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A'~II VOR:E. FIAGI I' 3IAO
RESEARCH AN I E(:I1NOI.iX;Y D)IVISION
AIR FORCE S17STENIS C-OMMAND
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40u - May 1970 - C0455 - 120-2641

AFFDL-TR-69-44

NOMOGRAPH CONSTRUCTION METHODS

ROBERT R. YEAGER
Tevhaology liwrpomted

Tlis document has been approved for public release and sale;
its distribution is unlimited.
 AFFDL-TR-69-44

FOREWORD

Technology Incorporated, Dayton, Ohio, prepared this report on

nomograph construction methods as an integral part of a contractial

effort intended primarily to devise a stress analysis manual. All work

was authorized under Contract F33615-67-C-L538, which was initiated and

____ sponsored by the Air Force Flight Dynamics Laboratory, Wright-Patteison

Air Force Base, Ohio, under Project 1467 "Structural Analysis Methods",

- Task No. 146702 "Thermoelastic Structural Analysis Methods". The

contractual period extended from 30 April 1967 to 30 April 1969.

Mr. Gene E. Hadd!Ix, of the Air Force Flight Dynamics Laboratory, served

as the Air For'ce contract moni-''nr. For Technology Incorporated,

Mr. Dudley C. Ward, manager of tl.e Aeromechanics Department, was the

project director; and Mr. Leon A. Vorst, senior research engineer, was

the project engineer.

The author is grateful for the direction and assistance of

Mr. Maddux; and of Messrs. Thomas J. Hogan and Harold P. Zi eruan, both
scientific programers of Technology Incorporated.

This technical report has been reviewed and is approved.

FRANCIS J.
Chief, Solid Mechanics Branch
Structures Division
Air Force Flight Dynamics Laboratory

-I
 S.

AFFDL-TR-69-44

"ABSTRACT
Th*-rweport presents nomographic methods.developed to graphically

represent the various fuictional relationships between three or more

parameters interrelated by equations. Also included are methods devel-

oped to vary both the form and the size of given nomogeaLz. These

wer-e Sv•-lopments
ba-sed on eolinear techniques..

ii

-- _ _ _ _ _ __
_ _
 AFFDL-TR-69-44

TABLE OF CONTENTS

SECTION PAG.Z

"I
1 INTRODUCTION ............................ I

2 NOMOGRAPHY AND ITS EMPLOYMENT ............ 2

-~- ~ -33 ..-- _-bASI PKINCIPLES LN NOMOGRA/14CONS-fItUCTIQN-- 3-

3.1 Sizing Techniques.. ..................... 11

3.2 Composite Nornograph8 ..................... 16
3.3 Normal and Radial Graphing Aids .............. 19
3.4 Nomographic Determinants ................ 21

REFERENCES ............................. 26

I..

• - I I I I I I I I I
APFDL-TR-69-44

LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURE PAGE

I Basic Colinear Relationships in Nomogramns ..... ........ 3

2 Graph Transform of X, Y Coordin~ates for a Single

X. Y Function .............. ........................ 6

3 Graph Transform of X, Y Coordinates fo-r Three

X, Y Functions ............. ........................ 6

4 Plan Nomograph for A B/2.0 + C/4.0 ............. .g... 9

4(a) Working Nomograph for A = B/Z. 0 + C/4. 0 ..... ........ 10

5 Plan Nomograph for B AC, ......... ................ 12

6 Modified Plan Nomograph for B, AC ................. 14

7 Nomographic Sizing Technique ..... ............... 15

8 Nomograph of A =B + CD ........................... 16

9 Integration of Several Nomographs ................. . I....1

10 Integration of Normal Graphs and Nomograpbs ........ 19

11 Transformation of Normal Graphs into Nomograph. . . . 20

12 Nomographic Linkage ............................... 20

vi
 AFFDL-TR-69-44

1. INTRODUCTION

The fundamental principles underlying nornographic construction have

been understood for many years. However, the development and application

of nomnography has been limited in the past because of mls under standings -in -

regard to the severity of the construction procedures.

'7

This report furnishes the basic information necessary to the construc-tion

of nomographs. 1n addition, it explains the role of normE.l arnd radial graphing

techniques as supplementary aids to nomography in deasc-r-lbing mathematical

4 ~functions.
 .AFDL-TR-69-44

.2 NOMOGRAPHY AND ITS EMPLOYMENT

A nomograph is a two-dimensional, pictorial representation of a rnathe-

"matical relationship. This relationship incorporates three or more variables

which are functionally describable and void of excluded values within their

numerical ranges. A nomograph, utilizing colinear concepts, connects curves

depicting these variables with straight lines which enable a value of the depen-.,

dent variable to be determined for selected values ofthe independentvariables.

It is important to realize that a nomograph has limited applicability.

Any equa-tltan which is not commonly used by engineering or design personnel

will not justify the time and effort necessary to the construction of its nomo-

graph. Equations which are simply constructed with a minimum number of

variables can be easily handled within an individual's mind whereas extremely

complex equations requiring major nomographic efforta can usually be simu-

lated by computer programs with less difficulty.

Nomographs should be corstructed for the repetitious equations used by

"the specialized engineer as well as for the generalized equations found in many

areas of interest. Tha construction of slide rules and radial graphs are but

two of the many complementary benefits derived from an understandiag of

nomographic principles.

! ,;
 AFrDL-TR--69-44

3. BASIC PRINCIPLES IN NOMOGRAPHIC CONSTRUCTION

A basic understanding of the fundamental principles underlying nomnography

may be achieved by first considering the graph in Figure 1(a).

Yj÷

Y2 0 Y20
x30 x o x,, xs. X2, X ,j1

(a) (b) C
Figure 1. Basic Colinear Relationships in Nomiograms .

It is apparent that the three points on the straight line have a colinear relation-

ship which can be expressed in the determinate form of

• ~~Xl0 YI0
••,.
X20 Y2 =0(.
I 0 (1)

•,X30 Y3o

where each element of thedeterminant has a specific numerical value. Deter-

rninants for Figures l(b) and (c) can similarly be constructed.

3
 -AFDL-rTR-69-44

XI YIt
IF

X20 Y20 ()

X3 1 Y3

XIo0 Y10

x s= (3)
axz, .
x3= Y3,2

Analysis of determinants (1) and (2) and determinants (1) and (3) reveals the

interdependency of the positions of the three points

Consider now the determinant

4
¶.
 .. . .

•;m •AFPDL-TR-69--44
JY

F •;(4)

Y3

w1whe re

X = f 1 (A) YI f=(A)

X2 gl(B) Y2 g2(B)

X3= h 1 (C) h 2 (C)

The solution of determinant (4) in terms of arbitrarily selected functions

will yield an equation in terms of A, B, and C. The selection of the numerical

range of values for any two of these variables will automatically dictate the {

range of values for the third variable if the zero equivalency of the determinant

is to be maintained.

Thus, determinant (4) is the generalized version of determinants (1),

(2) and (3) and represents an infinite number of colinear relationships between

defined points in the XY plane.

The graphical relationship of the X and Y functions to the nomograph can

now be established. To simplify this procedure, the independent variable (A)

,..
 AFFDL-TR-69-44

. in-functions f, and fZ will be replaced by an arbitrarily defined variable (Z)

* which has the same numerical boundary range as (A). The coordinates of X

and Y 1 can be calculated by substituting the valzes of Z into the functions

f,

and f?. These coordinates are then plotted on an X, Y, Z graph similar to

"that shown in Figure 2.

hy

ZBZB +

Z8Z1 ZuZ2 Zaz

-2b

Figure 2. Graph Transform of X, Y Coordinates for a Single

X. Y Function

This procedure may be repeated for the elements in the second and
third rows

of determinant (4), and a set of curves may be established on the X, Y, Z coor-

dinate graph depicted in Figure 3.

--

f(o) g(b) h(c)

x
Figure 3. Graph Transform of X, Y Coordinates for Three
X, Y Functions

6
 AFFDL-TR-69-44

These three curves represent a structural relationship and this pictorial

kinship is called a nomograph. Note that the points defined by the intersection

of any straight line with these curves will satisfy the numerical requirements

of determinant (4).

The following example will serve to illustrate the diacuAsed procedur.-----

Knowing that

Xt YI

•! X2 Y2 0

X3 Y3

and arbitrarily defining

X1 fl(A) -1.0 Y2 f4 (B) = -B/4.0

Y1 = f2 (A) = -A X3= f 5 (C) = 1.0

X2 f 3 (B) 0.0 Y3= f 6 (C) = C/4.0

the following determinant can be constructed.

7
 AFFDL-TR-69-44

I -A

0 -(5)
4

Solving for A

A B/Z.0 +C/4.0

Normally the range of the numerical values fcr B and C would be determined

from physical criteria. In this example, however, they will be defined as

J.0< B 4.0

0.o0 cS
C 4.0

Thus,

0.0< A 3.0

The nomograph for this equation can now be plotted. The notation of replacing

the variables with Z will be dropped since it ,)nly established the process of

W •presenting all curves on the same graph.

It is important to remember that the determined numerical values for

the coordinates of the curves are nut the numerical values of the variable.

This is clearly demonstrated in Figure 4.

n
 AFFDL-TR-69-44

.0 <-1.0
0XI= fA S-Y13.0= -A X20.0 .0
0 < B <_ 4*B40 o !SI C S-4= .0 /.
3

A x, YI B X2 Y2 X3 -3
0.0 -1.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 1.0 0.0
1.0 -1.0 -1.0 1.0 0.0 - .25 1.0 1.0 .25
2.0 -1.0 2.0 2.0 0.0 -. 50 2.0 f.0 .50
3.0 -1.0 -3.0 3.0 0.0 .75 3.0 1.0 .75
4.0 0.0 -1.00 4.0 1.0 1.00

S0
-2 -I I

3i

2- - 2

A 9 1
O-0- - - 0 00
I
i 2 3g

"-14

-2 -2 -2
3€
S-3 - 3- -- 3

-2 -II2

Figure 4. Plan Nomograph for A B/Z. 0 + C/4. 0

9
 AMIL-TR-69-44

It is now possible to use the nornograph as shown in Figure 4 with

the equation

A B/Z. 0 + C/4. 0

by selecting values of B and C within the ranges indicated for such by the

nomograph. For example, choosing C = 4 and B = 2 and drawing a line

through these points permits A to be determined as equaling 2. (See

Figure 4(a))

-0 0.-lO
44

/ 2:

t+3
A /+
io

iC

SFigure 4(a) Working Nomograph for A =B/2. 0 + C14. 0

10+2
 "AFFDL-TR-69-44

3. 1 Sizing Techniques

Any nomograph can uoually be modified in regard to its shape and rela-

tive position of curves. This enables information to be presented in a format

which is mrre acceptable. There are a number of processes by which this

can be accomplished. One such method utilizes the digital computer and

!- --- pecific-mathematic transforrms which-attempt to modify-any deterininant

in

the construction form of determinant (4) (See reference 1I A second method

consists of determining coefficients which nondimensionalize the elements

within the determinant. This method is illustrated in the iollowing example.

Defining tht- determinant,

S--A A I

o =0 (6)

and solving for B, yields the fundamental mathematic expression

B AC

Boundary ranges for A and C are arbitrarily selected.

• 11
 AFFDL-TR-69-44

0 < A : 10

0 C< 5

Thus,
o _ B< 50

Figure 5 illustrates the resulting nomograph.

-10 -8 - -4 -2 0 24 6 10

100.-1 b - I00lu

70-4 ------- -- 70

Go- - 60

S0 .. - - -5-60

40- 40- 40

30 30 C 30

20 "" 20
44
10 ---- 3 - 10
I0 0 I
0-- _0

-10- --- -

-10 -S -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 S 10
Figure 5. Plan Nomograph for B AC

1z
 AFFDL-TR-69-44
"3" However, the equation

B AC

can be modified to

B A C
50 0T 5

using the selected variable ranges.

The elements in determinant (6) can now be replaced by the modified

forms of the variables.

10 17

0 B--o (7)
05
S. (S...) 2
5

Figure 6 depicts the resulting modified determinant.

Si

13
 APFDL-Tfl-,69-44

"4O-".t -E -A 2 0 .2 A .6. LO

1.0-10B C

14.0 -0 -r .2

.3 .1

2 .0
-5

"-LO -. 6 -.6 -0 -%2 0 .2 .4 .6 .8 D

Figure .. Modified Plan Nomograph for B = AC

The shape of this nomograph permits a more general usage and its scales are

easier to read.

A third method by which the shape of nomographs may be changed is

established by altering the size of the units used in the pictorial construction

of the nomograph. Figure 7 illustrates this mecharism for the equation used

in determinant (7).

14
* APEDL.-TR-69-44

- 1

1-4

Figure 7. Nomographic Sizing Technique

t1
 AFFDL-TR-69-44

Skill in shaping homographs will be acquired by interested personnel

as their experience enlarges. The ability to transform the basic determinant

into one which is more usable depends upon the individual rath-'r than a mathe-

maticaL or mechanical procedure.

3.2 Composite Nomographs

There are two possible ways in which to pictorially present the mathe-

nmatical relationship between more than three variables. One procedure is to

treat the combination of two variables as one. For example,

A B *-CD

can be represented by

A 8 C.D

Figure 8. Nomograph of A = B + CD

A second procedure, which enablee each variable to be individually portrayed,

incorporates the iabrication of dummy parameters. Consider

A BC+DE

16
!.r4 .. ...... . . ... -- •L j .... !. .. !.. ... ... . .. .• ... ! - J .-- -.
!~ - .- e -! - ,'- - - - -, - -

AFFDL-TR-69-44

Defining

NI = BC

•N2 DE

- Thus, establishing A NI + N?. The following determinants can be con-

structed.

S• -!--o 0 NI (8)

SC C2

i0

-D- D2

o- N2 I1o 9)

SE

, • , 517
 AFFDL-TR-69-44

rN,

-•-I N1 I

-: :I = 0(10)
S2A

•,-I N2 I

The nomographs for these determinants can now be combined as shown in

Figure 9.

N1 A N2 D N2 E N4 A D N2 E

B N, C N, A D NX E B N, C A D N2 E

_- /\
+ "

Figure 9. Integration of Several Nomographs

18
 "AFFDL-TR-69-44

Analysis of the final nomograph will show that N, and N 2 are dummy

lines and need no scales. In addition, it is important to note that the order

of linking is now more complex and should be indicated in an auxiliary dia-

gram.

,.B C A 0 E •

3.3 Normal and Radial Graphing Aids

INormal two axis graphs can be attached to norrwographs. This usually

requires a linearly scaled nomographic line which is identical to one of the

axes cf the normal graph. An example of this is illustrated in Figure 10.

SA B CC A B C

7 El E, E
8. C

+ -

D
Figure 10. Integration of Normal Graphs and Nornographs

Scales on line C are not requirec.

19

-?
 AFFDL-TR-69-44

Interesting two variable radial graphs can be constructed from determi-

nate form by replacing both the X and Y elements of any row with specif c

numerical values. This results in a two variable relationship which is very

useful in several ways. First, it permits normal graphs to be replaced !y a

graph which is more easily used. For example,

A A
9 9
8 8.
7.
6
5 5--~-------+--~-----2

2-- I 3
I 2 0

Figure 11. Transformation o! Normal Graphs into Nomographs

Secondly, it permits two nomographs with identical variables to be linked.

A A

Figure 12. Nomographic Linkage

t, i 20 1.
 AFFDL-TR-69-44

To maintain the required colinear relation, a focal point Must exist

which is valid for all lines passing throagh the two curves. The coordinates

for this point are determined by the values of the numerical elements in the

replac-•,d row.

3-1 Nornagraphic Dterinants

The following list of determinants and equations is presented in order

to provide a supplementary digest of existing nomographs.

0 2A I
2 2
i •.B +C
B+C
-a 28 1

•:i • 7.5 2
2C1
C

0 3A
2
2B +AB + C= 0
SRZ

21
 AF'FDL-TR-69-44

o0 A

84 .. CB -A/B 1 0

I -I 2A-I

i-
B2 BA +c
•B A - C

SI 2C +1

0 1

SA+C= aB

22
 AFVDL-TR-69-44

:AA
A +
B 0 _- AC Az

.[ C2

I 2

A A .

:i~ 2= B +AC
+C

I I
2 :3
C 2

2
ClC •
O N B= *

.
AYFFlL-TR-69-44

B= AC

2 B2
+T B= A +C
2

[ A0
B I B A C

t 24
 AFFDL-Tk-69-44

I A
7•-A2 I + A-c

I+C

12

A A2
-- t,,i82 z£_AB

IBA A AB
A2 - B
C 0 I

I 0

Ig
A .

-F j3 IA 3
I - B

C+l

i
 AFFDL-TR-69-44

REFERENCES

1. Hogan, Thomas J., Automated Nomography, Technology Incorporated,

1968.

:. Allcock, H.J., Joncs, J. Reginald, and Michel, J.G.L., The Nomograrn,

Pitman, New York, 1963.

126
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keE Opvaot I. c*iwa.lld)
I. OqIdINATtMdGACrIvITY (Cotpor.ejt•wr) [Ze. i1UPORT SNCURITY C LASSIFICATION
Technology, IncorporatedI UNCLASSIFIED
Dayton, Ohio 2zb.*"u
N/A
3- REPORT TITLE

(U) Nomograph Construction Methods

r DESCRIPTIVE NOTES r7y" of vpoff And iife.vo antea)

Final Report 30 April 1967 to 30 kpril 1969

. AUTHOW_) (Z3.9 ns.t nme, L-d-eo-----.-.

Yeager, Robert R.

6. REPORT DATE 7A. TOTAL NO. OF PAgASr 76. NO. OP REPS

August 1969 26 2
*a CONTRACT OR GRANT NO. 20, ORIGINATOR'S REPORT NUMUER•()

F33615-67-C-1538 AFPDL-TR-69-44
61 PROJECT No.

1467

Task No. 146702

d. N/A
10. AVAIL AUILITY/L.IMITAT1ON NOTICES
This document has been approved for public release aud sale; its distribution is
unlimited.

II SU PPLEZMEN TART NOTES [12. SPONSORING MILITAIRY ACTIVITY

Air Force Flight Dynamics Laboratory
Air Force Systems Comme.ad
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _v rirght-?atterson Air Fkorce Base, Ohio 45433
13. ABSTRACT

Tvis report presents nomographic methods developed to graphically represent the

various functional relationships between three or more parameters interrelated
by equations. Also included are methods developed to vary both the form and the
size of given nomographs. These developments were based on colinear techniques.

DI) .,.: 1473 i.ssg ---

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Nomography
Nonmgraphic Xcth•.•s
Stress Analysis
Automated Nomography

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