SOME PROBLEMS IN DESIGN AND

CONSTRUCTION OF WELL FOUNDATIONS

A DISSERTATION

submitted in partial fulfilment of the

requirements for the award of the degree
of
MASTER OF ENGINEERING
in
WATER RESOURCES DEVELOPMENT

By

LAKI-IAN LAL GUPTA

t~' f1jiGYLs. •lydJ'..•'~ 4

fr

WATER RESOURCES DEVELOPMENT TRAINING CENTRE

UNIVERSITY OF ROORKEE
ROORKEE-247 667 (INDIA)

JUNE, 1988
 -1-

CE .Fk 1. 1x T (; A T ..;

Certified that the dissertati-on entitled

'Some Pro rlerms in Design & Construction of Well Foundations'
which is being submitted by Shri, Lakhan Lai. Gupta in partial
fulfilment of the requirements for the award of degree of
Master. of Engineering in Water Resources Development of the
University of Roorkee, is a record of candidate's own work
carried out by him under our supervision and guidance. The
matter embodied in this dissertation has not been submitted
for the award of any other degree or diploma.

This is to further certify that he has worked

for a period of more than nine months from 18th Aug* 1987
for the preparation of this dissertation.

Ji'
+ .
( RAM PAL SIdI ) ( Dr. A.S. CHAWYLA )
Reader Prof, and Head
Water Resources Development Water Resources Development
Training Centre, Training Centre,
University of Roorkee, Roorkee. University of Roorkee, Roorkee

hf Atha -L
(• wA.RsS H HAN)
Superintending Engineer
Central Design Directorate
U.P. Irrigation ,Department
Alanbagh, Lucknow.

AC I AI QD G E! E f~

I. wish to express my deep sense of graditude {awards

Dr.• A.S. Qawla, Professor and Head, Water Resources Develop."
ntTraining Centre, U.iversity of RoOr ee$ for his valuable
guidance* keen interest and help rendered during the prepara«"
tXon of this 'chests. The valuable hours of discussion, that I
had with Dr* A.S, C hawla have really helped in enlightening
my work in its present perspective* The work carried out under
his able guidance would always remain as deep experience in
my memory*
Sincere gratitude is extended to Sri. Ram Pal Singh,
Reader # Water Resources Development Training Centre* University
of Roorkee, and Sri. Naresh !whea t Superntending Engineer,
Central Design Directorate, Lucknow for the valuable sugges..
tions and informations provided , during course of work.

I also wish to express my gratitude to thO Officers

of U..P. State.-Bridge orporaticn, Lucknow for providing Infor-
mation4 on practical prcblen.

I also express my grew:tefulness to my family

members for their patience In taking pain. - to bear the domestic
problems and encouragement during the work.

Lakhan Lal Gupta 3



C0NTENT

CHAPTER T_I T LE PAGE No.

CERTIFICATE •• •
ACKI 3W L F.D CEMENTS •• • ii
SYNDPSIS .•• v
NDTATIONS .,, vii
LIST OF FIGURES ,,• ix
I INTRODUCfl )N
1.1 General •• • 1
1.2 Salient features of well foundation •• • 2
1.3 Shape and size of well ... 4
1.4 Depth of well foundation ... 7
1.5 Sinking of well foundation .•• 8
1.6 Identification of problem and
importance of topic ••. 10
1.7 Scope of dissertation. •• • 12

II STABILITY ANALYSIS OF WELL

2.1 Introduction • .. 13
2.2 Wells in cohesionless strata .•. 15
2.2.1 IRC method ••• 15
2.2.2 New raitional method based on non-
linear behaviour of soil ••• 21
2.2.3 Critical evaluation of methods. ••• 32
2.3 Wells in cohesive strata • • - 32

III DESIGN OF COMPONENTS OF WELL

3.1 Introduction • „ 36
3.2 Well curb ,,• 36
3.3- Cutting edge •,• 42
 -iv--
LTT L E

CHAPTER PAGE No .
3.4 Bottom Plug ... 42
3.5 Well steining • 43
3.6 Well cap ... 47

IV TILTS AID SHIFTS

4.1 Introduction ..• 49
4.2 Effect of tilts and shifts • • • 52
4.3 Precautions to avoid tilts and shifts 53
4.4 Methods to counter act tilts and shifts 54
V CRACKS IN WELLS
5.1 Introduction ••• 62
5.2 Causes of Cracks ..• 64
5.3 Precautions to avoid cracks. .•• 68
5.4 Strengthening of cracked steining .•• 68

VI SPECIFIC PIO BL EMS AID REMEDIAL MEASURES

6.1 Introduction ... 74
6.2 Well sinking in boulder stratum ••• 74
6.3 Sinking through stratified rock and
conglomerate ... 80
6.4 Sinking through hard clayey stratum... 81
6.5 Sinking in sandy stratum . • • 91
6.6 Sinking under artesion condition ••• 91
6.7 Well found ation in soil or water
Impregnated with sulphate etc. ••• 95
6.8 Bottom plugging of wells • • • 98

VII 00NCLtbIONS AND REWNMEkDAT IONS

7.1 Conclusions ... 100

7.2 Recommendations ... 101

REFERENCES
 -F-

SYN0 P IS
~-------5 -
"4.- --°-

In India, well found?tions are generally adopted for all

types of bridges and pump housds except where favourable condi-
tions exist for open or pile foundation. In view of the wealth
of expertise available for sinking of well foundations, they are
popularly in use. However, the design and consturction of well
foundation involves many problems.

At present the depth of embedment of well foundation, in

cohesionless soils, subjected to combined action of vertical and
lateral load is analyzed by the methods suggested by Terzaghi
(1943), Fender (1947), Menard (1962), IRC: 45 (1972), These
theories consider two-dimensional case of three-dimensional
problen and are based on 11nmi' stress-strain characteristics of
soil. But in reality the stress- strain behaviour of soil surround-
ing a well on its sides and bse is non-linear. These theories
do not also take into account all the factors of the problen, and
do not permit calculation of deformation or tilt, which i s most
important for ensuring safety of the structure. In order to ensure
safety and economy of the structure a new rational method of an-Zy-
si s based on non-linear behaviour of soil surrounding a well on
aa base
its sides,n nd also incorporating 11 the factors of the problen,
have been presented in this investigation. This new method of
analyst s permits easy calculation of deformation or tilt.
Also, there is nomethod available for anr,lysinY the depth
of embedment of well foundation in cohesive soils. For such wells
 -vi-

also proper mthod of analysis has been evolved and presented.

Construction of well foundation involves many intricate pro-

blems depending upon the nature of strata through Thich the wells
have to be sunk. These problems require different solutions and tech-
niques for overcoming them. Tilts and shifts in well foundation are
not uncommon and, in fact many a time they are unavoidable and due to
this reason IS Code 3955-1967 provides permissible limits for tilts

and shifts. However, problem of excessive tilt in wells do arise: and

poses a challanec to engineers. In this investigation methods to
counteract tilts and shifts have been r:xplained.

Due to large stresses developed while sinking wells and sand

blewiacy and dupe to adoption of various measures for ccunteer-actirn
tilt s and shifts sometimes well steirzin:, Gets cracked. Remedial
measures to be adopted in such situations have been discussed.

The problems encountered in sinking of wells through boulder

stratum, stratified rock and conglomerate, - hard clay stratum, sandy

stratum, artesian conditions and salt bearing stratum e discussed
in this dissertation. The tleps to overcome these difficulties have
been explained.
 -V ii-

,fi_ T k'T 10 N S.

A Area of base of the well

3 Width of the base parallel to the direction of the
external horizontal force
C Cohesion of soil
0 Depth of foundation below the maximum Scour level
to the bottom of well
Di Depth Of instantaneous paint of rotation below the
scour level.
H External horizontal farce acting on the well at
scour level.
is Moment of ,r erta.. of the base about an axis passing
through C. G. and perpendicular to horizontal resultant
force..
IV Moment of inertia about the horizontal . axis passing
through the C.G. of the projected area In elevation
of the soil mains offering resistance
K Coefficient of vertical subgrade reaction at the base
KA Active pressure coefficient as per co Tomb 4s theoryr
efficient ofhorftontal subgrada reaction at the
bail.
K0 coefficient of earth pressure at rest
Kp Passive pressure coefficient as per coulomb's theory
Length of foundation transverse to the lateral load,
Offering resistance.
 ____ i.e, ratio of the horizontal to the vertical
Coefficient of subgrade reaction at the base.
Total applied external rxment about the base of
wells, Including those due to tilts and shifts
Resisting uxament at haa*
Mh QeW.cient of non inear horizontal subgrade
reaction
y Pment of the external forces at scour level.
rl,r#s Index defining non" nearity
P .Horizontal soil reaction
P ,I ensure on the base due to Initial settler ent
W Total downward load act ng at the base of well,
Including self might of the well..
duo Self might of well below scour level
' s Vertical load Of super structure acting on well
at scour level'
Z Section modulus of base Of well
Coefficient of friction between the base and the edit
Cbeffi ent Of friction between sjdes and the soil
f Density of soil (subwnerged or saturated as the
Case may be )
Tilt, or angular rotation of the well as a rigid
body*
Horizontal soil reaction at depth y from scour level
Tf Vertical soil reaction at distance x from C.G. of base
Maximum and minims base pressures
 LIST O F FIGURES

FIGURE No TITLE PAGE No.

1.2.1 Typical section of a well foundation 3

1.3.1 Shapes of well foundations 5
1.5.1 Open sinking with the help of Jham. 9
1.5.2 Essential parts of pneumatic sinking 9
2.1.1 Observed relationship between lateral 14
load and deflection in Model Tests
2.2.1 Forces and pressures acting on a well 17
foundation after IRC : 45-1972
2.2.2 Observed shift of instantaneous point 23
of rotation in Model Tests
2.2.3 Forces and pressure acting on a well 23
foundation in proposed analysis
2.2.4 Comparision between measured and 33
computed lateral ,loads.
2.3.1 Pressures acting on a well in 33
cohesive strata
3.2.1 Forces acting on the well curb .during 39
sinking
3.2.2 Forces acting on the well curb when 39
resting on bottom plug
3.2.3 Arrangement of reinforcement in a 41
well curb
4.1.1 Well Sinking froth harder 'strata. to " 51
softer strata
 x

4.2.1 Effect of tilt on wells at different depths 51

4.4.1 Regulated Grabbing 55
4.4.2 Dredging on lower side of the well with 55
hooking
4.4.3 Arrangement for Eccentric loading over 55
the well in its earlier stages of sinking
4.4.4 Arrangement .for eccentric loading over 55

4.4.5 - a tilted well sunk to appreciable depths.

Pit dug
side.
up inside the well on the higher 58

4.4.6 Sleeper pieces below cutting edge to 58

arrest sinking on lower side.
4.4.7 Hooking the cutting edge on the lower 58
side of the well
4.4.8 Pulling the tilted well by steel rope 58
4.4.9 Arrangement for applying heavy pull 60
4.4.10 Strutting the well on its tilted side 60
4.4.11 Arrangement for applying light push.. 60
4.4.12 Arrangement for applying heavy push 60
5.1.1 Cracks developed in the well. No. 29 of 63
hupnarayan Bridge
5.2.1 Line diagram of well showing deformed 63
shape
5.2.2 Effect of the sand blow on well 66
steining
5.2.3 Forces acting on well contributing to 66
cracking


5.4.1 Sketch of steel box placed in 70

position
5.4.2 General arrangement of stengthening 70
well steinin9•
6.2.1 Cutting edge for sinking in boulder 76
stratum
6.2.2 Typical arrangement for tilt removal in 76
boulder stratum
6.3.1 Special chisel for sinking through 76
stratified rock and conglomerate.
6.4.1 Sinking through hard clayey strata. 82
6.4.2 Special chisel for sinking through very 82
hard clayey stratum consisting of Kankar
6..3 Special under water clay cutter for 84
use in sticky hard clayey soils
6.4.4 Sinking through mixed hard. clayey 84
strata.
6.4.5 Arrangement for application of thixotropic 87
material for sinking of wells.
6.4.6 Arrangement of placing of water Jetting 87
pipes in a well.
6.6.1 Artesian condition in wells. 92
 C HA PJ EB -aft I

NTROD (J ON_

1.1 GENERAL 3
Well foundations had their orgin in India
and there is very long tradition of construction of drinking
water wells and foundation wells all over the country. The
knowledge of the ancient technique of well sinking is wide
spread even today. The original technique which was suitable
for sinking comparatively small shallow wells only, has been
developed during the course of time to construct larger and
deeper wells.
Well foundations are deep foundations, wells
serve to transfer the load of the super structure to a
stratum of adequate bearing capacity. Construction of such
foundations is restricted to major foundation works because
COS-
of large construction. Usually a well is advantageous as
opposed to other types of deep foundations when any or
all of the following conditions exist.
i) The soil contains large boulders which obstruct penetration
of piles.
ii) 'A massive substructure i , required to extend to or below
the river bed to provide resistance against destructive
forces due to sand scour etc.
iii)The foundation in subjected to large lateral forces.
Significant contributions have been made to the
state of art on design and construction of well foundations
by many eminent engineers. In this chapter a brief discut*ion


on salient features of well foundations, construction of wells

and problems encountered in their design and construction are
presented. This dissertations aims at giving solutions and
techniques for overcoming the various problems.
1.2 SALIENT FEATURES OF WELL OUN)ATIlNS
A well fol4ndation is generally built in stages
above the ground level and sunk to the desired depth. It
becomes an integral part of the foundation. A typical section
of a well foundation is as shown in Fig. 1.2.1.
Components of Well Foundations
Various components of a well foundation, shown
in Fig. 1..2.1, are explained below
(1) Cutting edge : It is the lower most portion of
the well which cuts into the soil during sinking.
It is usually in the form of a cast iron or
mild steel shoe.
2) Well curb : It is the wedge shaped portion of
the well steining at the bottom provided to
facilitate sinking. The curb projects by about
4 cm outside the normal size of the steining.
(3) Steining : It is the main body of the well which
transfers load to the base Of the foundation.
During sinking it acts as a coffer dam.. The
weight of the steinin: Is helpful in sinking
the well.
(4) Dredge hole : It is the open space inside the
well through which excavation is done during
sinking.
 ti . / C

-i/
"iC i I

LILJ
4' tow Ip k t~
-,~
r' •~ , Well curb

Section ajohq AA

Typical sectio of a wail foundation

 - 4 -

(5) Bottom plug s It is the bottom of the well which

is plugged with concrete. This provides a large
area for the well foundation to transmit the load
to the sub—soil. It is also termed as seat.

(6) Sand filling s The space inside the steining abov.,e.

the bottom plug is filled with sand.

(7) Top plug : After sand filling, the dredge hole is

covered by a concrete plug. It provides a contact
between the well cap and sand filling and helps in
transmittingj load through sand filling.
(e) Well cap : It is an ROC slab laid at the top of
the well steining to transmit the load of the super
structute to the steining.
1:3 SHAPE AND SIZE OF WELL
The following are the different shapes shown in Fig. 1,3.
are in common use.

1. Circular
2. Double -O
3. Dumb—bell
4. Broad necked twin well with circular dredge holes
5. Double octagonal with circular dredge hole
6. Rectangular
7. Double rectangular
8. Multiple dredge hole well
The choice of particular shape of well
depends on
 -5

III
(a) Circular WQtl

o:o QQ.
(c) Dumb Well (d) Broad necked Twin Wull
with circular dredge holds

(vA) Double octagonal with

circular dredge holes
(1) Multiple dradga Hole Wall

(g) RBctangular (h) DoubtQ ractancgulai
 - 6 -

(1) ease and cost of sinking

(ii) extent of control over tilt and shifts during
sinking
(iii) loads to be carried
(iv)magnitude of the horizontal forces

However, with the improvement in exca-

vating equipments and experience of handling the wells, single
large diameter circular wells are preferred now to groups of
smaller circular wells and other shapes. Most favoured shape
of a well, except for a very large size„ is circular, from cons.
derations of ease in sinking and erection of shuttering. The
circular shape is equally strong in all. directions #, generally
found economical and convenient in construction. It is J~ )
r~
also more s1 ited for distribution of uneven forces uniformly
over the circum~fe e-nce ,. during sinking operations.
Size of well for a particular foundation in dependent
on large number of factors and each case needs indiVi.dual
investigation. A dredge hole of 1.8 in in considered an absolute
minimum. However, a minimum dredge hole of 2.5 in in preferable
from consideration of eat in grabbing., Minimum thickness of
0.45 mg 0.6 in and 0.25 in for steining of cement concrete,
brick masonary and R.C.C. respectively are recommended from prac-
tical considerations keeping in view unforeseen stresses that
develop during sinking of a well.

From practical considerations, the maximum size recom--

mended for a single circular well, in as under
(a) It in external diameter (under favourable circumi
tnes H. may he upto 10.5 m) for a cement
 concrete staining•
(b) 6 in external diameter for a brick masonry
steining

1.4 DEPTH OF WELL FOUMATION

The well foundation should • be taken to such
depth that
(i) they are safe against scour or protected from
it.
(ii) it is sufficient from consideration of bearing
capacity, settlement stability and suitability
of strata at the foundation level and suffi-
cent depth below it.
(iii) There. should be adequate grip length below
the anticipated maximum scour level for deve-
loping sufficient passive resistance to coun-
teract the overturning moments due to hori'
zontal forces acting on the structure„
For well foundation, the grip below the anticipated
maximum scour level shall not be less than 1/3 the maximum
anticipated depth of scour below H.F.L. The maximum antici-
pated depth of scour below H.F.L. shall be calculated by
procedure as laid down in clause 5.6 of IS ; 3955 - 1967
" code of Practice for Design and Construction of Well
Foundations ".

The grip length thus arrived shall be finally checked

by the rational method suggested in chapter 2 of this
 -6 -

SINKING OF WELL FOUNDATIONS

There are following two methods of sinking well foun-

dations

(1,) Open sinking

(2) Pneumatic sinking

Open -Sinking :

This is an ancient method of sinking wells in which

under water excavation is carried out with the help of Sham,
a spade of large size„ as shown in Fig. 1.5.1. The 'Jham f
tied to a rope moving over a pulley is lowered into the well.
A diver dives with it as soon as it enters in the water. He
then pushes the blade into the soil and comes up. The 'Sham'
full of earth is then pulled out by the men and emptied out-
side. The excavation continues in this manner and the,, well
goes on sinking under its• own weight slowly but steadily.
This method is used even now for ' the construction of small
drinking water wells in the villages.

The method isslow an has got obvious limitations.

If the depth of well sinking below water table is very large
as usually is for foundations of bridges, the above operation
becomes difficult for diver. A more efficient method for
such problems is to employ automatic grabs, steam diesel or
electric winches and li : ht frame to support the pulley-by
shears, derricks or a crane. When dredging is not possible
by grabs, excavation under water is done by divers with the
use of diving accessories.
MEI PULLING THE 7HAM PULLEY

ROPE-
ROP.

ILIES-
*—
E.)'CAVATION
7/e C ING BSE-
B)

WELL WIDE POWE

Y 1 AM
ZLVA 5TE)NJNG'

PH& JW

Fig. no. 1 .5.1 Open inkin tith the help & Jhrn.

RIAL Loci
MAk LOCI(
AIR LOCI

AD A PT E

u c k cr

I I NI

Fi. N0 1 .5.2 E ent;ij1 prrt Of pOUfl1t1c ';in1:inr.

 to —

Pneumatic Sinking

In difficult cases, pneumatic sinking is resorted to.

pneumatic; sinking of wells or sinking under compressed air
is done by fixing covers on the dredge holes and pumping air
into them so that the compressed air pushes out all the water
upto the level of the cutting edge. Persons are then sent
inside the wells to carry out excavation. Air locks are fitted
to the wells to enable the men and materials to move from
inside to outside of well and vice verse without releasing
the pressure so that work can go on continuously. Shafts
are provided from for the movement of materials and ladders
for the movement of persons. Pneumatic sinking of wells is
very costly. It should be resorted to only when open sinking
can not be continued. The essential part of pneumatic sinking
are shown in Fig. 1.5.2.

Wells are sunk to their predetermined depth by removal

of, bed material below the cutting edge, manually or by the
use of mechanical means. To begin with, an excavation of
about 15 cm is made and the cutting edge is placed in correct
position. The well curb is then concreted over cutting edge.
The well steining is built on the curb in short heights of
about i.5 m to 2.0 m. The soil from the bottom of the well
is then excavated. With this excavation, well starts.sinkings,

1.6 IDENr IFICAT 30N OF PEOBLEM AND IMPORTANCE OF TOPIC

The present day construction very often requires well

foundations. Engineerf dealing with such foundation has to
face problems at two stages. Firstly, while designing these
foundations other at construction stage*

All the methods of design presently available do

not provide any idea about the tilt in the well when it is
subjected. to lateral load. In the case of wel]s under bridge
piers the maximum deflection will be limited to the maximum
movement at the bearing level. The maximum deflection that
may be permittek at maximum scour level will be much smaller
than ,at bearing level. The passive resistance mobilized per
unit length will therefore be very nu ch smaller. In the pre-
sent practictthe resistance of well foundation subjected to
combined act!on of vertical and lateral load is usually ana-
lysed by either the elastic approach or the plastic approach
of IRC : 454972. These methods do not permit the calculations
of deformation or tilt. They also do not take into account
all the factors of the problem like non-linear behaviour of
the soil surrounding a well on its sides and base, stresses
in thrid direction► If proper and rational method of design
incorporating above factors Is evolved then safety and eco-
nomy of the structure can be ensured. At present there-is
no design procedure available for calculating resistance of
well in clayey strata.

The well foundations are constructed in different

strata varying from boulders in Teral areas (bordering moun-
tatneaus regions) to sand, clay $ Kankar, stratified rock,
conglomerate and different combinationnof sand, clay and
kanker modules. Dfferent strata give rise to different
problem. At present these problems are tackled with the
knowledge gained with the experience in sinking wells. If
the causes and ill effects of these problems are known in
advance. The possible hazards such as tilts and shifts, cracks
in the wells, artesian conditions, sand blows, refusal to,
sinking of wells, unnecessary delays can be avoided.

Li SODPE OF DESSEFIPITION :
Scientific design of well foundation is still a
complex subject. A new rational method for design of well fohn--
dations in cohesion less soils subjected to combined action
of vertical load and lateral loads have been presented. The
nonlinear behaviour of soil surrounding a well on its sides
and base and frictional forces on the faces of the well para-
llel to lateral load have been incorporates in the analysis.
The procedure presented is simple and permits the easy calcu-
lation of the deformation or tilt, C) which the bridge
Engineers are often interested to know.

Also, it has been attempted. in this dissertation

to brio togather in one place the material connected with
design and construction of well foundations. The complex
problems connected with the practical sinking of *ells (open
sinking ~', only ) have been discussed. The methods to overcome
these difficulties have also been suggested. The problems
connected with pneumatic sinking are beyond the scope of
th.i,s dissertation.
 ~3

STABILITY ANAlYSIS OF WELL 'U1'UAT NS s

2.1
Design of we :l foundations for major bridges
was a great problems to engineers of India, when recommendaM.
tions given in IRC z 451972 were not laid down& The reason
was not far to seek. Whereas In most of the progressive
countries of th-e west, the rivers scour very little and bridges
can be easily founded on hard strata or rock available very
near the bed, the foundation of majority of bridges and p np
houses .in India must necessarily be taken down deeper, because
Of very great scour and non-ava.il.ab :.1ty of suitable strata
nearer the bed. As a result,, not much work on the problem of
design of Well foundations has been carried out by authors In
the western countries

The problem arises due to the surrounding earth

material round a well, offer r I resistance to the overturning
of a well. This requires understanding of the behaviour of
this earth material before an evaluation of its resistance
can be made. In the present practice the resistance of well
foundation to the combined action of vertical and lateral
loads is usually analysed by either the elastic approach or
the plastic approach (CRC .z ► L972).- The elastic approach is
based on linear stress*-strain characteristic, of soil and
gives a linear ,lateral load deflection urve. However * nbservaa.
bons on well models by Dr. Arya, A.S. Sharda, S.C.. and Prakash,
 O.6

I
ER&0Utt

0 •0

Cb

D
0

UPPE -' a
BQUN -1
4

4
-J
H
ill

BOVD
SYMBOL TFSTK
0

0
0 0.8 1.2 j•6 1.0 'I..4
Thin

ITo. 2.1.1 Obnery ir t 'u btue 1 trr'1

10 Ttr.
1 (1
 - 15

S (.982) show the lateral load deflection characterIstic

to be non-linear as shown In Fig. 2.1.1. This is because of
non—linear stress.s-train behaviour of soil surrounding a well
on its sides and - bash: which Should be taken Into account
in any rational analytical study of the problem A new rational
method based on non linear behaviour of so ,2 inorporating
frictional forces acting on well faces parallel to the dIrect
tion of lateral force has been evolved for cohesionless
soils..
While we have established prOcedure of well
designing in sandy strata, no such procedure is available for
wells In clayey or mixed strata. The different organisations,
engaged in designing are adopting different procedure for
design of such wells. `he proper procedure for design of wells
in clayey strata have also been given in this chapter.

2.2 WELLS IN ODH ►30LESS STRATA :

2.2,a1 ThC AHD s

The ZRC method Of elastic -approach Is based
on lirieai stress strain characteristic of toll and gives a
linear lateral load deflection curve. The following ass p—
bons are made in deriving the equations based on elastic
theory.
(t) The $oil Surrounding the well and below the
base i perfectly elastic, homogeneous and follows
Hooke Is Law.
 _ 16 _

(u) Under design working loads, the lateral deflec-

tions are so small that the unit soil reaction
*p$ increases linearly with increasing lateral
deflection " 2 " as expressed by p = KH Zd

(iii) The coefficient of horizontal subgrade reaction

increases linearly with depth in the case, of
cohes unless soils

(iv) The well i;s) assumed to be rigid body subjected

to an external unidirectional horizontal force
H and a moment at scour level.
ANAL" IS z
The forces considered in the analysis are
shown in Fig. 2.2.1. , When all the forces acting on the well
comeQ into play there could be following cases,# the centre
of rotation can be above the base at .+Cl; at the base C2 or
below the base at . It can be easily visualised that the
base moves towards the centre Qf rotation# if the latter
lies above the base so that the hor .zOntaj frictional force
at the base acts in the direction of H. If point of rotation
lies below .the base by a similar argument# then horizontal
frictional force at base must be in the opposite sense to
H. The m. ,. n frictional force which can develop at the base
Is pW. At any particular instant only a fraction of it would
be acting,* Which denoted by b p w where Ls a factor
i t

always less than one,. Zt is therefore clear that before

movement takes place P must be between I and -1 respectively
so that for point of rotation at the base P must be between
the limits 1 to 1. A particular case, assuming point Of
 -

1AP

VI I
ci I.
C LEktcp1Lc V'iELL c1•ipt' REtaEJ
bS11%r3uTQ

jo. 2.2.1 Fürces ancl pressures well.

f11i1(1tJOl fOr 11W: 1;, 5 -1972--
 - ~a

rotation at the base has been g ;ven«

Let the well rotate about a point C at a

horizontal distance X from the cer4re of the well as shown
in Fig, 2.2.,E
The total deflection at depth 0 Y 0 from scour level

Horizontal soil reaction = O I x x( y) 0

in WVN~O% ^cc1 , , Cow ~:c ~2~n b V2Y S\CC1~ SllkC~YGC~Q Yeo.c o~

Total horizontal soil reaction acting on the sides
of the well
b

° .D
Di ) ddy

Putting

D
.et be the moment ©f P about base level

M JD p« der
D

• 12
 MW consider the soil reaction acting at the base#
Vertical deflection at a distance ( X+x) from centre Of
rotation = ( X+X) 0

iX+X)O
6idA.x
i

(L*12

ico. X2dA+KOXC XdA

-Sl?-
dA being function of X
As the reference coordinates are at C..G of base

XdA =O and =

Mts
B B K$i

Now the conditions of aquilibrium of well under

all the matwxftj vertical and horizontal load will be as
follows

Or H+ . W
Or

Taking moment about base

M0*ø =C,M8+Mp+1'POD
or M o(D
dA=KO (x+x)DA
io$xdA+1.zofxdA

ta JcGX.A
Substituting equations 2.2.4') 12.2.2 and 2.3 \,
M = 10I+m9L+i 2rnJI1 ,

Ke E loft 1V (.1 +2

where I = IBm I, (1+2 p'o) 6...(2.2.6)

Eromèq (2,2.4)

1 2m M
0
IL wheze2?= m IV

H+iW

ft

.... (2.2.7)

Eqn. (2.2.7) in saisfied only if whence we obtain

or H. ' ( 1+ap')as W

< (1ii)+W
The vertical soil reaction is given by
Kb (Xc+X) = 1 .Xc44 OX
= ie.i r__±_uI + KOX
A
±KO .b/a
 - 2 1 -

AsOf

..i.o(2,2,9)

CONDITIONS OF STABILITY
U) The maximum soil reaction from the sides
can riot exceed the maximum passive -ss k-
any depth, if the sail remains in an elastic
state. This amounts to the condition
that at any depth'.

-
kP—(A)yor -

m JY(D..y) { (iPiCA)y

(At y = 0 L*H.S# in -maximum)

or m KO (KPKA-)
or rn 4
The maximum soil pressuie at as-e • shall
not exceed allowable pressure on soil , sirni
larly the minimum soil pressure shalX
not be less than 0, i.e., no tension.

a4.2 NEW RATIONAL METHOD BASED ON ?)N LINEAR

BEHAMUR QE SOILS

be-IRC method of Elastic approach ibased on

11near streso strain characteristic Of soil* But In
1 - 4
W, 4 ^ 0. rr a n 4 1 4 4 k a 4 +1
 _ 22 _

follows the Hookes Law. Therefore, an analysis considering

the nor -linearity of stiffness with displacement as well
as confinement of soil surrounding the fares. The non
linear behaviour of so. „l below the base is also Included*

For developing the analytical expressions , based

on the nodel studies of S i .- Shards (1975) and Dr. C.S.
Sankaran and K. Mut aukr.ishniah, (1969) the well is assumed
to rotate about an a is passing through the vertical
centre-line of the well.- Typical positions of ,ae posi.
.on of the point of rotations .n Model Tests are shown
In fig* 22,2 for small and large tilts,,

The forces considered in the analysis are

shown Ln rigs 2.2.3

A$SUMP3DNS I
The following assumptions are made in this
analysis.

The well .n a prismatic body of uniform cross--

section of width B measured parallel to the
direction of lateral load and length L at right
angles to it.
(ii) It is embeded in a homogeneous soil mass to a
depth D.
(iii) The well i$ rigid body as compared with its
surrounding medium..
(iv) Initially the well sinks vertically under the
action of self weight and weight of the super-
structure and full skin friction is mobilized.


- 23 -

——

I T1/7T
( "'r
I I
ua °►~1l Level
~

~i
I
{ D I I
4ASE DEFORE I I I I
LOADING BASE PFTER
YERTICNL LOA DiH C po

POINT OF j p•^if ~f10-1

POTA t»N __ __ e t s t E D.
©ice--- ---- T.A - ---
" BA5E /S FT'£P VERTICAL-
AN HOP.IZ0,4'raL Lctif N,

Fig.No. 2.2.2 Observed shift of imstsnt inooux point of

rotation in Model `testa.

{wr WELL FC'JXDATIC)x

I
1
;PAZ. s-DUC LE!

RE>a ~t
Fr~cE R~

I SIDE 'f 0 Pt r x
Dt FACE —
C f~ ~ Z
0

+ , – FRONT FACE
P2 ~ Gz ~ t1S=~J~t ~+ESS4t.ES
F 0*+ FACE s

LATERAL PRESSUcES Rg
ON !~ACE. 2
–- -_ g _ - SJDE =ACE 3

otRECTION
OFLATE-RAi- L = LENr.TH

REAR QRC~
FACE 2 I F=t0NT FACE t

.SIDE FE 3

H ' 13 -.j

iiivrrvni Tp VERTICAL PRES:Uk£

L1LU A r AS

Fig.No.2.2.3 Forces and preasuro , sting on a well found~tioi

in proposed s~n~3.yi~iz.
 24 --

the well executes a twc.dima nsional motion as

a rigid body and rotates about an instantaneous
point of rotation 0. (Fig. 2.2.2 std 2.2.3)

(vi) The soil reaction acting on the faces at any

depth (D Z) below scour level due to horizontal
displacement y In governed by the following non-
.linear relationship
fl
pl = m% ( r,7Z) V .. . ( «.. ,p

Quantities rnh# n and r are to be determined by the

tests.. U.0 n = r = 1, the case will revert to the case
of Terzaghi% subgrade reaction.

(vU) Pull friction is mobilised on side faces parallel

to the directions of lateral load,
(vii) The vertical subgrade reaction due to a settle
nt ' Is given by a non-linear relationship

Values of K arid S are to be determined by tests,.

Again S = .1 will give the linear case.

ANALYSIS
(A) ONLY VEPTIC L LOAD ACrII13 ON WELL
The total vertical load of well and supported
structure will be held in equilibrium by the base reacq-
tion and skin friction force Fp acting on all, four
sides of the well due tO at rest' earth pressure vary-*
Ing linearly with depth. We therefore get the -equations
 - 25 -

r' kc f (B+L) D2
W = W.5+WQ = B.L. + p' K0 I ($+L) D2 o.. .(2.2.12)

equation (2.2. ►) gives the initial pre s sure intenstity

at base as
p$ = [ W . * (B ) t2]
Also from assumption 8 if the vertical displacement
at this stage Is Q 1.

B) .LATEI AL LOAD APaZED O N WELL

The forces as shown in Fig. 2.2.3 will develop
on the vertical faces and the base, and cause mom nts
about the pint of reference C along the intersection of
the axis of the well and the scour level. The expressions
of the various forces and momenta are derived below

a) Total soil reaction Pi

1e fer.xing to Fig. 2.2..3 let the instantaneous
point Of rotation for the well be 0i and let Z be the
vertical cc-ordmnate,. x the horizontal co-Ordinate from
0i and y the horizontal displacement from datum Then
Pi = L pf d* ......(2.2.1
where,.., p i. is the uhit horizontal soil reaction given
by equation (2,2.10) and D1 i6 the depth of instanta-
neous point of rotation below the scour Level, Substi~-
tuting the value of p1 from equation (2.2.10) and y zx
z e In eqn. (2.2..25) where a Is the angle of t It of
the wall_ tp oh+.Ain

26 -

~ z L. t (D 'z) (zO) dz

or P L Or Dn (1- ) r d

The integral can be evaluated in closed
from In terms of Gamma function as

provided that, (n+) >O and (r+1) > O .. a .. (2.2.15c )

or 0 1 h N1 .....(2.2..

+4. ri~rr~~ir+wiiiii~ri~~rrw+r~rririr +~j f

(n+r+2 3 I

Referring to Fig 2.2.3 again* the moment

M Of force PI about point C will be given by the
equation

L.. f pi (D1..Z) dz
0
substituting for p1 from equation (2.2.10 )
D,
MP i L Q 1rA 1. (1— ..r dz .....(2.2.16 a)
o D,
Integrating again In terms of Gamma Function we get
mh 8 D1 2 nt2J
r~ i b)
The moment acts in a clock wise
direction with respect to point c in Fig. 242#3


- 27

Frictional force F.

Frictional Force FI acts on the front fate

Of the well (Fig# 2..2.3) and in given by
FI = Ji # Pi ... ..(2..2.L7)
The force acts upward. Its moments

anttolo.ck wise about the point C. is

(c) Total soil reaction P2

Force '2 aStS on the rear face below the level

of 01 in Fig. 2.2.3 Measuring z now below the instantaneous
point of rotation O, the depth of strip d 2 below scour
level will be (D1+Z)
There fore
L. Dpdz L. j m (t +Z)n (ZO)rdz*«.(2 2.19)
L 0X 31 D21 » ~zr dz ... (2,2,19a)
~.
For evaluating the Integral making use Of
simpson's rule.. The co-ordinate of the curve will be
as follows

At z 0
ordinate . 2) 1
`(D2/ )r (1+ D2/b1) D.

Thus using siznpson Is rule for the Integral

and substituting into equation and adjusting the powers
of D1,, we obtain
P2 =Lmh 0n+r+J. .0...(2.2.19b)
 - 28 -

Where
C
= D2/0' .....(2.249 c)

The force p. will act from left to *i jht in

Figs 2.2.3... The anticlock wise moment MP2 of the force
P about point C in similarly given by

Where_
r
N3 = (T/b) (.;i+ 4 )n + 4 (, +'Y/2)' \ I) /2 + ].. . ~` .~Lf DVS ,~
d) Frictional Force F2

Frictional Force F2 acts on the rear face endue

given by

F2 P2
D*rection of F2 will depend an the position of
the instantaneous point, of rotation 01, that i F2 Will
act upward . ' > /2 and downward if X <,B/2 where,,
.s the distance of 01 from the axis of well
, The moment MF2 due to F about 0 will be
,' P2 aJ . ,.,«* (2 2.22)
it will be anticlockwise If x > B/2 and clockwise
if X < 8/2. affect of active pressure on face 2 is
neglected since very small compared to other forces,

e) frictional Force F3
Assuming that earth pressure at rest varies
linearly with depth the vertical frictional force F3 on
 F3 = (1/2) 0...•..(2.2.23)
acting in the upward direction* Its rwment. MF3 about C

will be zero.
f) Frictional Forces F4 and FS
F4 acts in a horizontal direction on
side face 3.. It will be given by
F4 = (1/2) ' . ~ B D .....(2.2.24)
acting from right to left in Pi.24at a lever arm of
,1./3 D1 above point 0. Therefore, clockwise r ament about C

M (1/6) ' "( K0 B

acts in a horizontal direction on side face 3,

below 0 and in given by

5 (1/2) 3 fiD 2.D2 ,..... (2.2.26)

tf
The moment M , anticlockwise about C

C D i/ 31....(2.2.2

g Total Base reaction RD

Force R B acts upwards normal to base as shown in
Eig,. 2.2.3. The total vertical settlement of any point at
the base at a distance X from 01 will be given by
According to assumption 7, the corresponding pressure ,Px will
be px
=
=K ( d i+x 9 )S .. ~. x(2,2.20)
Therefore, the total
xy
reaction RB will be given by
R$ = L K (Q4t + x 0 )S dx .*•....: C2*2.29)
 - 30 --

Integrating by simpson's Rule as before, R$.. is

obtained as

{tix2 ois]
Taking moments of pressure ordinates about C
and sumrising up by stmpson's Rule., the anticlockwise
moment MR due to RB in given by
8
to 1 As + , 4~;
MR .+X20 ..((2*212 .)

(I.) Frictional force B

Force F8 acting at the base ,will have Its

. limiting valued as
FS ' 2 . RB ..*5.(2.2.32)
I the distance of the instantaneous point Of
rotation above the base D2>0 , '8 Will act from **t left
to -a right in Fig. 2.2.-3. -If D2 = 0, F will be dete misled
by the equation of equilibrium of horizontal forces and
must be between ~ R. Xi' C) value will be as follows
' i" 'T2+S

if F works out positive it i*

s acting to the
-right and i f negative it will be acting to the left in
pig.2,2.3 ,the -moment ME due to .F will be

and will be anti,-clockwjse it PB acts to the right

EQUATIONS OF EQUnIERIUM
For statical equilibrium of the well under
combined action of vertical and lateral loads, the following
conditions must be satisfied.

7V =,0 , 2H =O, FM=a (about pent )

Considering all forces and their moments
on the well shown in Fig 2.2.3 the qqu .librium equat&aus
can be written as follows.

W = W0 +W5 ,F1+F2+2F3>
H = PP2+2P4 2F4~ .. ,► « "~
M = » MPL 1F MPtlMI 2 Z 4+2 lFU + MR8+ MF
1 B

DE1'E1 NAT ►N OF lD ..INA PAF 1E 'E

flo n,ljnear Parameters mho n and its tk

are re uired for altulat1n normal forces P1 and P2

on the front and rear faces respectively asindicated
by equatiorvZ.2. 0 2.1. \ . For this # equatiOn2.i. ocan be written
in the form
..... (2.2.3`0

where K In the coefficient of nonlinear horizontal sub-

grade reaction at a depth (D 1z) +Comparing equations
2.i.1o.and2.2.3-+ see that
= mh (Di.z) ... ,X2.2,38)
Taking logarithm of both sides of equation
we get
1Ogp=Kh+r logy
 - 32-

Thus if p' y curve I$'" plotted on a logarithmic

scale # Kb and r will be given by the intercept and slope of
the e. t fitting straight lime. Sbilarly;i from equation
2.238 When Kb Vs (3i-z1 is: plotted on a& logarithmic scale,
it will field mh and n as the intercept and slope of the
best fitting line1
The non .linearity index f ►r the subgr.ade at
base required for calculating the Reaction Ra at the base
could be safely assumed as unity. Since base _pressure are
never allowed to exceed safe bearing pressure v" under the
loads applied *

2f 2.3 CriticalEvaluationof Methods $

Making use of the results of the model studies

tarried out by Arya, A,S. , Sharda, S.C. and Prakash, S. (1982)
on cohesioni,ess soils. The following average values of
h = 0,070 k, cm. "f = 0,60,+, n go 1,s s 1 has been obta1ned.-
The comparison of measured and computed lateral loads for few
test o ipde1 studies has been shown on Fi , 2.2.4. The compa~»
ris. on shod a good corroboration between the observed and
computed values..
2.3 WELLS IN OHESIVE STEATA,
The design procedure or rather procedure for
calculating resistance of well in clayey strata in presented
herewith.


33 -

32
o UPPER BOUND *M h VALUE
o LOWER BOUND ''„~ VALUE

a
d r

a c _TEST No. 2 bTES-TNO 2,

kt 2 131 k9
H'/B - 2. 25.ALLE-ACES if/B =3.00 ALLI=ACES
0 — — — --...._. s --- — - R O U G_!i.
fl 24 —
0
J O ■ I /
16
c I

TE S- NO 3 d TEST "O-y
131 k9 I pe
H/B =20,ALL FACES ~1~8 =2.25, FAGES 3
__

24 —

o ;

@_TEST NO-5 ~_T

~ STMOA
1t~8 =`2.15 ALL FACE N/B =2.25 ALL FACES
0 8 16 2k O 8 16 24 32
COMP1s-rED LATERAL -OD—I<

'i9.No 2.2.1. Compar&sion between measured and conputed lateral

Loads,

• L.W,L. •
__

J
—— —

J 4
• ®ASE. O~ WELL
ACTIVE PRES PASSIVE PRESSURE
DIAGRAM D1AaRAM

Fig.No. 2.3.1 PrnDv urOlq 3 C'in1~ on a w11 in cohesive :rtr t;..


- 34 -

The pressure distribution will be as shown in Fig 2.3.1

passive pressure at depth d 2
'F p m d +2C ........(2.3.1)
active pressure at depth d

a A 2 tC/XA
where F4 can not be negative

CALCULATION OF RESISTING ECES AND IIOMENtS

Now with the help of the above equations (2.3.1)
(2.3.2) , the resisting forces and moments offered by the
soil In grip over well can be calculated and compared with
applied forces and moments, Thus for given factor of safety,
grip of well in soil strata can be calculated.
Soil resistance has been dev ded Into two stages
1 j When d< dt where d j Is the depth rat which not active
pressure changes sign from nejative to. positive in other
words -thee oct .ve pressure is Zero.
Active pressure in this zone in given by expression
Active pressure = d KA V
to find d1, equate this to zero
\d 1 K72 K 7
di ...2 ...,,.,.
.... *.'(2.3.3)
A
for d<d

0 Passive pressure fd ++c

p
 - 35 -

Resisting force ( (2'I c2jçId1K)

Which sinlifies to
Fr1 'Ed •34)

Iment due to this force about base of well

Mr I = .Bd21[ FJ.71; __
Erxd
(2) When d>df Where d2 =
Net resistance force

2 a2[2cf K4d2 fd2 J(]6

This simplifies to
!r2= d 2 ? [c( 2S/ç'(c) d,1 ø Kp+d2(KD)J
71 16

Moment due . this force about base of well

to

Mr [4~yr—+2-f,d jKp+2ejç$d jI(p4d2Kp *

_2 IKA] __

This, simplifies to
Mr= 4 Bcx(3/1ç,tK )
+
d2 ")]
+

= 22 4 X 3Jç çrç ~çd1 ' K)

If the soli surroundingnthe well is in 1ayersdifferent

strata both non—cohesive and Cohesive, then the analysis
should be base on the soil that predominates at the lower
levels below the maxmym scour level.
 - 36 -

A PIER ► II.

DESIGN OF 0D N S OP WELLS

3.1 VDiN

The wells structurally sing Could ".slat the

th
forces brought into play during sinking and useful lifetime*.
In order to ensure this requirement, the design of each cOmpo..
rent Of well should be such which leads to economy and provides
overall saf0ty Of structure..

3.2 WELL GtB

SIZE AND SHAPE O F WELL OJE8 ;

The size and shape of well curb• should satisfy the

following requirements.

(1) it should be strong enough to transmit the super

i load to the base.

(ii) The width Of the base of the curb should be such
that It offers low resistance when the well in being
sunk through hard material and should provide nece-
ssary stability in the case of soft material.
(iii) The slope to the vertical O. the inner faces of
curb should be such as to push forward easily the
soil Into the dredge hole. This should preferably
be not more than 3Q0,, In sandy strata It may be
450
 -- 37 -

(iv) A small offset on the outside may be provided to

•oast sinking.
To full fill all the above requirements 'Draft
standard specifications and + ►de of pract ce for road bridges,
section Vii recommends dimensionsof curb as follows*

(a) eight of Curb .: Height of curb should not be less

or equal to .1.8 T: where T Is thickness of well

(b) Bottom Width of Curb bottom width should not

be loss than or equal to 150 nn.
(c) Offset from steining i An offset to curb on outer
face of well :ste. njng shall not exceed D/80. where
D in the external diameter of well.
(6) Inner face slope : " øp 300 m height of the inner
face of curb shall be kept vertIcal for easy
transfer of loads from stei.n.tng to the curb..
TESTING OF WELL CURB
The well curb shall be designed and tested for the
folic wing conditions

A *- During Sinking t

The curb cuts tough. the soil by the dead weight of

well stelning and to t edge,, if ant, when the inside of the well
, dredged. - After the well has penetrated the soil, to consi
derable depth, the forces acting on the curb will be as she
In =*g.. 4.
 Let 16
4
mean diameter of the curb in metre

N = might of steining in toms per m. run

P= coefficient of friction between soil and

concrete of curb, usually taken a 0.36

= f1.ce In tons per metro run of curb acting

normally to the bevel surface
Q0 force in tons per in6 length of curb acting
tangentially to the bevel surface.
Horizontal resultant force in tons per metre of
curbq#

angle In. degrees of bevelling with the horizontal

p =
5inc,<+ cos c<
Ho per metro run a N SiOJJL C)

and total hoop tension, H NK1 d/2 # 0.5 N91 dm

where K1 = nçç
Si+ CoSo<

Por the sudden descend of well during sinking

operation1 due to deep sump sand blows, springs etc. A pro-
vision of O% more hoop tension in the well curb should be
made and hoop reinforcement shall be provided accordingly to
wLth,star*d these Stresses,
 39 -

Fig. No. 3.2.1 Forces n cL.iri on the uJell in colher;7_vc

P~ot~-o n ?'W-
Well Curb

Fig. No 3.2.2 Forcc 2c ink; on 'tie ueli curb ut en1 rc-t nf, on,
bottom p1 a+-; .
 -40-

B .-. Curb Resting On Bottc.i Plug :

When the cutting edge in Prevented from moving

down by reactions developed at the iner face of the curb and
the bottom Plug- .The reactionO neglecting cumulative effect of
skin friction, could be resolved Into horizontal and vertical
components by assuming foinatLon of two hinged puaboUc arch
within the thickness of the bottom plug* The weight of the
materal filled in the w11 and the bottom plug will be trans'
mitted to thebed directly.

Or the condition assumed above under the action

of a load uniformly distribute along horizontal span of the
concrete plug.
Hoop tension ( H) s q
1r1

wherer, = Vertical height of an imaginary arch as

shown In Eig•. 3.2.2.
einforcernent in well Curb s
The quantity Of reinforcement steel provided in the
curb as hoop bare must be sufficient to take the maximum hoop
tension developed In the curb In both the condition mentioned
above. I*wever, as per clause 311.4 of LRC : 2J1912 the
minimum reinf*cement in a well curb shall be 72 kg/rn3 The
allowable safe stress in the hoop steel shall be taken as
1250 kg/cm2 . The stress in any member during erection may exceed
 - 41 -

0 n I I R C C.WELL T
C P F — -- -

75 751 _.. __ 400_-

124 600-_( I1 — 11 -C C. M 150.
TOP PLUG IN 0 r 12Q~
C.C. M 100
KEY
a D-2 200
~ I m
L 75

SAND FILLING
~ 12 ~
12 L_ 625 _._..

1 't" {— C.C.Mi200

—12c 600 124)

0 0
0 U)
0 m
251
12 0

STEINING IN
Q,C.M 150
EY~'~--
150

CURB
C.C.M 200
I. 150 L 75

C.C. M 200

Fig. No. 3.2.3. Arrangement of rj~.nforcemon4 is a well curb.

 - 42 -

the permis s .ble working stress by %. The reinforced Cori-*

Greta used for well curb shalZb of grade M 15 or higher (ix
not leaner than i:2:4)

303 V1TZNG EDGE I

The cutting edge should be strong enough so as not
to fail in crushing while pass ,ng through the hardest strata
expected tokmet wtt,h. it should be properly anchored to the
well curb to with stand warping , twisting* shearing and crush-►
in; etc* The cutting edge should have as sharp an angle as
practicable for knifing into the soil, An angle to the vertical
of 3O, or a s3pe of I horizontal to 2 vertical has been
-found satisfactory in practice.

3*,4 EOTitfl4PLUG t

The bottom plug should be strong enough to trans-

mit the Super Wised loads safely to the soil below it. AS
per 'Draft Standard spacifi#ation and code of practice for
Road Bridge$ I section VZI the concrete used fox bottom plug
shall be of grade M 15 with 10% extra cement and 0.6 water
cement ratio to permit flow of concrete and f ll all Cavaties.
The concreting shall be done gently in one single -operation.

The compressible force to which the concrete plug

in subjected to, ;j; Calculated by assuming an arch formed
be we en the curb faces with in the concrete plug. This assumed
arch has very little rise compared to span. Therefore, for
the purpose of design,, the axial force Caused are safely
assumed equal to horizontal thrust..
 - 43 -

Axial thrust per running metre H

8r1
Axial compressive stress qd
-. Lj tJL

aer1t
= thickness of arch (height of curb)

When wells are founded on sandy strata, the for-

mation of imaginary arCh tn doubtful, hence the thickness
Of the bottom plug assuming it to be flat should be tested as
circular slab n biRding and thickness required for safe
Stress should be provided. The maximum bending moment per
metre width may be taken as

16 q

q a net upward sail reaction

a a effective radius of bottom plug = d/2

Therefore, thickness of bottom plug 6 M_
Where f is allowable tensile stress Of plug concrete,

3.5 WL STEINING I
The steining may resist of reinforced Concrete
Of grade At 40 (mix not leaner then 1:3s6) or brick masonry.
Thickness of $tening t

The follOwiny factors are to be considered while

fixing the thickness of steininga

(a) it should be possible to sink the well without

excessive kentiedge
d h) It cthøuic he afrona enouah to transmit the super
 ..,...w_
44

c) The wells do not got damaged during sinking

(d) Zf the well develops tilts or shifts during
sinking. It should be possible to rectify
the tilts and shuts without damaging the well,*

{ e) The well should be able to re s ,st Safely

the earth pressure developing during a sand.
blow that may occur during sinking or during
other conditions like sudden drop that may be
experienced during s nking

(f) At any level of steirdng,, the stresses under

all loads and bending moment $ Occuring during
sinking or during service should be within
permissible limit*

The thickness of the .steinirig shall,, however,

be not less than 450 u nor less than that given by following
eqations

For circular shaped wells of cement concrete s

(i ) .fin Sandy strata 4.0~

+ i
.i) In soft clay strata 1.1 d .
)
(iii) In hard Clay strata i.25(0.Ol.1 +D.1.d )
(iv) In strata where boulders , Kankar., shale
Or laterite or such hard materials are
met with 0 1,.2 (0.01.1 + 0.125.d)
for rectangular or double D shaped wells of cement concrete

(i) In sandy strata # 1.0 (0.Qi1 +O.l..b)

(U) In soft clay strata* Li (O.o..Z •+ o,l.b)
(iii) In hard clay strata, 1.15 (0.01.1 + 04b).
(jv) In strata, where boulders, Kankar, shale or
laterite or such hard materials are met with.,
1.2 (0.011 +O.L.b)

Where
d0 ii external diameter Of the well
b ii)the longer side of the rectangular well"'
I is, the full. dcpth *0 which the well in designod

to be sunk below the bed

It the wefl is to sink under its own weight owr-

coming the skin friction,. must have sufficiently thick
steinLng. Taking the limiting condition when weight of
steining Is equal to skin friction for a circular well,,
the following expression should be usd

t =

Where d external diameter of well, in metre

: thickness of well steining
w a weight per cubic metre of steinin •ateriai in
tons
f = Skin friction In tons per sq. rn. of outside
surface of well
 - 46 -

STEXNI STRESSES

After determining the ma .mun moment and loads,

the stresses are worked out. The stresses In a well steining
varj depending on thedepth .. The moment will go on tncrea-*
sing upto a certain depth below the maximum scour level.
Thereafter Its value will go on reducing due to passive
resistance offered by the soil surrounding the well and the
base will pra tically be sub eCted to direct loads only.

The section of woi.i staining just below the

well cap has least direct load but is subjected tOs cQn8i..
datable moment and threfore, this so dion Is; critical for
tensile and shear stresses. At a level below the mxmt
scour level where the horizontal force get neutralised by
passive pressure of Barr # .. e. • where the shear becomes
ter*# called Zero Horizontal Shear Level, the mamens are
maxi um and the direst loads are also considarable.1.hLs
S w

section is iticai for compressive stres ses. The foil wring

expressions have been ev.lved for calculating depth Of .Zero
Shear Level,

l - IN GA E.YSTRATA,

r ,f
ZNS YSTRATAZ
d ... .....,r. : + ?, .2 $u - X #
O. ,
 - 47 -

Where
d Is depth of zero horizontal shear level
1 is moment of ineFtia as defined .n XID % 4l972

This steining stresses are given by

1ilLif

Re ,nforcement in well steining s

For with standing various stresses Caused
during sinking operations, both vertca3. and hoop reinforce-»
went should be provided. The amount of vertical reinforcement
required depends usually on the weight of the well when
held up or when it Is rec4red to resist the upward forces
imparted to ft by skin friction during its down ward descent.
However, reinforcement consisting of vertical bond rods in
the steining o7 the well shall not be less than 9 kg/n3.
The reinforcement shall be provided on both face of the well
adequately tied up with the hoop steel not less than 3.25kg/rn3

.6 ' LL CAP :.
A weLt cap of reinf iced concrete with M 200
concrete is needed to transfer the loads and moments from the
pier to the ll or wells below. They may also be extended as
Cantilevers to accOmodate piers of larger size than the
well.. The bottom of the well cap should normally be kept
at low water level.
 -4

The R.C.C. gap :s genezaliy designed as a two

way slab in the portion spanning the dredge holes. The
reinforcement on the cantilever portion In provided for the
bending moments in this portion. The thickness of the cap
is flso designed that it is not necessary to provide shear
reinforcement in any portion of the cap. The structural
design shall conform to IS s 456l9
i
 49

G H A P T_ E R *- IV
w/
T ILTS AID SHIFrs
~ir~~rr~r•ri rr .....ww.r►r-

4.1 INT1CD UCT ION

The primary aim in well sinking is to sink

them straight and at the correct position. In spite of all
possible precations during course of sinking the wells do
get tilted and shifted due to reasons which are beyond the
control of the engineers. L;n practice to achieve this objec*-
tive great supervision and control is required.

The tilting of wells during sinking operations

may take place in every conceivable direction. The shift is
a phenomenon which goes hand in hand with the tilt. The cduses
which led to trilt also caused the well to shift.But there is
no relationship between tilt and shift so that the extent of
one could not be inferred from the extent of the other. These
defects could arise from multiplicity of causes, i;-g.

(i) uneven bearing capacity of strata being penetrated

(ii) unequal dredging
(iii)unequal frictional resistance to sinking.
(iv) meeting of obstructions like logs, boulders etc..
under a part of the well.

Tilting also takes place when the well enters a

harder layer from a comparatively softer layer. This would
be self explainatory by a reference to )fig. 4.1.1.
 50 -

Tilting usually does not take place suddenly. Actu-

ally when the well is one or two fdtt above the level of
cornparitively harder strata the movement of the well may be
noticed as sand or softer strata starts flowing in the well
along the slope or harder strata.

If adgquate precautions are not taken to rectify

the tilt at the time when the tilt starts they get aggrava.-
ted . Usually upto about 25 ft. depth of sinking tilt and
shift can be controlled and rectified, beyond this depth recti-
fication presents serious difficulties,

DEFINITIONS ;

TILT — Departure from vertical position of the well

expressed as the tangent of the angle.

SHIFT The translational movement of the well from its

original position.

ALIDWANCE IN DESIGN

Tilting and shifting of well from its vertical

axis and true centre line, respectively are not uncommon
in actual construction despite all precautions taken during
its sinking. Hence to counteract effects of ultimate even-
tualities it is usual to restrict the tilts and shifts to
certain limits. IS : 395 1967, 'Code of Practice for
construction of Well Foundations' specifies that tilt gene-
rally be limited to 1 in 60 and shift should normally be
restricted to 1 in 100, or one percent of the depth sunk.
V19 ~ G
(ntral I ihrarn i1nivercI u of Voar ~4.
 (4T flt4I.j
YlLL .rfl
I

Fig* No 4.1.1 Will iiikig from harder strata to softer strata.

INITIAL
STACC

-HLTI:o
L 101
S -

clo i
T1sr
FINAL.
CANT I IN ?t
I

i--------

OTP t- I

Fig. No.4,2.1 Effect of tilt onw11E atdifferent depths.

 - 52 -

4.2 EFFECT OF TILTS AID SHIFTS r

Every possible endeavour should be made to sink a

well as vertical as possible. Tilts, if any within the limits
may not be dangerous but must be examined about their possible
ultimate effects.

The tilt similar to shift had the effect of produ-

cing mo -;mentson wells and sometimes tilts and shifts produced
rno° , me nts of opposite sign and other times these moment had
additive effects. The effect of tilt and shift should not C. be
considered in isolation but should be considered togather.
The shiftchange span lengths and thereby induce
ecentric loads on the well steinin] and foundations while the
tilts cause uneven pressure on foundations. The magnitude of
ill effects depends upon the size of the well and depth to
which it is sunk. These are illustrates: in Fig. 44.2.1.
which showes that the effect of tilt on wells of same size
differs at different depths. If a simple tilt occurs at a
certain depth and the sinking continued till desi ned founda-
tion depth is reached, the shift at the bottom could be
greater than at the top. These shifts and tilts may take
place in any combination. But the total shift at the base will
be the sum of the two shifts.
4.3 PRECAUTION= TO AVOID TILTS AAD SHIFTS.

Following precautions should be taken to avoid tilts

and shifts.
 - 53 -

(a) The outer surface of well curb and steining

must beegular and smooth as possible.

(b) The radius of the curb 3.s,~"' always kept 2.5 to 4 cm.
larger than the outside radius of well steining.
This projection should be equal on all sides
otherwise it may result in tilts.

(c)The cutting edge of the curb should be at uniform

thickness and sharpness since the sharper edge
shall have a greater tendency of sinking than
a blunt edge.

, PR cAUr IO NS TO MINIMISE TILTS AID SHIFTS :

In addition to normal precaution during sinking
A the following important precautions are also taken to mini-
4 tilt and shifts.

lI (1) Most important is to guard against the tilt

being allowed to be rectified in the steining
itself, while building it.

(ii) To reduce the tendency of tilting, the centre

of gravity of the well is kept low and as near
the cutting edge as possible. This is achieved
by limiting the high* of steining above ground
level. Initially this height is kept 1.8 m. only
while later on this may be increased but in
no case exceedin_; the diameter of the well. The
height of the st'Q& ring cast at a time is
restticted to two lifts of I to "1.8 m. each,
maximum being 4.5 m. height at a time,
 - 54 —

(iii) Dumping the spoil from dredge hole, either

just near the well or on one side of it
alone is not permitted.

(iv) The first tilt plane and subsequent trans-

ferred tilt plane are marked very carefully
and accurately and it is aimed to limit the
tilt in each direction within the value of
the component of the permissible tilt along
worse plane.

4.4 MEASURES TO 00UNTEA ACT TILTS AND SHIFTS IN THE WELL

As soon as the tilt along the two axis exceeds

1 in 200 the sinking should be supervised with the special
care and any one of the methods may be adopted either
seperately or in combination with others for the recti-
f ication of tilts and shifts.

REGULATED GRABBING

Unequal dredging causes tilts and hence if hir her

side isj grabbed more by regulating the dredging suitably,
the tilt can be rectified (Fig. 4.4.1) . This method
effective in initial stages of sinking but as the sicking
progresses regulation of grabbing becomes more and more
difficult. In case of tilted well, dredger does not work
satisfactorily,. On such occasion following method should
be adopted.
A hole in the steining of the well in made on
the higher side and by hooks, the rope of the grab is pulled


- 55 -
PULLEY

LOADS!:;: -i
-t^

ROPE

.- HOOK

Zy.C&J TION :S DONE

t)S TT_Z HIGHER
S Of THr WELL.
26C

DREDGING WITHO(1T H ~'cING DREDG,,gC WITH HOOKING

'ig No. 4.4.1 Regulated 4.4.2 Dredging on lower side of the

GrabbiAg. well with hooking.

BIRDERS tL
-((DI r EY.BLE
7 S STEEL b,~RE ROPE
t B;WDE^r.
DIA-HOLE 114
STEtt::N5.

JOB = GIRDERS
WELL=' c- GEC ' JOIWIS ' --. G.
tJE'-- "=D". ^ THE ! -- 146
STEI':i, WE._:_ '-'ID
CRDUTED r,: i H r. -i GRAPE
CO:RETE

i "S

SECTIONAL ELEVATIO
SECTIONAL ELEVATlOt:

ruIuIuI —.
.4w1hill
-
THE PLATFORM
OJECTS ON ALL
)ES SO AS TO BE
LE TO PROVIDE
4NGE IN SIDES
R THr-
a 1IiI
- LOAD BEING
4CED ECCE?ICALD
1.111
fl
gRI® ■
_ 15x7 t: :1; I~ jii i
~' (
TU BE: I.£ iD S ' ~; r • ---O i 2~ '

i ` ~i l ~ I I Ef

Ii.'•;j
ii
Arrangement
N o- !~ ~+• for
4.4.3 Arranzernent for Eccentric ~
Qac®atria loadi over tilt~d
ng over the ll in its earlier well nuy.k to appreciable deptha.
I of winking.
 - 56 -

towards higher side to the maximum possible extent. The

hole is made near the ground level (Fig. 4.4.1 & 4.4.2).
This method is commonly used either independently or
in combination with Others for rectification of tilt.

ECCENTRIC IAAD IM
The well normally ism given kentledge in order to
provide necessary sinking effort. The position of this
load should be kept regulated in order to provide greater
sinking effort on the higher side of the well than on its
lower side. Some times small wells get so badly tilted that
even when the load iii placed on the high side, it has the
effect of increasing the tilt$ as shown in Fig. 4.4.3.
In such cases, either loading should not be done at all or
ordocz done only over a cantilevered plate form. In order to
accomodate the eccentrically placed loading over the well
and to provide facility for charring its position during
sinking a loading plateform is built up with projects
beyond the well on all sides as shown in Fig. 4.4.4. For
applying kentledge arrangements for 90 lb. rail, 15"x6"
girders and few heavier section of steel girder have to be
made from very beginning. Keeping kentledge a bit on heavier
side, arrangements for appreciable eccentric loading will
pay its cost may times by keeping the well vertical and
thus facilitating and expediting- its sinking, avoiding all
unnecessary wastage of expenditure and time. iat a later
stage in rectifying tilt when the things get much more
complicated. Experience has provhd that the well loaded with
adequate kentledge placed with suitable eccentricity and coupled
with regulates dredging can be kept completely under control
and any tilt as soon as it developer can be eliminated within
no time by mending the arrangements suitably.

As the sinking progresses, heavier kentledge with

greater eccentricity in required in order to rectify the tilt
of well. In such cases even girders or rails may not suffice.
Arrangements are then modifed by providing brackets which sup-
port the projected loading plateform. In such advance stages
the plateform projects only towards the higher side as shown
in Fig. 4.4.4.

WATER JETTING OR DIGGING PIT OUTSIDE TIDE HIGHER SIDE OF THE

WELL AND DEmSSTING STIFF MATERIAL A I3UND THE. LOWER SIDE

A water Jet is forcfd, on theouter faces of the well

towards the higher side so that skin friction is reduced towards
the higher side. The method is not very effective if used along,
but provides a contributory effect if used with other methods
(Fig. 4.4.5)„

EXCAVATIN UNDER THE CUTTING EDGE ON HIGHER SIDIT

A filled well generally refuses to straighten due to

stiff unbroken strata on the higher side of the well. In such
cases, the well in dewatered, if possible and safe, and open
excavation is done below the cuttinj edge f the higher side.
I


• rr H1
'
FILL +uvcn BED I
i t f
11 ~
DM f i
RV ER BED \ I 1 I

HIGHEP SID
OF ThZ WE

ig.No - 4.4.5 Pit dug up imside the well oia 1.4.6 Sleeper pieces
on the higher side. below cutting edge to
2rrest sinking ox
lower side.

TO E POLLED r; T -iE
ODK: SlE DIRFCT"U
EY S =Ah' wiNCH OR
VERTICAL SLEEPERS
TIGHTENED WITH
STEEL ROPE AIP.OUI\ STEEL RE.
THE STEINING, rp.ii i

STEIN NG

'ig,No- 4.4.7 Hooking the cutti~ag Fig.No. 4.4.$ Pulling the

edge on the lower side tilted well by steel
of the wall. rope.
If dewaterin in unsafe, divers go down to loosen the
strata.

PROVIDING TEMFOEAF Y OBSTACLES BELOW THE CUTTIN3 EDGE ON—

THE LOWER SIDE :

In some cases, wooden sleepers are put tempora-

rily below the cutting edge of the well on the lower side
to avoid further tilt of the well while various expedients
are being attempted to rectify the tilt (Fig. 4.4.6) .
Hooking the cutting edge on the lower side of. the well with
the help of a steel wire rope, pulled by steam winch also
has a similar effect (Fig. 4.4.7).

PULLING THE WELL 'TOWARDS THE HIGHER SIDE

The method is effective only in early stages of

sinking. The well is pulled towards the higher side by
placing one or more steel ropes round the well with vertical
sleepers packed in between to distribute the pressure over
larger areas of the well steining. The ropes are pulled
by winches (Fig. 4.4.8).

When the well is in advance stage of the sinking

heavy pull may be required. It is applied by adopting
the method shown in Fig. 4.4,9. Wire ropes are taken round
the well and anchored to a large dead man which may be a 40 ft.
plate jirder or a bundle of rails etc. Rails or other
kentledjers are then placed on the wire ropes which develop
 • i t ~ ;t ~ ~;

HEAVY P1~6L

Fi g.No . 4.4.9 A rrangemeRt for ; ppbyi rtg heavy pull.

LEPER a'
'-T-
ti'. 'vui:D TriZ
ELL
LL i/
s'F= TING SL- c.

_DEN EG! icS.

G

'J TrE zUtWlr:3

!'v
- - Z TO E=
E- R BE
.> Ac T-E TILT IS

Fig.N o- 4.4.10 Strutting the well ox its tilted side.

LIGHT, PUSH

Fig.No. 4.4.11.. Arrangement for applying light push.

►
WT MACKEM

5TWA'Cl17(_.NING FZIGf:~ FOR (I:OOIC. '4JC_LL:>

k•ig. No. 4.4.1 2 Arrangement for applying heavy push.

 - 61 -

very high tension and tilt gets rectified as the well sinks.

STRJrTIi 3 THE WELL ON ITS TILTED SIDE :

This method prevents futher increase in the tilt

of the well rather than rectifying it. The well in strutted
on its tilted side with logs of wood(Fig. 4.4.10). The well
steininq is given covering plate to distribute the pressure.
The other ends of the logs rest against firm and non yeilding
base by driving piles etc. Wooden wedges are inserted- ;, and
fixed in the gaps caused by the tilts of the well being
rectified.
PUSHING THE WELL BY JAOKES, FIQM THE TILTED LOWER SIDE

In this method, light push in applied by driving

a strut between the well and the bank as shown in Fig. 4.4.11.
The strut in made tight by driving wedges. More and more
compression develops in the strut as the well sinks.
it
When heavy push required applied by adopting
the method as shown in Fig. 4.4.12. In this method, two
timbers of 30 cms square or so or struts of suitable section
are tied to-gather in the shape of nut cracker with the
handles spread apart. Very heavy push in applied to the well
when the load in placed at the hinge. The tilts gets corrected
only during the course of sinking. Care should be taken to
see that push in not so great as to cause damage to the well.
 Ordinarily no cracks should occur in any
of the we ** However• cracks do develop in a well steining
due to inadequate staining thic ess, in- adequate hoop steel
provided,, use of a nab cement concrete in steining or faulty
construction and c relessness in sinking
g operations. SOmetimes
cracks are developed due to some unaccounted and unforeseen
forces acting on well stelning along one axis. These crack
are of two types
(a) Cracks running horizontally i wo
Thesp are not so serious. These generally
develop during the process of rectifying tilts,, wherein certain
portion of well steintng gets heavily stressed and. horizontal
crack get deVeloped. These cracks are to be cement grouted
with neat cenent.w Holes are driven through staining in order
to reach the cracks*
(b) cracks running Vertically z
Verti cal cracks deveiope due to excessive
water pressure on the steining while dewatering of the well,
sudden descend of the well. due to deep sumps; severe sand
blows, differential earth pressure on the steining, and due
to wrong or excessive use of gelignite
, gnite ch es. Vertical
cracks are serious in nature and need careful examLnatton
before accepting the well. In Case those vertical cracks
cross through R.C.C. bondd rings as well. the ateining shod


— 63 —

I 141 S
MING -
D HAI CRA Ct -
O }_ o .e o r
THitLis-
Lyleifvc ". -^ Of CR AC~~SfB
c ACx k ~Y7
G + d L
Tq r 7 ti

F--- 2 5 • T 3 — - { ~-- --- 2 } . 7 3 "I

ELEVATION OF OUTER CRACKS
2d.o_-JI
v E D _
RING - _ - -- —

'Q C ➢ ACK •~ N,[SS 4 I AA K PLAN SHOWING THE SU35t~E4CG &THE CRAC'

1

ER R.L 5.50

LL R_. L_ HO -
TER ING

' 21 8' —j i— 21.8+ —1

ELEVATION OF INSIDE CRACKS

PLAN SHOW N1G THE ARRANGEMENT

OF KENT _~DG~E

,ig. No 5-1-1 Cracks developed in the well No 29 of. Rupnnryan

Bridge.

ci UrnED

i
.
i

bt -

Fig. No. 5.2.1 Line diagnarn of well .show:i_nsg deformed h2po.

 - 64 -

be taken as seriously affected and lL to be examined char

it can be relied to take the design load. Figure 5.1.1. shows

the cracks running vertically* developed In the wells of
Rupnarayan Bridge at Kol..aghat on National High way No* 6.

5.2 CWSES OF cR 8 .i
The careful study of the nit se and patten
of the cracks developed in the ateining of wells, at the
time of formation of cracks* suggest that some unaccounted
and unforeseen forces acted On the well seining along
one ails deforming the d.rouls thee, of the well inwards
along one a;cis and outwards along the perpendicular axis.
The behaviour 25) similar to circular reinforced concrete
pipe, sustaining a load on top and ground reaction at bottom •

The deflected shape of the well sub j eet ed

to a force along one e6X1a .isJ Shown in rig. 5.2.1» Under
theme conditions tension cre s may develop nn inside face
at A and B and on outoenide face at C and D iefl the stresses
de loped thus exceed3 the ;P ss 4) stresses.
The unbalanced hydrostatic pressure between
the outside and the inside of the well results in blow
causing movenent of the soil mass from the ground level
down to the well pocket a just at the moment when Soil Mans
moves down, the act ve earth pressure on the well along the
aac s where the blow occ Ures ceases to exist due to sudden
hollowness as illustrated In Fig. 5.2.2. As a result, the
active earth pressure along the pendlcu].ar a is Only rename
effective.
 - 65 -

In a c 0 soil, the intensity Of active

earth pressure may be given by following equation,*
r dk, 2c

The above equation assumes that the soil

may be stressed to its ultimate cohesion so as to get
maximum relief of active earth pressure. In practice* the
assUmPtiOn. may not be true and to be on the safe side the
intensity of active earth pressure may be modified aso

rdk' c11.7

where XiQu active pressure coefficient for given soil strata

as per columb's theory.
a Cohesion
density of soil (submetg ed density to be used
when under water)
8) so Height below ground level*
The critical depth above which theP will be no
earth pressure may be evaluated as follows.
cJ
cfzcA —
dz

Refer gig- 5.Z.3 intensity of earth pressure at base of

the weflo
p1 K Ardci

Total earth pressure on the well per m width.

p = p x (d-.d

Average Lbtensity of earth pressure on the well,&

P x(d-d)
* L
1ij
24


ntiis n~urt, wnirH fAot.!

t'~ 3UP,Sitrr„r uur. 10P,. *a 'fit NriL't: utityin frr[Cii.r

// ~~ ~, ~ ~c,--
I j~,`_Duu,ri r itt r~r.
(a) OW (L 1TE 1ME OF e>LOYJ

Fig. No. 5.2.2 Effect of the sand below an well steining.

ECCENTRIC kEMTLEbGE

'rn
U
• L

~. TILT=I.4UFT IN 32.75 FT.

-- \• p-TAN
v o 3275
0.043
Q cj
:
J
1w

Fig. No 5.2.3 Forces ictin - on well contr:i.buting to cr,ckin .

 _ 67 _

The excessive tilt and the heavy kent3 edge on the high side

also contribute some part in foamaton '0f rack, as illua»

Crated in Fig. S.2.. . It i; l asS aed that the weight Of earth
coining directly on well due to tilt in the well and the
ct of the $oil due to tilted well also detozmed the
thrust
cigar well as shown in pig. 5•2'l.
W= Weight of well plus kentl edg.
T = thrust on soil due to the tilted Well

T Lt = W Sin ['
Tilt in degrees

Thtust per m. of well d

Intensityof h
Vii ` c x diameter of well

Total intensity = p, + + i

Mximum moment induced in the ate ,.ring due to pressure intensity

3/4 Q1
section modulus of the s eining per unit height.
2
z t 2
6
Tensile stress developed in the well steining

The staining will crack when the tensile stress exceeds the
modulus of rupture,
Prom above consideration# a omlation for the
steining teas of circular well may be worked out as
follows.
2
Banding moment = 2/4 OP
Al 60 bending mcment a

114 OR

t u thickness of staining o
t Average radius of the circular well C)
of

0 = average intensity of differential earth pressure CD

f a Permissible tensile stress In concrete*
X5.3 PRECAUTIONS 'XV AVOID CRACKS #
Some of the precautions that should be taken
to check development of cracks 1 in the well ateining are
restricting the well size to a min.mum in case Of clayey strata,
limiting the external kentledge for sinking to a m n1mutu extra
care In the design of the R.C.C. bond rings in case of brick
staining. provi sion of adequate hoop steel and avaoidance of
rich concrete mixes in well.. ste sing. Also water jetting i3 used
extensively, excessive amps avoided and extra Ca: taken during
blasting operation where followed.
5.4 NENI OF cRAØ STEINIZG f

As discussed earlier staining of the well foundation

get cracked while si nil ng * Vertical cracks, thinner at top
and wider at bottom occur. water seeps through these ranks and
at lower depths may shoot out under some pressure
One .Method Of strengthening the cracked steining in to
lay another R.C.C. staining inside the cracked well in contact
with the old staining. The stei,nii ng bares of new .0 .C. staining
are anchored at the bottom o E the well in cement concrete plug
laid sub-sequently.
 69

The main problen in such a well is to control the

vupage through the cracks in the stening, Towards the top of
the well the cracks could be seaZed with neat cement mortar.
The thickness of cracks gradually increases towards the bottom*
After some depth cracks are wide enough to be plugged wi th pieces
of gunny bags soaked in cement mortar. The plug' gg prevents the
escape of water at that. spot. The water entering these cracks
a
howe ier travel down inside the steining and escape att* lower
eVel.. The water discharge in the lower,pOrtion of the cracks
gradually increases as the top surface sealed in more and
more length. A stage in reached when the intensity of the discharge
in so much that the gunny bag plugs are thrown out by the water
pressure. Any attempt to plug the portion of the cracks would,
increase the hydrostatic pressure on the steining and even if
a small chunk of stein .rig gets dislodged, it could imperil the
lives of the wo r K- a inside the well.
A sue + essful method has beenevolved to collect the
water and allow it to be discharged inside the well without
fouling the space in which new concrete i to be placed* Smell
funnel shaped bozev are ba f rieated with scrap bl ack plain.
sheets of 10 gauge thickness as shown in Fig. 5.4.j. The shape
and size of the boxes differ according to the Situations. A but
(.ofd 25.4 mm (14 diameter bolt i ; welded on to the hole drilled
in this box. Grooves are cut in the concrete round the portion of
the cracked steining from where water is gushing out, 'The steel
box Is inserted in these grooves to a depth of about S© mm.. The
water collected in the box flows throught-he bole, Thus no
additional hydrostatic pressure is áUowed to deerelope. The box
 - 70 -
' IN 5TI:ININO
CW C1

v
nour4D -rHC ti~aX

G /

^,T M C L• bo) 'r c) COLLECT WT bi

Fig. I-10 5.1..1 Skei c h of st^r1 box 1,1.oc1 :.n p'sUi on.

—GU ROPE!

DOUALE S 4.EAYt; TO OOJI LS DfIUM WlNCII

/PLUGGING U0(
'\
✓ --DLERICN

• 7UTLETj I PLArFORM FOR FILLD Gc4UOWRD

8W WI T H 'CONCRE I E

•AU4P Pat VI() J' .H7r

lye
t A~'aIn
n I,
•

LUGGIH1 ROX.
1►ppu" Wo -~ ~1cfr~ I~ox ~o co~~~er.
10 RAIN, BA115 Ht1;li ~~.-
(RTAt Lt CHUTE .^-r- 1 pLATFUAM'
• —.Tr( L c)rnr 5 FCR QIVIHi CKLUUA
~I r—
-_..., L,,,...Lii ~- APE 1 b SFIJr T E ra G
'LTEEL sHUTIEljuta
•OLD'CRAQct)•
STEINRJO
+ 11 WATER PU4H

NM A1M Ton Cot.t.LCT14Q

6Et:f'WC YWEII

•', 751.~FL,UO9iif0
r 1 4 , r ,. 'r. • r'r

Fig. No 5 .4.2 Goreva1 ~' ~:T~

nrfnt ?rat; ry f St: ng:
.'ncc 1 i ng e1 1stej_ ni n7
 71 _

is firmly secured in place by pac3ing cement concrete in the

grooves in which it has been embedded. The concrete i then allowe
to set. After a week or so a 31 pipe 25.4 mm (1") diameter end
about a meter in length is screwed in the nut welded in the box.
The seepage water flow through the M pipe and i8 discharged
away from the new R.C.C.staining being constructed inside* When
the construction reaches the level of the bar,, the GI pipe is
tekethrough the steed. shuttering by drilling a hole in .it*
Zn this way seepage water in prevented fri getting fnsi4+ tie
form work Of the new asteining and fouling the concrete. The
water discharged through the pipe i. collected in a drum in the
a Un centre of the well and pumped out from time to time* The
general arrag rents are shown in Fig. 5*4t1 and') 5,4.2.

5.4.1 CASTING O " I3EW S" `Elt1I2'NG I-+

Once the problem of seepage of water has been
tackled the work of casting the new staining i9 started. Rope
ladders are used by the workers to get in and out of the well#
Every other article like reinforcement .bars0 pieces of steel
shuttering etc. are lowered into the well by means of a rope
carried over a small pulley. A steel compass is fixed on top
of the shuttering for keeping a circular shape. This cc*npass
haS eight racial amp made of angle iron. Over these arms a
working plate form is build by placing steel plates. Every time
after casting of one lift of the staining, the Plate form etc.
has to be taken Out of ,the. well and lowered again elter the steel
shuttering is moved up and fixed in position. Over the top of the
well another working plateform Is made by placing as Joists acros
the cracked staining. The plugging boxes are filled with concrete
 72 -

on this plateform. A derrick is. erected over the well and

double sheave g} u ,ly IS fixed on t1 i s derrick.# it serves to raise
and lower the plugging boxes as well as any other heavy item like
20 hp. electric pomp etc. while the plugging box or any Other
article in being lowered or rah. sed* a warning signal is given and
all the workers have to get widet a refuge built of strong
timber ballies which are secured to main vertical reinforcement.
For the concreting of the first lift., the plugging box
when lowered inside the well ,ice- made to discharged the concrete
on the plate form itself. The concrete in then manually poured
into form work. Since the ris )a involved fQ people working
inside is very heavy* it is necessary to reduce the number of
workers inside the well and also to speed up concreting with
cut increasing the r*sk. It has been observed that in the entire
chain of operations, the manual pouring of concrete in the
form work after it is unloaded on the platefoxui inside the
well Ls not only most risky for the work: ca but this also
governs the speed of execution* This is mainly because of
fact that the plugging box could be raised or lowered, only
when the wori e r :s down below have entered the refuge after
they placed all the concrete in the form work and vibrated
the sarnew Thus white the worknc inside the weLL are working,
the &nch has to remain Idle- A portable chute fabricated out
of an old piece of curved shuttering of a circular pier column
has been used with success♦ scrap ms are welded to this
shuttering piece so as to form a stand for this light portable
chute* The chute in then kept on the platefoitu so that k when
the plugging box is manoeuV d over it end discharged. the
concrete flows straight into the form work of staining. Only
 - 73 -

seven workers are then required to remain inside the well

in order to 'pull the plugging box over the chute as soon
as the former is lowered inside the well,# to move a round
the portable chute to the desired position and to vibrate
the concrete. This small contraption not only reduces the
labour strength inside the well, it also speeds Up the concre
Ling so that the Liftss of 1.5 inn height are concreted with in
eight hours # One zuperv:isor stands over the top Of the well
and gives signals to the wUi,c:h operator as to when to l+c er.,
raise and open the plug ing boz. He also has a whistle to
warn. the workers inside to g t into or come out of the refuge.
Lay thin method the t.C.C. tething of 25 m deep well can be
completed in a period of less than two months.
The following alternative arrang rents;- -- may also be
considered and examined for strengthening of cracked steining.

1.) Complete plugging of the dre .ge hole with cement concrete
ii) Driving of load bearing piles inside the damaged wells.
iii) sink nq of new wells adjacent, to the damaged wells..
iv) sinking of telescopic crell s of shorter diameter ins , de
the damaged wellso
 _ -7 4 _

C M A P: T E R 1

i k '

6.1
Wells are sunk to the designed or desired
depth. by e3cCVatiflg the soil from the dredge hole by means
Of manual labour. mechanical grabs# divers help or pbeu.matiQ
.n rig ( r+ uired for very difficult cases only) .
Construction of well foundationss i volves many important
techniques depending upon the nature of strata through which well s
have to be sr nk. These strata vary from boulders in Terai area
(bording mountaineous regions) to sand, clays. Yankar* stratified
rock, conglomerate and different combinations of sand. el ay
and Kanka nodules,
Different strata give rise to different problems. Artesian
conditions are sometimes met with In Terai. region and regions
with low and high adjoining lands. These conditions aggravate
the problems of well sinking very difficult and costly. Different
probiens and solutions have been discussed in this
s chapt+ *
6.2. i' IN

Zn the boulder statism, boulders are tightly packed and

voids filled with annd and water. Due to this excavation by
grabbing is extremely slow. Further, 1.15 m3 (1.5 rd3) grab is
more effective for excavation to boulders than 0.57 m 3(3/4 yd3)
grab. The reason may be Its more weight.► sometimes grab holds
only one boulder In its teeth' and thus progress in much less in
boulders than in sand and clay soils. To imp ove efficiency of
 - '75 -

grabbing ,the grab is opened and closed 3.4 times at the bottom
o f wells to make the boulders loose and to got more material,. in
grab at one time..

_ EDGE, AD WUL s
N
The concrete in well curb should be of M 250 grade
( Zs 11/2s 3) instead of usual M 150 to avoid any damage to well
curb during sinking in boulders and blasting inside the well $
to remove big boulders and to shake the well to minimize the
skin friction around the well. The cutting edge is made of
100 c 100 c 12 4S angle, 200 x 12 mm and 150 x 12 mm MS plates
as shown in Pig. 6.2.l. The inner plate in welded to the angle
to avoid any difficulty in sinking in boulders. It does- not allow
any boulder to stay below cutting edge and helps in slipping the
boul der Into the map.

Sinking of wells done by 0.7m3 and 3.15m3

capacity cranes. die to di ficulty in excavation of boulder stratum

progress of sinking iz very slow. With high capacity electric sump
pumps the well can be dewatered only up to . in or so below L
due to high rate of water seepage in send boulder mixed stratum,
Dewatering being not so helpful , another method is to increase
the weight of well by increasing the height of steining above
ground. This helps to some e.%tent and by this method, external
load (up to 250 t) is only required for final. sinking. The height
of staining above the ground is never kept move than depth of the
well sunk below ground level from the consideration of ti3tirig of
well. External loading of wells is done with the help of 600 mm
200 rim X 12 in long RSJ and 150 x 75 mm x 8m cross girders and
 - -76

200x12-rTh M. DtQ Q

\5ox\Z,mc 1od X' 0o k %2'TYt -m T`ti.S. k'nc\e

Fig. No. 6.2.1 Cutting edge for sinking in boulder.

stratum.

S4' M `, pia

H JACK

~1'~ANiH ~UTTIPlP •p ~'~' b

GL
FIRM BED

WOODEN SLEFPEq

Fig. No. 6.2.2 Typical ?+rr-ingement for tiltramov~1 in

boulder strattDn.

M/1 E' 1rIf' '

25-, -
ahJJOM'. !fin i1

1.15 1`L~1Q 11- -' WELCE?)

AS #I

Fig. No. 6.3.1 Special chisel for sinking through «tr3tifi ed

rock end conglo'er;ta.
keeping concrete blocks (1.25 x 1.25 x 0.90 in ) in 184i8 cement
concrete this is cheap* quick and convenient way of loading
compared with empty cement bags filled with earth or sand • 'These
blocks can be used later on in the apron of .pitching around the
abutment to resist the high velocity of water..
For sinking of wells and removing big boulders frc,n below#
cutting edge blasting is also done Inside the wells. only one
gelatine stick is used for, blasting at one time. This also helps
in sinking wells. Big boulders are also blasted by this method,
Mr jetting along the outer surface of well i s not possible due
to boulder stratum.
The average rate of sinking on a major bridge in boulder
stratum by cranes has been found to be I an/ hr. for 16.5 in deep.
5.0 is diameter wells and 1.6 ' hr. for 9.5 in deep 5.5 in diameter
well is respectively*

in bolder stratum, the wells have a tendency to tilt

due to obstructions under the cutting edge, so every precaution.
Is taken to ObserVe ad eds excessivetilts
tilt during early
stage of sinking. This is checked noun ally by grabbing in excess
on the higher side of well to take out the boulders under the
cutting edge or by sending the diver inside the well to take cut
the boulders. scue times struts of sal b a lIe, 30 cm in diameter#
are used to check tilts* The sal ballas are supported against
concrete block of suitable size and weight embedded in ground
to give resistance to movement Of well on that aide. This is very
effective and has proved to be successful even .n the last stages
of sinking.
 - 78 -

On a bridge project sinking of wells was started in

February by making a 3 m deep Island in deep water in the m ai n
stream. wells were sunk about 5 iTt below LM by the end of
march. In April, water level started rising in the river due
to increase in discharge due to snow melting. The work could not
be continued after April on two wells* with great efforts 2 m sump
was created and well was loaded for sinking but this could not
be continued and wells were left in that condition. During heavy
floods* the wells were tilted sharply to wards upstream to about
1/4 slope. After receding of floods# the tilt was rectified as
described below and wells were then finally sunk to the desired
level.
Irk November and December the rectification work was taken
up. First of all# large amount of soil C mixed with boulders was
filled in 34m deep water on the upstream side of well with the
help of dozer* Then crane was taken on this filled up earth near
the well. The down stream side Of well was excavated bV grabbing
upto the cutting edge to remove all soil surrounding the well
on the down strewn. The well was then tied to an anchor through
a system of wire rope (32 mm diameter ) number of pulleys and
chain pulley blocks to pull the well on down stream side* 10 Tome
them pulley block was used to pull the well with a force of
about 60-70 t resulting in no movement, Then excavation was done
inside the well by crane and by divers to clear the cutting edge
of down stream side completely and some wooden -&bleepers wete
put under the cutting edge on the upstream side„ An external load
of 00 t was put eccentrically towards the downs-stream side#
A heavy concrete block (4 «,gym x 2.4 r x i.8 m) was cast, embedded
 79 -

in the filled up soil on the upstream side. It was kept about

in above water leVe1: The back portion was filled with Soil
mixed with boulders to give passive pressure on the block. The
front face was kt inclined to p1 ace jacks perpendi cud.ar' to
inclined surface of the well . After curing this block, four
hydraulic jacks of .100 t capacity were brought to site, two
jacks were used at one time;. + i. belles (30 cm in diameter and
S6 in long) were inserted between wells and Jacks and then
pressure on Jacks was Lncreaaed. A special type of steel plate
was made to distribute the concentrated force from still ba11 as
to the well steining to avoid damage to the concrete. The
observation of mOvemzt in well was taken by seeing through
e theodolite telescope on a gauge marked over the surface of
well on one side. The well stared moving laterally downstream.
The process of pu icing the well by Jacks was continued and
levels on top of well were recorded after every 4 hours to watch
the removal. Of tilts and lateral shift of the well at top.
The inclinations of sal belles and jacks were changed to remove
the tilt with permissible shift of wells This was achieved by
studying the readings during the process of jacking. The well
was found to move on a Jack pressure of abOut 50 t on each Jack
i.e. .100 t ( total) * After removal of some tilt, excavation
was again done inside the well to clear cutting edge on the
downstream side and -process of j aging repeated. The process
was slow but with positive result. The operation is shown in
Fig. 6.2.2.
a MNKIN THRUM STRATIFIED ROCK AND C ONGLOM
This type of stratum are broken by means o f
special c°hi sel s ; shown in rig. 6.3.1 and then pieces of rocks
taken out. The grab has to be very strong and sturdy. The loading
of wells in such a situation is also essential. The rate of sinking
in such strata is very low. It can be even 0.75 to 1.0 curs
of (0.57 m3, crane worksing..

I f wells are to be sunk through very hard conglomerates,

chi selling and grabing are not effective. In such Situation,
Sinking of wells is possible by dewateri.n the well and then
using pneumatic tools (pev ent breakers) to cut out the congo.
lomerate strata near the cutting edge. In the centre, normal
heavy chisel can be used by means of crane to break the strata
but the well can sink only when the strata near cutting edge
i $ cut which La not possible by normal th .eel • For dewat er'i ng
the well.s very heavy duty pumps have to be used. Ord .nary pumps
will not be effective, Suthier.sible Pumps (8 kW capacity with 6
in delivery pipes) have to be used. The number Of pumps required
depends upon the amount of water to be pumped Out- Four to six
pumps may be reeuired in normal situation and up to ten when
there is heavy gush Of water inside the well,* with these arrangeaen
a reasonable rate of sinking Can be achieved. In such stratum.
the rate of sinking per hour of crane working s. low

Where gypsum stratum is met* much more effort is needed

as it may be harder than conglquerate, he cutting edges Used
on wells going through such types of hard stratum require streng-
thening as in the case of boulder stratum* It. is Important that
 - 81 -

unless suitable submersible heavy duty pumps are available, it

will not be possible to dewater the well and adopt this method
Of sinking.

sinking of wells through hard clayey strata needs skill,

experience and utmost care because uhen they get stuck in clay
special efforts are required for which following methods axe
adopted*
The sinking has to be done by opøxetig jhams (grabs)
from outside, preferably by mechanical means because manual
methods are not much effective in such cases, Sinking of wells
in clayey stratum is more difficult than that in sandy stratum
because wells get stuck up in the tenacious stratum under the
cutting edge and the curb which refuses to break etenthougb the
dredged hole is deepened to a reasonable depth of say* 34 in
fig .6.4. je

in soft clay layers the mass of clay under the cutting

edge is easily sheared off under the weight Of the well when a
Bump of -2 m is formed below it. in all such cases wells are
loaded with adequate kenteledge well in advance so that the wells
keep sinking gradually without fOmetOn of deeper swupa.

In comparatively hard strata* wells donot sink even

with reasobable loads over then. Dewatering is generally done

to increase their effective weight and also to createupuMthruet
at their bass level. Dewatering is not resorted to vften there is
excessive sump at the base to avaoid anking of well with jerk
kvh 4 4 *nm+ tm I 4. 4 r'Ie I r e%4: +hft I.fr
 S.ATA_

LOOSE SAND U10ER THE C PE

FALLS INTO THE HOLE WITH T TEIJvtWJ S'i N A UNDER T H EDGE&
DEEPENING OF HOLE. CIRE S :L.5 TO 1IS PLACE OVEN WHEN
H>LE DEf PENS

Fig. No 6.ii.1 Sinking through h.►rd clayey atrnta.

TO HANG CHISEL

POPE E TO WORK C S•°_:

N SLANTINS POSITION

MADE OUT :• F,t.;_ OR

R.S. JOIST
NOTE:-.-
IN CtS.E) E ONCE=
CHISEL IS TD E_ '.DE 2 ~~a caROX
RAILS Mf.'! 5E W -OED
TOGETHER

C C
R_.T_ CH' =L

'ig. No. 6.14..2 Special chisel for sinking through very hard
clayey Stratum con~W-tirg of K Inkar.
 _ 83 _
wimp beyond 34 m depth has already been .crazed and it is
proposed to dewater the well,, it is advisable to fill up first
the extra depth with local soil. avail abl a in the river bed and
then do its dewatering. This process gives a slow and steady
six ng, of wells without any dage to the Well Curb Or its
stei nL Deweterin g of well to te entire depth should not
be done when it has already sunk over 10 m depth end it may
be restricted to about $ in depth or so and other methpd.c may be 2~
adopted to sink the stuck up well

sinking of wells through very h a . clayey stratum, rah ich

sometimes consist Qf kankar a .ao,0 is done with the help Of
spe+ .a]. chisel as shown in Fig.. 6. .2 made of rail Or PUS joist
r bigger diameter wells, stronger chisels made of two to
three rails or RS Joist have to be used. Even with these chisels,
rates of cutting of stiff clay beneath the curb is extremely
slow* In such cases a specially prepared under water Cl ey
cutter is Used C Fig, 6 #43). This cutter is lowered Into
the well and is embedded in the clay stratwu through plates
A and S. The cross plate at the top keeps it in vertical pOsi.-
tion, After fixing the cutter in position the monkey. is brought
to position 2 and the cutter and the lever take the position
as shown by fixn lines. Thus the cutter excavates the cl ay
under neath the curb and el ears th a cutting edge for the well
to sink. Thb monkey should be operated mechanically so that
it slides over the rails smoothly and enables the cutter to
work effecttvely4 The posit on of cutter should change gradually
so that the clay along the entire periphery of the curb is
cleared uniformly .
 -- I•iORIZON I;\L PLATE .k2 FITTED TO RAIL PIECE.
B - ',./ rR ICAL PLATE )4z FITTED TO RAIL PIECE.
C - O Lbs. RAIL PIECE 12{t. LONG.
- CAST IRON MONKEY, SLIDING ON THE RAIL
11EICHING APPROXIMATELY 15 CWT
- LEVER ARMS('3 N°)) I INC{ THICK X 4~ WIDE
CC NNECTING CUTTERS TO THE LOWER END
C,= RAIL BY PINS P & P..
F - SI-IACKLE TO HOIST & DROP THE MONKEY,
vnRE ROPE TO OPERATE THE MONKEY.
~-~ - ALE IRON CROSS PIECE FITTED TO RAIL,
'Jt 1" LESS THAN INNER DIAMETER OF WELL.
T - \'E ROPE TO CONTROL THE RAIL.
CURB GU 11 E iZ (3 l$) 1X 4 PLATE.

L1:0 CLAY STRATA.

Fig. No. 6.4.3 Special under water clay cutter for uge in
Sticky hard clayey 8oi1$.

PU LLy

Pulpy o WITN WELL

TO CtflD THE RUDE
Hold r-oRwiaEROPE
TO 4C ç1.9 PLATE
]j5 St

STa~~NERS

iexlpro~sKts~.~,
U u - I~l mx xAuhq~t
ED4E
POSIT'O -04"%O~1. S1P4E
POSIT10T1 %-WHEN DROTPED

CUtMG,

5UM V 31b4m nEE Q

Jig. No. 6.4.4 Sinking through mixed hard clayey strata.

 - 86 -

SKIN FRI CTIQH $

The skin friction offered by clayey soil is
very high very often the well does not move at all even
when the dredging pit has been excavated to a considerebloi
depth below the cutting edge* The provision of heavy
kentledge on the wells results in excessive tilt and shift
Of the wells. The latest method evolved for over coming skin
friction are discussed as follows.
mot. ~ . ~~• ~,'~ '" ~ : ..z

One method resorted to for reducing skin friction

I9 introduction of a film of thixotropic material at the
sides Of the foundation well s w Fig. i .4.5 shows the typical
arrangement of this type, of work. The schematic diagram
shows deployment of two Was for mixing the bentonite r,.
slurry where from it is 01ed to a spr ying chamber where
coø*essed air is put in, say 0 0 *06 m3/min. Thereafter the
slurry passes through a tube to a distributor p1 aced near the
well st eining . From the distributor the slurry is led through
a slurry grouting pipe about 29 z m. sit a pl aced around the
well periphery to which a few vertical pipes running along
the side of the well , are connected. These pipes have got
perforations near the bottom with an unscrewebi a cap at
the bottom tip. Through these nozzles bentonite slurry
i s sprayed near the cutting edge* Steel pl a'tes. short and
circular .n shape, are used as guide plates for holding the
slurry at the sides. Rings are provided around the well to
which the tubes carrying slurry are connected t4bi4 can
be removed and cleaned from time to time. Generally
 in extremely hard clayey soils mixed with kankar
another chisel designed specially for this purpose has t be
used. This is made of three square billets of iOx2Ocm. to
15 x 15 cm size welded over a Me plate of Xf to 20 mm thickness
and i.7xi•5 :rn size as shown in Pig* 6.4.4.
This chisel. preferably to be operated by mechanical
means, is hung in the well through a wire rope in an inclined
position as shown by the firm lines in this figure and is
dropped studdenly from a height to take new position as shown
by , the dotted tines.

Every time this chisel should be raised above the

water level in the well, placed in its position and then
dropped so that it cuts the clay under the curb and the cutting
edge more effectively. Simultaneously its position should
be changed gradually along the entire periphery cf well for
uniform clearance of the curb. In this process* the well
staining gets slightly scratched which cannot be avoided..
However* in such cases the well staining should
built with a mix slightly richer than that specified
ed for
stress requirement of staining. This has proved very effect .ve
for cutting of kankar mixed ci ayey strata underneath the
curb and the cutting edge, However, dewatering of the well
may have to be done after every chiselling operation for
its gradual sinking without any jerk and also adequate ken-
teledge has to be put over the well for building up a load
sufficient enough to shear oft of left-over clay pieces under
the curb and the cutting edge-#
 87

rrw tr,klr nnr

wnr nu
L.vr\ - - 34
BEt~1ONIJE SLURRY
PLAN

-GaJtltJC PIP(
S1lr~IJ y JRiNG
_ ~r LEAD PLATE
Cf1 OWITE SLURRY
` SIDE SPRAYING
►lottEES
CURB— . CREX~'t t[ TIP

,Sec(ion A13

'ice. No. 6.1 .5 Arrnnc lent for npnlic~tio• of thixotropic

r.iterinl for dnkin{,* of !-rellr.

JETTING PIPES
.~~ f~ PLACID NGIG
pLRLEH[bf Of
/ tllUlING
` ~, ~9s' 1 N.U~COl~tIECllur~
— DIk. OF VIEll— TO I Lu IL Ph I
{JTfl4'5Mh
S}wrv~l

Fi n . No 6.1,..6 f1 Of' p1.-- i. . of iaa1•

pi p in •a \'011•
recommended value of concentration Of Sentonite slurry
proposed for use in 100 to 120 gm/litre. Precaution is to be
taken that the ,:well does not sink more than# say 3 in at a
time. Tile commended temperature at which work should be
executed Is about 30 °c so as to ensure realisation of full
capacity of swelling of the thixotropic material. After the
sinking operation in over, the tubes and rings can be removed
for reuse else where.

The likely objection to the above mentioned method

may be that the bentonite 2. ayer between sides Of tne Well
and the surrounding soil may hinder mobilisation Of passive
resistance* It may* however bey mentioned that the incidence
of service loads and forces on the wells 1s expected a much
after the application of bentonite slurry by which time the
hardened bentonite layer would to a large extent loose its
thixotropic properties and hence no appreciable impending
effect on mobilisation of passive pressure on well sides from
surrounding earth ill likely to be felt,

j A`.E_ '' _
water j, :.tting is another method adopted for
over coxni ng ski n friction near the well base. Water jets
sprayed from a pipe outlet placed near the top of the
well curb would considerably loosen the soil by the side
of the curb and cutting ce thus facilitating easy sinking
Of the wells. Pig. 6.4.6 gives a general idea of arrangement
of placing the water jetting pipes in a well • A, series of
water jetting pipes are placed radially along the periphery
Of the well ateining, the mum ber depending on the size of
the dredge hole. The maximum distance between individual
pipe should not exceed 1.5 m:. The maximum diameter Of
jetting pipe is 10 cm. and in order to avoid hydrodynamic
effects. sharp bends are not permitted and smooth curved
bends are recommended. The spouts of these pipe are kept
.at an angle of 35° to the vertical at the earth face of
well curb* This steep upward slope is provided to the nozzle
so as to avoid their getting clogged by earth from sides.
size of the nozzle at the pipe mouth may be about 22 mm
die for a 100 mm die pipe. -Each jetting pipe in connected
to three separate feeder pipes so as to ensure uninterrupted
supply of water. The pumps connected with these feeder pipes
should have suitableQ capacity in terms of gross head or
equivalent. This . horever, depends upon the size Of the
well and the depth upto which the well in proposed to be
sunk with a view to avoiding sudden interrupt ions in
operations adequate stand by arrangements for pumps are kept.
An the jetting pipes may get clogged from time to time
during sinking. They are to be frequently jetted during
sinking. seprate cleaning pipes connected to jetting pipes
are provided for occasional cleaning of the latter# Thee
cleaning pipes are located in the inside face of the curb/
staining and are normally kept closed, it in further to be
ensured that all joints are leakproof. In order to avoid
ingress of foreign material in the pipes during concreting
of st.eining it bars to be ensured that the ends of pipes
at the top are closed by suitable cap and are kept at least
o. 5m above the top sur face of the lift upto which Cofcre-
ting is being done. Before covering the tops of the pipes
by ceps at this stage, the pipes are filled with water upto
its top. The nozzles are temporarily plugged when concreting
it done in curb/steini-ng and remoVed thereafter.
The jetting operations are done alternatis eIy in
opposite quadrants of the periphery of the well so as to
reduce chances of tilt and shift* in View Of chances Of
.individual jetting
j tipes getting clogged there should be
suitable arrangements for conducting the jetting operations
together or indtpen-dently of each other.

etimes# the clay under the wells has Very high

plasticity index due to which it sticks to ch isel and does
not permit it to work. Zn such cases the use of exposives
has to be resorted to .Normal .-y charges of 28 to 56 g
I to 20 Z) Of gam, ignite may be used at a time but in case
of very hard clays these may be even up to 2.22 g. The gelig-
nite char go• should normally be placed in the Centre of the
wells at a de pth of I to 1.5 m below the cutting edge,
The explosion of the charges tends to overcome the friction
of soil around it by tr,°esnour and vibration and *1
causes the well to sink. in very stiff cl ays# the gelignite
sticks may have to be embedded in the clay it self about a
metre below the cuttin g edge along the entire periphery
Of the well with a py umatic .hisel a The use of explosives.
with due precaution to men and machinery. in this manner
helps a lot In Clearing the clayey soil below the curb and the
cutting edge.
 - 91 -

6 .5W + G fi _ _ZIP $ADX_ B RA s

Th e sinking of wells in sandy stratum g enerall y

present no specific problem but one has to be very careful in
making islands in deep water having sandy beds, and in carrying
out controlled sinking to avoid excessive tilts and shifts.
By careful planning of concreting operation in
stein ng of well as well as sinking operation very good results
can be achieved.
if coarse grained stratum is met with, no kentledge
may be required for sinking of wells. It wells are straight with
negligible tilts and smooth outer surface* there will be less
chances of putti ng kentledge. it adequate machineries are
available and work is ptenfed methodically# the rate of sinking
in sandy strata can be 0.60w/hhr.# for crane (0.57 m capacity)
and 0.3m/hr by winch.

It is very important that proper soil in-vestigation

at foundation site should be carried out before starting the
work In order to determine it artesian conditions exist and
i so to what extent and at what depth, This euu, les to devise
ways and means tc counter ac t the effect of artesian heads and
el so helps a gre at deal in execution of work.
ltienever art``;° head fas, encountered n well
foundation as shown in fig. 6.6.1 stein
steinng
of we 11 Ls raised
,!O that top of staining is above the artesion he-~ad, tise can be
made of temporary ste,4ning for laying well cap at a later
stile after sinking of well is completed. It is eeonCmical to
construct additional steining of same concrete as that of
 - 92. -

HATERtt'EtlN WELL
...

LWL
- . .- -
- - • '----"-- •
•.-.'b--.

SA NO

SO1 . H -'-
• . çL'l :'-
•
;___/J/ /"//,? ;:'
I
00. I
-: •• •,( l7777/' I''
STIFf CYJ

Fig. IT 6. 6.1 A Il c0iditioll

 - 93 -

well cap so that, later on after sinking of well to required

depth, well cap can be laid, Si) the additional staining
working as outer shuttering of .well cap and forming part of
the well cap.
The purpose of providing additional steining to
counter the effect of artesian head is to make the water level
fixed which otherwise goes on flowing above steining of well
and bottom plugging and other operation thereafter can not be
done in flowing water. Once the water level gets fixed# bottom
plugging can be done without difficulty. After the bottom
plugging is set the artesian head does not come into play
and water level inside the well can be lowered by pumping
The well cap is then laid. Additional steining above well cap
can be dismantled
With artesian head in a well . sinking should be
carried out very carefully to avoid sudden sinking of well.
This may result in cracking of additional staining or separation
of additional staining from main well staining. If this happens
water starts corn ing inside or going out and it becomes very
difficult to maintain water level# it may also happen sometimes
that the top of well staining is submerged below the water
level i# well sinks suddenly deeper than the level at which
the well was desired to be founded. in such cases the
staining of well has to be raised above water level or in case
additional staining has cracked or is damaged, the staining
is to be repaired or strengthened. All these Operations entail
lowering of water level around the well. This is not an easy
task* In small rivers, coffer dam can be built around the well,,
$ Cep tBaJxe and water pumped out from in between coffer
 - 94 -

dam and well and then steining is raised. In large rivers,

installation of well paint system for dewatering(l.owering of
water level)is the only reaedy. Well points are installed around
thewell in one or two rows as the case may be The bottom of the
well point pipes with strainer is kept below the main well stei-
ning level in order to lower the water level below well steining
level.
ECICR9B5 DUtE i
j« When a well ie sunk through sandy stratum and fine sand is
met with under artesian head, the sand may start boiling. it is
then impossible to make any sump for plugging. As the sand is
grabbed out to make sump., well. sinks by its own weight. The
only alternative in such a situation is to take well further
down till it gets,"'. astabli sed and better stratum is met with.
It is desirable to carry out borings inside the well t o know
the stratum met with below Ievel of cutting edge and its
properties lilce S values and artesian head* It is desirable
to take such wells deeper to rest on coarser sand where self
sinking of well does not occure end, boiling sand condition would
not exist .'it is also likely that artesian head may be lower
at deeper level.
2* Due to lack of care in sinking or& due to sudden
and uncontro lied sinking Of wells the top of staining of well
may go below water level. It then becomes very complicated and
difficult problem to raise additional well steining either to sink
the well further to et on stable stratum or to lay well cap-
In such situations well point sy stem of dewatering appears to be
a desirable solution to lower down the subsoil water level.,
 -j-

6.1

If a concrete well in gunk through soil or water

containing appreciable amount of max sb&t±n soluble salts like
sulphates and chlorides, the concrete may die integrate due to
reaction between trio ciUn ( Cgs aluminate of cement and
sulphate salts* which results in formation of sulpho-aluminate
with increased volume.
Theft are apparently two chemical reactions involved
in sulphate attack on concrete.
Ci) combination of sulphate with free calcium hydroxide (hydxatedl
lime) liberated during hydration of cement to form calcium
sulphate ( gypsum)
ii) combination of gy cum and hydrated calcium aluminate to
form calcium-sulphoi-aluminate• Thus formation oj su.lpho'Yalu-
minata and t heir crystallization results in enormous
Increase in the volume and consequent cracking.
For reducing the effect of sulphate on concrete
it i s Imperative to use cement of low 03 AI content. There is fairl'
good correlation between sulphate resi stance of cement and
its t3~ AI content.
Sulphate resisting cement is not being regularly
manufactured in India- It has been suggested that for important
jobs wherein ground water contain more than 1200 ppm Of 5C 3s it
is necessary to use sulphate resisting cement or in its absence
a cement with low G Al content in the range of 5 to 7 percent.
Table 20 of ISS456 1978 gives for different
exposures the requirement of the type of cement, cement content
 - 96 -

and maximum water cement ratio of concrete. It may be men tioned

that super suphated cements are also not reg ularly manufactured
in India, besides.. this has a ii mitat :On of adverse effects
on exposure j)40° c and above.
The reaction b etwe en sulphate salts and concrete
begins when the soluble suip hate salts find their way into the
body Of con crete through c rack, porous struct urea. The
essential need is therefore to produce dense and Lmpermeeb le
concrete. or this reason, spe fi cation stipulate a concrete
of higher cement content ( rich concrete) and low water cement
ratio adequately consolidated,* normally a cement content of
400 kg/m3 and water cement ratio of not more tha n 0..45 its
recommended for concrete of high quality and low per meabilitp.
Studies have shown that some pozzclanas used in
bleadei cement increase the life expectancy of concrete in
sulphate espcsure considerably. This mey be attributed to the
remccv , of tree calcium hydroxide formed in the hydration of
jat
C po,rtlan+ cement by combination with pozzolana and n *reased
impermeability of concrete* The use'of PPC therefore can Lrnpvve
the sulphate resistance of the concrete. Sl.a cement containing
high ag content are also known to have iriy high sulphate
resistance.
If ground water samples also contain excessive
amount of chlorides* which promote corrosion of the reinforcement 4

precautionary meal des should be taken to prevent corrosive

action. The measures include.
U) Provision of at least 50 mm cover to all reinforcement
including inserts,# .etc. preferably 75 mm
(ii) Use of high quality dense concrete as recommended for
fuiphate resisting concrete*

It .s desirably to make good quality concrete

where such harmful salts are en, -countered: Additional protection
of concrete can be given by means of coating of an inert
material such as asphalt or bituminous emulsion., polymer
resins or plastic sheetings offering ad ate resistance to
puncture. However, for well foundations asphalt coating on
well surface seems to be a practical solution.
 After the well is sunk to the final ievei.i j
to be suitably plugged at its bottom. Placing of concrete in
the bottom Plug can be done ei}her by skip, buckets, which are
most commonly used in India or by a tremmie« A Skip bucket is
a cubical box with flaps at the top and flaps opening downwards
at the bottom. The latch of the bottom flaps can be unlocked
after the bucket full of concrete reaches the bottom Of the
well by pulling a chord from the top. The bucket . s then pulled
up leaving the concrete at the bottom. The concrete in the
bucket remains completely enclosed while it is lowered and
it gets deposited at the bottom of the well as the bucket
is pulled. upwards. The concrete does not fall freely through
water at all. If only slides side ways and very little cement
is lost in the process. The concrete placed by skip buckets
is of good quality provided that the bottom flaps are opened
only when it has actually touched the bottom* The concrete Is
so good that it does not a .ow the s€gpage of water through it
and the well can be dewatered completely if so desired after
allowing curing time for about two weeks.

The following precautions should be observed at

the time of plugging Of a w l*
U.) Before starting the plugging operation, the water in the
well must be still and upto its normal level.
ii) Before plugging the bottom of a well, sounding should be
takent0 check that there is no sand lying above the cutting
ot9ci of t°hea mirk sand to uncertain the tenth at various
 points in dredge hole for getting a fair idea Of the
profile of the bottom and its cubic contents.
iii) Concreting is to be done in ore continuous Operation till
it Is filled upto the required which Is to be ascerr
taj.ndby conducting soundings# in order to provide effective
seal in the interior of the well without l.anination. If
there are two or more dredge holes* plugging should be
done simultazicously and to equal kieighta in all the dredge
holes.
(iv) concrete laid for the bottom plug takes 3 longer time to
set and considerable proportion of cement gets washed resultin
in weak concrete and therefore* 10 percent extra quantity of
cement should be added in the concrete.
(v) concrete as laid should not be disturbed in any way atleast
for 14 days
(vi) Sounding shall be taken and recorded at the close of the
concreting and shal l be recorded daily for three weeks in
order to ensure that there is no rising up of the concrete
due to sand blowing etc,
 CHAPTER.. VII

CONCLUSI©NS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

7.1 CONCLUS IONS :

The following significant conclusions have been
drawn 'based on the study carried out in this investigation.
1. The new rational method of analysis based on non-linear
theory presented in this investigation show that the soil
reaction acting on the faces at any depth(Dl-z) 'below scour
level due to a horizontal displacement y is governed by
the following sox-linear relationship

pl - %(Dl - z) p©.6
2. It has also been explained how well the various non-linear
parameters a, nand r be accurately obtained by model tests.
The deformation or tilt can be accurately calculated for the
given combination of vertical and lateral load. By knowing
tilt the safety and economy of the structure can be ensured.

3• The computed lateral load compare favourably with the measured

lateral load in the Model - .Tests carried out by the Arya, A. S.,
Sharda,S.C. and Prakash,S.(1982). Therefore, the methodof
analysis may be considered to be fairly accurate.

4. A study of the history of an open well sinking leads to the

conclusion
(i) Most cases of initial tilting occurs becuase of attempts
to rush the work beofe the well has reached the critical
grip length.
 (ii) Most cases of serious tilting occurs when too
radical steps are taken to correct the minor
initial tilts.

5. The effect of differential earth pressure on the wells

should be kept inview while selecting the shape and size
of the wells in order to avoid cracks.

6. From the study, we find that use of lighter steinimg,

heavy gentledge, deeper sump, dewatering, and use of
explosives should be avoided and the provision of some
offset beyond the well curb and use of thixotropic material
and water jetting, etc., which may reduce the °sk4an friction
in clayey formations, should be tried as far as practicable
in sinking the wells.

7.2 RECOMMENDATIONS:
The net rational method for analysing,` . depth of embedment
Of well fouidation, in cohesionless soil presented in this invest
tigat io , compare , favourably with the Model Test results. It order
to verify the applicability to the field problems., iti is recommended
that field test should be carried out on a instrumented well for
formulating suitable conclusions.

During construction, by employing correct management

techniques and keeping a close watch on the day to day progress,
the problems encountered can be tackled properly.

Different .strata give rise to_ different problems which

make sinking difficult and costly. It is, therefore, essential to
carry out detailed soil investigation before taking up the work of
 - 102 -

well foundation to reveal the mature of soil at different

depths # its properties, load bearing capacity, expected
settlement, subsoil water level and artesian conditions•
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