Tories (defenders of divine right monarchy and Anglicanism) and the
Whigs (supporters of Parliamentary monarchy and religious toleration); they gradually
formed two distinct political parties.

The attempt of Charles’s brother James II (1685-88) to usurp absolute power led to “Glorious
the so-called “Glorious Revolution” (1688-89): James was peacefully replaced by Revolution”
(1688-89)
William III (of Orange, 1689-1702) and James’s Protestant daughter Mary. Thus the
basic principles of the constitutional monarchy were established. William and Queen
Anne (1702-14) kept executive power, but their policy was controlled by Parliament.

2.2.3 The wars with France, the building of a colonial empire and the Industrial
Revolution (1714-1815)

I. HOME AND FOREIGN POLICY

The United Kingdom of Great Britain was formed in 1707, by the Union of Union of Scotland
Scotland and England. Ireland was treated as a cruelly exploited colony after William and England (1707),
and Ireland (1808)
defeated James II at the Battle of the Boyne in 1690; in 1800, it was incorporated into
the UK of Great Britain and Ireland.

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 The modern system of government was established after the ascension of the Modern system of
Hanoverian dynasty to the British throne in 1714: the Prime Minister and his Cabinet government
replaced the Sovereign as the head of the executive.

The wars with France had started under William III, whose main aim was to Wars with France
protect his native Holland from French aggression. War conflicts continued throughout
the 18th century as Britain and France were fighting for naval supremacy and colonial
power. The most serious conflicts were the Seven Years War (1756-63, often described
as the first world war) and the Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars (1793-1815, which
followed the French revolution of 1789). As a result of these wars, Britain built its
colonial empire, though the American colonies were lost after the American War of Colonial empire
Independence (1775-83). Britain gained maritime supremacy and became world
superpower.

II. THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION

This gradual process of changing Britain from a predominantly agricultural country Character of the
into an industrial power had been prepared by the economic developments in the second process
half of the 17th century.

The term “Industrial Revolution” is rather misleading, because this process was a slow evolution
rather than a “revolution”, and it did not only concern industry. It included developments
• in the sphere of finance, as sufficient capital had to be accumulated;

• in transport: a network of canals, roads and later railways had to be built to speed up
transporting raw materials and goods;

• in agriculture: small strips of land were enclosed and changed into large fields to enable the use
of agricultural machines (cf.Fig.8.); new methods of farming were introduced too;

• in manufacturing, the factory system replaced the formerly used domestic industry, first in the
textile industry and coal mining and later also in iron and steel industry; the invention of a
number of machines made this change possible, the most important of them being James Watt’s
steam engine (1765-66).

As a result of the Industrial Revolution: Its consequences

• Britain became the economic, financial and commercial superpower; it had no
serious rivals until the second half of the 19th century;

• the centre of the economy shifted from the agricultural south and east to the
centre (the “Black Country”) and to the north; these areas also became the most densely
populated parts of the country (cf.Fig.9.);

• two new social classes emerged: factory workers and industrialists.

Exercises:
1. Complete this table:
THE RULER OR IMPORTANT EVENTS
PERIOD
The absolute monarchy is established. Trade, manufacturing and overseas expeditions are
1. encouraged.

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2. Henry VIII

3. Elizabeth I

4. Charles I

5. The Commonwealth and the Protectorate are established.

6. 1660-1714

7. 1714-1815

2. What helped Henry VII to create an absolute monarchy, and why can it be called “absolutism by consent”?

3. What were the chief economic problems of 16th-century England?

4. What led to:

a. the 17th-century civil war in England, and what was its main issue?
b. the “Glorious Revolution”, and why was it important for England?

5. What helped Britain to become a great world power at the beginning of the 19th century? In which spheres did it
lead the world?

6. How did the Cabinet government develop?

7. How and when was the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland formed?

8. What was the character of:

a. the 17th-century Commonwealth and Protectorate?
b. the Tory and Whig factions in 17th-century Parliament?
c. the Industrial Revolution?

9. What were the consequences of:

a. the defeat of the Spanish Armada?
b. the Industrial Revolution?

10. Questions for reflection:

a. Who do you think sat in the Privy Council?
b. Why did Cromwell’s regime collapse after his death?
c. How do you think the 17th-century Tory and Whig factions differed from modern political parties?

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5. Explain these terms:
a. Romanise; b. henge; c. feudalism; d. guerrilla war; e. absolutist rule; f. clearance and plantation; g.
enclosures; h. divine rights of kings; i. home rule; j. life peers; k. policy of appeasement.

A.4: MAPS
Figure 1

Figure 3 Figure 4

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Figure 6

Figure 9

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