Learning Objectives

1. State the difference between the shape of the t distribution and the normal
distribution

2. State how the difference between the shape of the t distribution and normal
distribution is affected by the degrees of freedom

3. Use a t table to find the value of t to use in a confidence interval

4. Use the t calculator to find the value of t to use in a confidence interval

Student's t Distribution

The t distribution (aka, Student’s t-distribution) is a probability distribution

that is used to estimate population parameters when the sample size is small and/or
when the population variance is unknown.

WHY USE THE T DISTRIBUTION?

According to the central limit theorem, the sampling distribution of a statistic (like a
sample mean) will follow a normal distribution, as long as the sample size is sufficiently
large. Therefore, when we know the standard deviation of the population, we can
compute a z-score, and use the normal distribution to evaluate probabilities with the
sample mean.

But sample sizes are sometimes small, and often we do not know the standard
deviation of the population. When either of these problems occur, statisticians rely on
the distribution of the t statistic (also known as the t score), whose values are given
by:

x́ −μ
t=
t=[ x́ - μ ] / [ s / sqrt( n ) ] or s
ëN
where x́ is the sample mean, μ is the population mean, s is the standard deviation of
the sample, and n is the sample size. The distribution of the t statistic is called the t
distribution or the Student t distribution.

The t distribution allows us to conduct statistical analyses on certain data sets that are
not appropriate for analysis, using the normal distribution.

DEGREES OF FREEDOM

There are actually many different t distributions. The particular form of the t distribution
is determined by its degrees of freedom. The degrees of freedom refers to the
number of independent observations in a set of data.

When estimating a mean score or a proportion from a single sample, the number of
independent observations is equal to the sample size minus one. Hence, the distribution
of the t statistic from samples of size 8 would be described by a t distribution having 8 -
1 or 7 degrees of freedom. Similarly, a t distribution having 15 degrees of freedom
would be used with a sample of size 16.

For other applications, the degrees of freedom may be calculated differently. We will
describe those computations as they come up.

PROPERTIES OF THE T DISTRIBUTION

The t distribution has the following properties:

 The mean of the distribution is equal to 0 .

 The variance is equal to v / ( v - 2 ), where v is the degrees of freedom (see last

section) and v > 2.

 The variance is always greater than 1, although it is close to 1 when there are
many degrees of freedom. With infinite degrees of freedom, the t distribution is
the same as the standard normal distribution.

WHEN TO USE THE T DISTRIBUTION

The t distribution can be used with any statistic having a bell-shaped distribution (i.e.,
approximately normal). The sampling distribution of a statistic should be bell-shaped if
any of the following conditions apply.

 The population distribution is normal.

 The population distribution is symmetric, unimodal, without outliers, and the

sample size is at least 30.

 The population distribution is moderately skewed, unimodal, without outliers, and

the sample size is at least 40.

 The sample size is greater than 40, without outliers.

The t distribution should NOT be used with small samples from populations that are not
approximately normal.

PROBABILITY AND THE STUDENT T DISTRIBUTION

When a sample of size n is drawn from a population having a normal (or nearly normal)
distribution, the sample mean can be transformed into a t statistic, using the equation
presented at the beginning of this lesson. We repeat that equation below:

x́ −μ
t=
t=[ x́ - μ ] / [ s / sqrt( n ) ] or s
ëN

where x́ is the sample mean, μ is the population mean, s is the standard deviation of
the sample, n is the sample size, and degrees of freedom are equal to n - 1.

The t statistic produced by this transformation can be associated with a

unique cumulative probability. This cumulative probability represents the likelihood of
finding a sample mean less than or equal to x́ , given a random sample of size n.

The easiest way to find the probability associated with a particular t statistic is to use
the T Distribution Calculator, a free tool provided by Stat Trek.
 NOTATION AND T STATISTICS

Statisticians use tα to represent the t statistic that has a cumulative probability of (1 - α).
For example, suppose we were interested in the t statistic having a cumulative
probability of 0.95. In this example, α would be equal to (1 - 0.95) or 0.05. We would
refer to the t statistic as t0.05

Of course, the value of t0.05 depends on the number of degrees of freedom. For
example, with 2 degrees of freedom, t0.05 is equal to 2.92; but with 20 degrees of
freedom, t0.05 is equal to 1.725.

Note: Because the t distribution is symmetric about a mean of zero, the following is
true.

Tα = -T1 - alpha And T 1 - alpha = -T α

Thus, if t0.05 = 2.92, then t0.95 = -2.92.

TEST YOUR UNDERSTANDING

Problem 1

Acme Corporation manufactures light bulbs. The CEO claims that an average Acme
light bulb lasts 300 days. A researcher randomly selects 15 bulbs for testing. The
sampled bulbs last an average of 290 days, with a standard deviation of 50 days. If the
CEO's claim were true, what is the probability that 15 randomly selected bulbs would
have an average life of no more than 290 days?

Note: There are two ways to solve this problem, using the T Distribution Calculator.
Both approaches are presented below. Solution A is the traditional approach. It requires
you to compute the t statistic, based on data presented in the problem description.
Then, you use the T Distribution Calculator to find the probability. Solution B is easier.
You simply enter the problem data into the T Distribution Calculator. The calculator
computes a t statistic "behind the scenes", and displays the probability. Both
approaches come up with exactly the same answer.
Solution A

The first thing we need to do is compute the t statistic, based on the following equation:

x́ −μ
t=
s
ëN
t=[ x́ - μ ] / [ s / sqrt( n ) ]
290−300
t=
50
√15
t = ( 290 - 300 ) / [ 50 / sqrt( 15) ] or
−10
t = -10 / 12.909945 = - 0.7745966 ¿ =0.7745966
12.909945

where x́ is the sample mean, μ is the population mean, s is the standard deviation of
the sample, and n is the sample size.

Now, we are ready to use the T Distribution Calculator. Since we know the t statistic, we
select "T score" from the Random Variable dropdown box. Then, we enter the following
data:

 The degrees of freedom are equal to 15 - 1 = 14.

 The t statistic is equal to - 0.7745966.

The calculator displays the cumulative probability: 0.226. Hence, if the true bulb life
were 300 days, there is a 22.6% chance that the average bulb life for 15 randomly
selected bulbs would be less than or equal to 290 days.

Solution B:

This time, we will work directly with the raw data from the problem. We will not compute
the t statistic; the T Distribution Calculator will do that work for us. Since we will work
with the raw data, we select "Sample mean" from the Random Variable dropdown box.
Then, we enter the following data:

 The degrees of freedom are equal to 15 - 1 = 14.

 Assuming the CEO's claim is true, the population mean equals 300.

 The sample mean equals 290.

 The standard deviation of the sample is 50.

The calculator displays the cumulative probability: 0.226. Hence, there is a 22.6%
chance that the average sampled light bulb will burn out within 290 days.

Problem 2

Suppose scores on an IQ test are normally distributed, with a population mean of 100.
Suppose 20 people are randomly selected and tested. The standard deviation in the
sample group is 15. What is the probability that the average test score in the sample
group will be at most 110?

Solution:

To solve this problem, we will work directly with the raw data from the problem. We will
not compute the t statistic; the T Distribution Calculator will do that work for us. Since
we will work with the raw data, we select "Sample mean" from the Random Variable
dropdown box. Then, we enter the following data:

 The degrees of freedom are equal to 20 - 1 = 19.

  The population mean equals 100.

 The sample mean equals 110.

 The standard deviation of the sample is 15.

We enter these values into the T Distribution Calculator. The calculator displays the
cumulative probability: 0.996. Hence, there is a 99.6% chance that the sample average
will be no greater than 110.
 Activity

1. The CEO of light bulbs manufacturing company claims that an average light bulb
lasts 400 days. A researcher randomly selects 10 bulbs for testing. The sampled bulbs
last an average of 390 days, with a standard deviation of 50 days. If the CEO’s claim
were true, what is the probability that 10 randomly selected bulbs would have an
average life of no more than 390 days?

Answer the problem for 10pts. Using this formula:

x́ −μ
t=
s
ëN

Solution:
Given: x́ = 390
μ = 400
S = 50
N = 10
x́ −μ
t=
s
ëN
390−4 00
t=
50
√ 10
−10
¿ =0.632456
15.811388
Constructs a
t-distribution

Submitted to: Tess Salaum

Submitted by: Dianne S. Ruiz
&
Aprelyn Abelgas
CSSA & Beauty Care - 11