Winter Camp 2011 Geometry Fundamentals David Arthur

Geometry Fundamentals
David Arthur
darthur@gmail.com

1 Introduction
These notes are about geometry. But geometry is a huge subject, and I am only going to be
scratching the surface here. If you are serious about doing well in Olympiads, I strongly recom-
mend seeking out more resources on your own. Geometry Unbound by Kiran Kedlaya is a great
starting point:

http://www-math.mit.edu/~kedlaya/geometryunbound/

Previous notes from Canadian winter and summer camps have been less encyclopedic, but they are
exceptionally good. Take advantage of them too!

http://sites.google.com/site/imocanada/

2 Configurations and Directed Angles

All right, down to business! Instead of starting with a technique, I am going to start with a pitfall.
What do the following examples have in common?

Example 1. Let ABCD be a cyclic quadrilateral. The perpendiculars to AD and BC at A and C

respectively meet at M , and the perpendiculars to AD and BC at D and B meet at N . If the lines
AD and BC meet at E, prove that ∠DEN = ∠CEM .1
N
“Solution”: Since ∠EBN = ∠EDN = 90◦ , EBDN is a cyclic
quadrilateral. EACM is also cyclic for the same reasons. Now: D
A
∠DEN = 180◦ − ∠BED − ∠BDN
= 90◦ − ∠BED − ∠BDA E
◦
= 90 − ∠AEC − ∠ACB
= 180◦ − ∠AEC − ∠ACM B
= ∠CEM, C

and the problem is solved.

M
1
Iran 2004, and Winter Camp 2011 Warmup Problem.

1 of 12
Winter Camp 2011 Geometry Fundamentals David Arthur

Example 2. Let ABC be a triangle with AB = AC. The angle bisectors of ∠CAB and ∠ABC
meet the sides BC and CA at D and E respectively. Let K be the incenter of triangle ADC.
Suppose that ∠BEK = 45◦ . Find all possible values of ∠CAB.2

“Solution”: Let I be the incenter of 4ABC. Note that K C

and I both lie on the angle bisector of ∠ACB. Let E 0 be the
reflection of E across line CKI. E 0 lies on BC – do you see
why? E’
K D
E
∠KE 0 I = ∠KEI = 45◦ , and furthermore, ∠CDA = 90◦ since
AB = AC and AD is an angle bisector. Because K is the incenter I
of 4ADC, we have ∠KDI = 21 · ∠CDA = 45◦ = ∠KE 0 I. There-
fore, KE 0 DI is a cyclic quadrilateral. A B

Now let ∠CAB = θ, so that ∠ECB = 90 − 2θ , and ∠EBC = 45 − 4θ . Since ∠BEK is given
to be 45◦ and the sum of the angles in 4ECB is 180◦ , we have ∠CEK = 3θ
4 . On the other hand,
0 0 ◦
since KE DI is cyclic, we know ∠CEK = ∠CE K = ∠CID = 90 − ∠ICD = 45 + 4θ . Equating
our two expressions for θ, we are left with θ = 90◦ .

Example 3. Consider a polyhedron with at least five faces such that exactly three edges emerge
from each of its vertices. Two players play the following game: Each player, in turn, signs his or
her name on a previously unsigned face. The winner is the player who first succeeds in signing three
faces that share a common vertex. Show that the player who signs first will always win by playing
as well as possible.3

“Solution”: Suppose the polyhedron has a face A with at least 4 edges. If the first player begins by
signing there, then after the second player’s turn, there will be 3 consecutive faces B, C, D adjacent
to A, which are all unoccupied. The first player wins by signing C; after the second player’s second
move, at least one of B or D remains unoccupied, and either is a winning move for the first player.
It remains to show that the polyhedron has a face with at least four edges. Suppose on the
contrary that each face has only three edges. Start with any face having vertices a, b, c. Let d be
the third vertex that is adjacent to a. Then a, b, d and a, c, d must be faces, and then finally, b, c, d
must also be a face. But we have now completed the polyhedron, and it had only 4 faces, which is
a contradiction. Therefore, one face must have at least 4 edges, and the proof is complete.

So what do all these “solutions” have in common? The answer is they are all wrong!

• Actually, Example 1 is just incomplete. The proof neglects to mention the case where M is
on the opposite side of CE, and also the case where N is the opposite side of DE. If M and
N are both flipped, you can still solve the problem fine. If only one is flipped however, the
argument fails. Good thing that case is impossible! But you really need to show that...

• In Example 2, does anything change if E 0 lies on the opposite side of D? What if E 0 is the
same as D? Hint: θ = 90◦ is not the only possible answer! The solution here would have
gotten only 4/7. It missed an answer, and it failed to verify that θ = 90◦ really does work.
2
IMO 2009, #4.
3
Putnam 2002, B2.

2 of 12
Winter Camp 2011 Geometry Fundamentals David Arthur

• In Example 3, the whole problem is wrong! Start with a tetrahedron, and consider removing
a triangular chunk from one edge, as shown above. In this configuration, two faces share two
different edges, and the whole proof breaks down. In fact, the first player cannot win here at
all. Do you see why?

These examples illustrate the importance of making sure your argument works for all configu-
rations, not just the one you drew! In particular, when you use angle-chasing, you should expect
configuration issues like in Example 1. Most problems won’t be as subtle as these ones were, but
having two similar cases is extremely common. If you ignore some of the configurations, you are
just asking to lose points.
Here is one useful (but limited) way of dealing with multiple configurations while angle chasing:

Directed Angles mod 180◦ :

Given two lines `1 and `2 , we define the directed angle between them: ∠(`1 , `2 )
to be the counter-clockwise angle that you need to rotate `1 by in order to make it
parallel to `2 . Note that 180◦ is the same as 0◦ in directed angles: if you rotate a line
by 180◦ , it is still parallel to itself.

The following statements about directed angles are true, regardless of configura-
tion:

1. ∠(`1 , `2 ) = −∠(`2 , `1 )

2. ∠(`1 , `3 ) = ∠(`1 , `2 ) + ∠(`2 , `3 )

3. ∠(`1 , `2 ) + ∠(`2 , `3 ) + ∠(`3 , `1 ) = 0

4. A, B, C, D lie on a circle iff ∠(AB, BC) = ∠(AD, DC)

5. B, C, D lie on a line iff ∠(AB, BC) = ∠(AB, BD)

6. AB is tangent to the circle through B, C, D iff ∠(AB, BC) = ∠(BD, DC)

7. If A, B, C lie on a circle with center O, then 2∠(AB, BC) = ∠(AO, OC)

Properties 4,5,6 are what make directed angles useful. With regular angles, there are
always two cases based upon the ordering of the points: the angles might be equal or
supplementary. Directed angles remove the cases altogether, which makes them perfect
for showing collinearity or cyclicness. They are usually NOT a good choice for showing
two regular angles are equal however: even if two directed angles are equal, the regular
angles could be supplementary instead of equal!

3 of 12
Winter Camp 2011 Geometry Fundamentals David Arthur

Example 4. Suppose that the circles ω1 and ω2 intersect at distinct points A and B. Let CD be
any chord on ω1 , and let E and F be the second intersections of the lines CA and BD, respectively,
with ω2 . Prove EF is parallel to DC.

Solution: There are many, many possible configurations

here, making regular angle-chasing impractical. It’s a A
breeze with directed angles though: F
E
∠(EF, DC) = ∠(EF, DBF ) + ∠(DBF, DC)
= ∠(EF, F B) + ∠(BD, DC)
= ∠(EA, AB) + ∠(BA, AC) B
= ∠(EA, AC) = 0, C D

and hence EF and DC are indeed parallel.

Final warning: While directed angles are very useful in the right
Q
situation, there are a couple pitfalls you have to watch out for. I C
already mentioned that two directed angles being equal does not
imply that the corresponding regular angles are equal. Here is an- P
1
other one: Do not ever use expressions like 2 · ∠(AB, BC), because
half of a directed angle has no meaning!
For example, in the diagram to the right, 2 · ∠(AB, BP ) = B A
∠(AB, BC) = 2 · ∠(AB, BQ), but ∠(AB, BP ) 6= ∠(AB, BQ). In other words, there are two pos-
sible angles that you could mean when you say 12 · ∠ABC. So how do you deal with this? The
answer is: never, ever look at a fraction of an angle. Modular arithmetic in number theory has the
same issue.

Exercises:

1. Convince yourself that the listed properties for directed angles are true.

2. Correct the proof for Example 1.

3. Correct the proof for Example 2.

4. Fix triangle ABC, and choose points P, Q, R on lines BC, CA, and AB, respectively. Prove
that the circumcircles of triangles AQR, BRP, and CP Q pass through a common point.

5. Let ω1 , ω2 , ω3 , ω4 be four circles in the plane. Suppose that ω1 and ω2 intersect at P1 and Q1 ,
ω2 and ω3 intersect at P2 and Q2 , ω3 and ω4 intersect at P3 and Q3 , and ω4 and ω1 intersect
at P4 and Q4 . Show that if P1 , P2 , P3 , and P4 lie on a circle, then Q1 , Q2 , Q3 , and Q4 also lie
on a circle.

6. Triangle ABC is any one of the set of√ triangles having base BC equal to a and height
from A to BC equal to h, with h < 23 · a. P is a point inside the triangle such that
∠P AB = ∠P BA = ∠P CB = α. Show that the measure of α is the same for every triangle
in the set.

4 of 12
Winter Camp 2011 Geometry Fundamentals David Arthur

7. Two circles intersect at points A and B. An arbitrary line through B intersects the first circle
again at C and the second circle again at D. The tangents to the first circle at C and the
second at D intersect at M . Through the intersection of AM and CD, there passes a line
parallel to CM and intersecting AC at K. Prove that BK is tangent to the second circle.
8. Determine all finite sets S of at least three points in the plane which satisfy the following
condition: For any two distinct points A and B in S, the perpendicular bisector of the segment
AB is an axis of symmetry for S.

3 Power of a Point
Angle-chasing – especially to find cyclic quadrilaterals and congruent triangles – is the most impor-
tant technique in all of Olympiad geometry. It doesn’t always work though, and one of the simplest
and most reliable alternatives to try next is power of a point.
Fact 1. Suppose lines AB and CD meet at a point P . Then A, B, C, D all lie on a circle if and
only if the “directed lengths” P A, P B, P C, P D satisfy P A · P B = P C · P D.
Fact 2. Suppose point P lies on line AB, and C is an arbitrary point. Then, P C is tangent to the
circle through A, B, C if and only if the directed lengths P A, P B, P C satisfy P A · P B = P C 2 .
So first of all: what are directed lengths? The important thing is P A · P B is considered negative
if P is between A and B, and positive otherwise.4
Hopefully, you have seen these facts before. They are already powerful enough to solve some
otherwise difficult problems:
Example 5. Let C1 and C2 be concentric circles, with C2 in the interior of C1 . From a point A on
C1 , one draws the tangent AB to C2 (B ∈ C2 ). Let C be the second point of intersection of AB and
C1 , and let D be the midpoint of AB. A line passing through A intersects C2 at E and F in such
a way that the perpendicular bisectors of DE and CF intersect at a point M on AB. Find, with
proof, the ratio AM/M C.5
Solution: If R1 and R2 are the radii of C1 and C2 , then AB 2 =
R12 − R22 = BC 2 , so B is the midpoint of AC. Therefore, A D B M C
 
AB
AD · AC = · (2AB)
2 E
2 F
= AB
= AE · AF since AB is tangent to C2 ,
which implies DCF E is cyclic. The center of this circle lies on the perpendicular bisectors of DE
and CF , which means it must be M . Therefore, M D = M C, and hence M C = 12 · DC = 38 · AC.
Then, AM/M C = 35 .
4
Here is the proper definition if you are interested: Assign each direction on the plane to be positive or negative
in any fashion you want, ensuring only that if two directions are opposite each other, then they have opposite signs.
−−→
Then a length XY is considered positive if XY points in a positive direction, and negative otherwise. If X, Y, Z
are collinear, this ensures that XY + Y Z = XZ no matter what order they lie on, giving directed lengths many of
the same advantages as directed angles. Ceva’s theorem and Menelaos’s theorem are properly stated using directed
lengths as well.
5
USAMO 1998, #2.

5 of 12
Winter Camp 2011 Geometry Fundamentals David Arthur

Power of a Point:

Fix a point P and a circle ω with center O and radius r. Let ` be any line
through P intersecting ω at A and B. By Fact 1, the product of directed lengths
P A · P B does not depend on `. This value is called the power of P with respect to ω.

Bonus Fact: The power of P with respect to ω is equal to OP 2 − r2 .

While Facts 1 and 2 are certainly handy, the main use of power of a point comes from the radical
axis:

Radical Axis:

Fix two circles ω1 and ω2 with different centers. The set of points that have
equal power with respect to ω1 and ω2 is a line, called the radical axis of ω1 and ω2 .

1. If ω1 and ω2 intersect at points A and B, then their radical axis is AB.

2. The radical axis of ω1 and ω2 is perpendicular to the line between their centers.

Radical Center:

Fix three circles ω1 , ω2 , and ω3 with centers not all lying on the same line.
Then the radical axes of the circles meet at a common point, which is called the radical
center of ω1 , ω2 , and ω3 .

There are many ways to use power of a point and radical axes! A few of the most important
deductions are illustrated below:

A
F C E
C Q
D A
B

E D P
B
F A M B

In the left figure, AB, CD, EF are radical axes, so they must all meet at a point. In the middle
figure, P C · P D = P A · P B = P E · P F , and so CDF E is cyclic. In the right figure, M A2 =
M P · M Q = M B 2 , so M is the midpoint of AB.
And now, onto some examples from actual Olympiads!

6 of 12
Winter Camp 2011 Geometry Fundamentals David Arthur

Example 6. Let ABC be a triangle, and draw isosceles triangles BCD, CAE, ABF externally to
ABC, with BC, CA, AB as their respective bases. Prove that the lines through A, B, C perpendicular
to the lines EF, F D, DE, respectively, are concurrent.6
E
Solution: Let ωD be the circle with center D and radius DB = DC. Define
C D
ωE and ωF analogously. The radical axis of ωD and ωE passes through their
common point (C) and is perpendicular to the line joining their centers (DE).
Thus, the problem is asking us to prove that the radical axes for three circles A B
meet at a point, which we know to be true.
F
Although it is not related to power of a point, let me also mention that Example 6 is made
trivial by the following handy theorem:
Fact 3. Fix points A, B, C, D, E, F ; let `1 be the line through A perpendicular to EF , `2 be the line
through B perpendicular to F D, and `3 be the line through C perpendicular to DE. Then, `1 , `2 ,
and `3 meet at a point iff AE 2 − EC 2 + CD2 − DB 2 + BF 2 − F A2 = 0.
Now back to some real-world examples. These both come from the IMO, which means they
take a couple different ideas to solve, but power of a point is key in both cases!
Example 7. Let ABC be a triangle with circumcenter O. The points P and Q are interior points
of the sides CA and AB, respectively. Let K, L, and M be the midpoints of the segments BP, CQ,
and P Q, respectively, and let Γ be the circle passing through K, L, and M . Suppose that the line
P Q is tangent to the circle Γ. Prove that OP = OQ.7
C
Solution: Since M and K are midpoints of P Q and BP ,
it must be that M K is parallel to and half the length of
P
QB. Now, L
∠M LK = ∠QM K (QM is tangent to circle M LK) M
K
= ∠M QA (parallel lines)
= ∠AQP. A Q B

Similarly, ∠M KL = ∠AP Q, and so 4M LK is similar to

4AQP . In particular,
AQ · M K = AP · M L =⇒ AQ · (2M K) = AP · (2M L)
=⇒ AQ · QB = AP · P C,
and hence P, Q have the same power with respect to the circumcircle of ABC. But this means that
OP 2 = OQ2 , and we are done. (Recall the power of P with respect to a circle is OP 2 − r2 , where
r is the radius of the circle.)

Example 8. Two circles Γ1 and Γ2 intersect at M and N . Let ` be the common tangent to Γ1 and
Γ2 so that M is closer to ` than N is. Let ` touch Γ1 at A and Γ2 at B. Let the line through M
parallel to ` meet the circle Γ1 again at C and the circle Γ2 again at D. Lines CA and DB meet
at E; lines AN and CD meet at P ; lines BN and CD meet at Q. Show that EP = EQ.8
6
USAMO 1997, #2.
7
IMO 2009, #2.
8
IMO 2000, #1.

7 of 12
Winter Camp 2011 Geometry Fundamentals David Arthur
E
A
Solution: Extend N M to meet AB at S. Then AS 2 = C
S B
SM · SN = SB 2 , so S is the midpoint of AB. Since AB P
is parallel to P Q, there exists a dilation about N taking M
Q D
AB to P Q. This dilation takes S to M , and hence M is
the midpoint of P Q. Also:
∠EAB = ∠ACM (parallel lines)
N
= ∠M AB (BA is tangent to circle ACM ).
Similarly, ∠EBA = ∠M BA, and hence 4EAB ∼ = 4M AB by angle-side-angle. It follows that EM
is perpendicular to AB, and is therefore perpendicular to P Q as well. Combining this with the
fact that M is the midpoint of P Q gives us 4EM P ∼= 4EM Q, and the problem is solved.

Exercises:
1. Convince yourself that the listed properties for power of a point and radical axis are true. In
particular, prove that the radical axes of three circles really must meet at a point.
2. Let BD be the angle bisector of angle B in triangle ABC with D on side AC. The circumcircle
of triangle BDC meets AB at E, while the circumcircle of triangle ABD meets BC at F .
Prove that AE = CF .
3. Draw tangents OA and OB from a point O to a given circle. Through A is drawn a chord
AC parallel to OB; let E be the second intersection of OC with the circle. Prove that the
line AE bisects the segment OB.
4. Two equal-radius circles ω1 and ω2 are centered at points O1 and O2 . A point X is reflected
through O1 and O2 to get points A1 and A2 . The tangents from A1 to ω1 touch ω1 at points
P1 and Q1 , and the tangents from A2 to ω2 touch ω2 at points P2 and Q2 . If P1 Q1 and P2 Q2
intersect at Y , prove that Y is equidistant from A1 and A2 .
5. The altitudes through vertices A, B, C of acute triangle ABC meet the opposite sides at
D, E, F , respectively. The line through D parallel to EF meets the lines AC and AB at Q
and R, respectively. The line EF meets BC at P . Prove that the circumcircle of triangle
P QR passes through the midpoint of BC.
6. Let P and Q be points in the plane and let ω1 , ω2 , and ω3 be circles passing through both. If
A, B, C, D, E, and F are points on a line in that order so that A and D lie on ω1 , B and E
lie on ω2 , and C and F lie on ω3 , prove that AB · CD · EF = BC · DE · F A.
7. Let ω1 and ω2 be concentric circles with ω2 inside ω1 . Let ABCD be a parallelogram with
B, C, D on ω1 and A on ω2 . If BA intersects ω2 again at E and CE intersects ω2 again at
P , prove that CD = P D.
8. Let three circles Ω1 , Ω2 , Ω3 , which are non-overlapping and mutually external, be given in
the plane. For each point P in the plane, outside the three circles, construct six points
A1 , B1 , A2 , B2 , A3 , B3 as follows: For each i = 1, 2, 3, Ai and Bi are the two points on the
circle Γi such that the lines P Ai and P Bi are both tangents to Γi . Call the point P exceptional
if the three lines A1 B1 , A2 B2 , and A3 B3 are concurrent. Show that every exceptional point,
if it exists, lies on the same circle.

8 of 12
Winter Camp 2011 Geometry Fundamentals David Arthur

4 Challenge Problems
I will end with a fairly random collection of Olympiad geometry problems for you to practice on,
and challenge yourself with. The preceding sections might help you, but they also might not. Good
luck – these are hard problems!

1. Two congruent circles ω1 and ω2 intersect at B and C. Select a point A on ω1 . Let AB and
AC intersect ω2 again at A1 and A2 . Let X be the midpoint of BC. Let A1 X and A2 X
intersect ω1 at P1 and P2 . Prove that AP1 = AP2 .

2. The circle k is circumscribed about the isosceles triangle ABC (with AC = BC) and point
D is the midpoint of the arc AB. Let M be a point on side AB, and let N be the second
intersection of the line DM with k. Let P and Q be the intersections of the perpendicular
bisector of segment M N with BC and AC, respectively. Prove that the quadrilateral CP M Q
is a parallelogram.

3. A convex quadrilateral ABCD is inscribed in a circle with center O. The diagonals AC and
BD intersect at P . The circumcircles of triangles ABP and CDP intersect again at Q. If
O, P, and Q are three distinct points, prove that OQ is perpendicular to P Q.

4. Let D be a point on side AC of triangle ABC. Let E and F be points on the segments BD
and BC respectively, such that ∠BAE = ∠CAF . Let P and Q be points on BC and BD
respectively, such that EP and F Q are both parallel to CD. Prove that ∠BAP = ∠CAQ.

5. A circle with center I is inscribed in a quadrilateral ABCD with ∠BAD + ∠ADC > 180◦ . A
line through I meets AB and CD at points X and Y , respectively. Prove that if IX = IY ,
then AX · DY = BX · CY .

6. Let ABC be an acute-angled triangle, and let L be the point where the bisector of ∠C hits side
AB. The point P belongs to the segment CL in such a way that ∠AP B = 180◦ − 12 · ∠ACB.
Let k1 and k2 be the circumcircles of 4AP C and 4BP C. BP meets k1 again at Q, and AP
meets k2 again at R. The tangent to k1 at Q and the tangent to k2 at B meet at S. The
tangent to k2 at R and the tangent to k1 at A meet at T . Prove that AS = BT .

7. Let ABC be a triangle such that ∠A = 90◦ and ∠B < ∠C. The tangent at A to the
circumcircle ω of triangle ABC meets the line BC at D. Let E be the reflection of A in the
line BC, let X be the foot of the perpendicular from A to BE, and let Y be the midpoint of
the segment AX. Let the line BY intersect the circle ω again at Z. Prove that the line BD
is tangent to the circumcircle of triangle ADZ.

8. Two circles Ω1 and Ω2 are contained inside the circle Ω, and are tangent to Ω at the distinct
points M and N , respectively. Ω1 passes through the center of Ω2 . The line passing through
the two points of intersection of Ω1 and Ω2 meets Ω at A and B. The lines M A and M B
meet Ω1 at C and D, respectively. Prove that CD is tangent to Ω2 .

9. The point M is inside the convex quadrilateral ABCD, such that M A = M C, ∠AM B =
∠M AD + ∠M CD, and ∠CM D = ∠M CB + ∠M AB. Prove that AD · CM = BC · M D and
BM · AD = M A · CD.

9 of 12
Winter Camp 2011 Geometry Fundamentals David Arthur

10. A convex quadrilateral ABCD is given. Prove that there exists a point P inside the quadri-
lateral such that

∠P AB + ∠P DC = ∠P BC + ∠P AD = ∠P CD + ∠P BA = ∠P DA + ∠P CB = 90◦

if and only if the diagonals AC and BD are perpendicular.

11. A non-isosceles triangle A1 A2 A3 has sides a1 , a2 , a3 with side ai lying opposite vertex Ai . Let
Mi be the midpoint of side ai , and let Ti be the point where the inscribed circle of triangle
A1 A2 A3 touches side ai . Denote by Si the reflection of the point Ti in the interior angle
bisector of angle Ai . Prove that the lines M1 S1 , M2 S2 , and M3 S3 are concurrent.

12. Let AH1 , BH2 , CH3 be the altitudes of an acute angled triangle ABC. Its incircle touches
the sides BC, CA, and AB at T1 , T2 , and T3 respectively. Consider the symmetric images of
the lines H1 H2 , H2 H3 , and H3 H1 with respect to the lines T1 T2 , T2 T3 and T3 T1 . Prove that
these images form a triangle whose vertices lie on the incircle of ABC.

10 of 12
Winter Camp 2011 Geometry Fundamentals David Arthur

5 Hints
Exercises: Configurations and Directed Angles

2. See Warmup Solutions. Directed angles are probably not a good choice, since equal directed
angles do not prove that two regular angles are equal.
3. The other possibility is θ = 60◦ . Don’t forget to check that your solutions work!
4. Let Z be the intersection of circles AQR and BRP . Use directed angles to show it is on circle
CP Q. Note that P does not necessarily lie on segment BC. (Source: Miquel’s Theorem)
5. Use directed angles to calculate ∠(Q1 Q2 , Q2 Q3 ) − ∠(Q1 Q4 , Q4 Q3 ). (Source: Geometry Un-
bound)
6. Use sine law. Trig Ceva works, but a cleaner method is to write P B in two ways using a, h,
and α. If you are not using the condition on h, you have not solved the problem. (Source:
COMC 1999, B4)
7. Let T denote the intersection of AM and CD. Use directed angles and prove CM DA and
KT BA are cyclic. Do you see a couple possible configurations? (Source: MOP 1991)
8. You first need to prove the points are cyclic, or at least convex. Otherwise, you will never be
able to make your argument precise. Can you prove all the axes of symmetry must meet at
a point? (Source: IMO 1998, #1)

Exercises: Power of a Point

1. To prove the radical axis is a line, use coordinates! To prove the radical center exists, let P
be the intersection of two radical axes. What is its power with respect to each circle?
2. The angle bisector theorem guarantees AD DC
AB = BC . (Source: Saint Petersburg 1996)
3. Prove that BO is tangent to circle OEA. (Source: Geometry Unbound)
4. Let ω be the circle centered at X with double the radius of ω1 and ω2 . Then Y is the radical
center of ω and the zero-radius circles centered at A1 and A2 .
5. The following are cyclic: BF EC, DF EM, RBQC. Show DQ · DR = P D · M D. (Source:
MOP 1998)
6. Let R be the intersection of P Q and the line. Write down all lengths and use the fact that R
has equal power with respect to all three circles. Use directed lengths.
7. B and C have equal power with respect to ω2 . Use this to prove triangles P CD and BEC
are similar.
8. Let Q be the point where the three lines meet for some exceptional point, and let M be the
midpoint of P Q. Prove M is the radical center of Γ1 , Γ2 , Γ3 and that it is constant distance
from P . (Source: APMO 2009, #3)

Challenge Problems

1. What happens when you reflect about X? Let A0 be the image of A. Then you need to prove
A1 A0 = A2 A0 . (Source: Po-Shen Loh)
2. Let Q0 be the circumcenter of 4M AN . Prove that ∠M AQ0 = ∠M AQ, and hence Q0 = Q.
This means QM = QA = QN , and the rest should follow. This technique is called working
backwards, and it is very useful! (Source: MOP 1998)

11 of 12
Winter Camp 2011 Geometry Fundamentals David Arthur

3. Prove that BQOC is a cyclic quadrilateral. Directed angles work nicely. (Source: China)
4. Draw triangle A0 EP similar to AQF , and see what happens. (Source: Crux)
5. By congruent triangles, you should get ∠AXI equals ∠DY I or ∠CY I. Only one of these
two options is possible. Now chase all angles and look for similar triangles. (Source: Bulgaria
2007, #1)
6. Don’t be scared! There are a lot of points, but the problem is still pure angle-chasing. Let
Z be the intersection of AT and BS. Then AZBP is a parallelogram, SBCQ is cyclic, and
S, A, C are collinear. Now look for some congruent triangles. (Source: Bulgaria 2008, #1)
7. Let AE intersect BD at P , and let AZ intersect BD at M . Prove that (a) AZP Y is cyclic
with diameter AP , (b) M is the midpoint of P D, and then use power of a point. (Source:
IMO Short List 1998, G8)
8. Let E be where AN hit Ω2 again. Prove that CE is tangent to Ω1 at C, then prove CO2
bisects ∠DCN . (Source: IMO 1999, #5)
9. Try dissecting ABCD into ABM, BCM, CDM, DAM , rescaling some of these triangles, and
then putting them together to make a new quadrilateral. Try to make sure the new figure
has lengths CD and BM M A · AD appearing in it somewhere. That way, the complicated product
condition simplifies to just showing two lengths are equal. (Source: IMO Short List 1999,
G7)
10. A purely synthetic solution to this problem is quite involved, but other approaches work
cleanly and fast. Use trig-Ceva to prove that the point exists if the diagonals are perpendicu-
lar. (You see how the point has to be constructed, right?) For the other direction, construct
a quadrilateral with perpendicular diagonals, and show it is the same as what you started
with. (Source: IMO Short List 2008, G6)
11. This was the hardest problem on IMO 1982, but it requires only a straightedge and compass
to get the key idea! If you draw the diagram carefully, you should see the sides of S1 S2 S3
are parallel to the sides of M1 M2 M3 , which solves the problem. Do you see why? The
angle-chasing requires careful book-keeping more than anything else. (Source: IMO 1982,
#2)
12. This problem is awfully hard, as befits an IMO #6, but I gave you a big hint already: the
triangle formed is precisely S1 S2 S3 from the previous question. To prove this, you need to
show that if you take T1 , reflect it about the bisector of ∠A, then reflect the result about
T1 T2 , you end up on H1 H2 . The composition of these reflections is a rotation centered at the
intersection of these two lines. If this intersection point is X, prove ∠BXA = 90◦ and use
cyclicness of BAXH1 and BIXT1 . (Source: IMO 2000, #6)

12 of 12