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r

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7

n e ig h b o u r s o n E a r th b e in g s e p a r a te d b y a d is ta n c e 3 ×
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s o la tio n ! B o th the

ry in p r o p o r tio n to V d a re
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th e g a la x y w h e r e th e s ta r is fo r m e d T he
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ig h b o u rho o d o f th e S u n
F ig u r e ı3 T h e H R d ia g r a m o f s ta 】s in th e ne

l e T h is s tf ip is lle d t/ze m a in
d ia g o n a lly th r o u g h th e (lo g i f lo g L ) p a n
ca
ru n s ,

sequ e n c e a n d th e c o rr e s p o n
d in g s ta r s a r e k n o w n a s t?za in seq u e n c e s ta rs

f th e d ia g r a m is fo d to th e r ig h t a n d a b o v e the
A no th e r p o p u la te d a r e a o u n

h t a r e b rig h te r th a n m a in s e q u e n c e s ta rs o f
m a in se q u e n c e : it r e p re s e n ts s ta r s t a
są m e T tt o r o f lo w e r f f fo r th e s a m e
L , m e a n in g th a t th e ir s p e c tr u m is s h ifte d
,

to w a r d lo n g e r w a v e le n g th s a n d th e ir c o lo u r is r e d d is h A h g e r
i h L a n d lo w e r T íĹ

ï H İ ・

A n o th e r r e g io n o f th e (lo g ï e ff lo g L ) p la n e th a t is
, r e la tiv e ly r ic h in p o in ĺ ç
is lo c a te d a t th e lo w er le ft co m er lo w lu m in d h ig h e fr e c tiv e te m pe ra
o s itie s a n

tu r e s S ta r s th a t fa ll in th is r e g io n h a v e a s m a ll r a d iu s a n d a b lu is h w h ite c o ı ou

a c c o r d in g ly th e y a r e n a m e d w lżite d w a ljs W n ite d w a r f r a d ii a r e o f th e o rd e r

d
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th e E a r th s a lth o u g h th e ir m a s s e s a r e c lo s e to th e S u n s T h e t ic a l d e n s itie s
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w o u ld w e ig h m o r e th a n a to n o n E a r th

T h e r e a r e p o in ts o u ts id e th e s e th r e e m a in r e i o u s l)
g o n s a n d th e r e a re c o n s p ic u
e m p ty s p o ts w ith in d e n s e ly p o p u la te d a r e a s n o te
o f th e d ia r a m
g b u t w e s h a ll ig ,

th e m fo r th e m o m e n t a n d c o n c e n tr a te o n th e th th in g
r e e m a in o n e s W h a t if a n y ,

c a n w e te a m fr o m th e m ? W e r e c a ll th a t i s s ta
fs
n v ie w o f o u r b a s ic a s s u m
,
p tio n ,

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2 ı O b s e r v a t io n s a n d a ssu m p t io ns

F ig u re I 4 S te lla r c lu s te r s : (a ) th e
yo u n g o p e n (m o rp h o u s s h a
p e ) p le ia d e s c lu s te r (b )th e
o ld g lo b u la r c lu s te r 47 T ucan ae (c o p y r ig h t A n g lo A u s tr a lia n O b s e r v a to r /R o a l O b se r
v a to r y E d in b u r g h p h o to ra h s b D y y
, g p y M a lin )

w ith u ra n g in g b e tw een 3 d
an N
5 o v e r m o st o f th e
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se qu e n c e s ta r th e r e la ti
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D o s ta r s le a v e th e
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r e d g ia n ts ? D o th e
y la te r
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in to w h ite d w a r fs ? O r d o s o
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d
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W h y a r e th e r e a lw a y s in a ll g ia n ts a n d o th e r s w h ite
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2 The equ a t io n s o ar

Ww e d e n o te b ô a th a t o c c u r s in th e v a lu e o f a n y q u a n tit
y f c ha n \ y ff w i
itt h
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in t
m a s s e le m e n t d f tim õ r (a L a g r a n g ia n r a th e r t he
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h a n g e ) T h e n if ô i h 111e
c
f h e a t a b s o r b e d (ÕQ ria
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th e c h a n
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ò (u d n t ) = d n ıõ u - ôQ + ôW ,

U 2)
w h e re w e hav e s e d th e
u c o n se rv a ū o n o fm ass in a ssu m in g d m to be c o n st
w o rk m a be an t T he
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dn z (2 3 1
p
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t s v o lu m e
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a t th e e x
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w ex p a n s io n (ô d v > O ) is
,

p e n se o f th e a c h ie v
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if a v a ila b le an d (b ) th e b a la n
,
f th e h e a t flu x e s s tr e
ce o
a m in g in to th
o u t o f it T h e r a te o f n u c le a r e e le m e
n t an d
e n e r g y r e le a s e
h e a t flo w in p u n it m a s s is d e n o te d b
e r
g p e rp e n d ic u la r ly th r o u h y q a n d th e
g a s p h e ń c a l s u r fa c e b F
d im e n s io n o f
p o w e r (n o t to b e c o n fu s e d
y (m ) T hu s F h
a s th e
w ith th e s tr i t d
P o w e r p e r u n it a r e a ) a n d b c e fin itio n o f
a he at ūu x
o v io u s l F M
,
y ( ) = L A c c o r d in l
g y,

S u b s titu tin
g E q u a tio ns (2 3 ) a n d (2 4 ) in t
la tte r o E u a tio
as q n (2 2 ) w e m a ń te th e
, y w

P (2 5 )
?m
an d in th e lim it ô t
O w e o b ta in

P
am '
(2 6 )
w h e re w e ha v e u se d th e n o ta tio
n j fo r th e t
em
p o r a l (p a r tia l) d e i a f ta l o f
r v a tiv e
In tlze n na l e q u itib r i
um
, w he n te m
p o r a l d e iiv a ti
ves v ani h
s , w e hav e

q =
X (2 7 )

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 2 3 T ha e q u a tı
o n o f m o tı
o n ı
9
秒
画
画
(

l
一

F ig u re 2 2 C y lin d r ic a l m a s s e le m e n t w ith in a s ta r

n te g r a tin g
ı o v e r th e m a s s

医
,

M M

qdm = dF _ L ,
(2 8 )
置
fo r th e h e a t flo
is th e to ta l p o w
w m u s t v a n is h a t th e c e n tr e to a v o id s in g u la r ity T h e le ft h a n d s id e 虱
e r su p p lie d in th e s ta r b y n u c le a r p ro c e s s e s w h ic h is c o m m o n ı
, y
d e n o te d b y L nuc ,
h
t e n u c le a r lu m in o s ity ,

M
L nuc
= qdm , (2 9 )

an d th u s th e r m a l e q u ilib ń u im p lie s th a t e n e r g y is r a d ia te d
m aw a y b y th e s ta r a t

th e s a m e r a te a s it is p r o d u c e d in its ¡ n te ń o r l L - L nuc

4
T he 召
2 3 e q u a t io n o f m o t io n
一

N ew to n s s e c o n d la w
'
o fm ec h a n ic s ,
o r th e e q u a tio n o fm o tio n ,
s ta te s th a t th e n e t

fo r c e a c tin g o n a bo dy o f fix e d m a ss im p a r ts to it an a c c e le r a tio n th a t is e q u a l

to th e fo r c e d iv id e d b y th e m a ss T h is is th e m o m e n tu m c o n s e r v a tio n la w fo r a

bo dy o f fix e d m a ss C o n s id e r a s m a ll c y lin d ń c a l v o lu m e e le m e n t w ith in a s ta r ,

w ith a n a x is o f le n g th d r in th e ra d ia l d ir e c tio n , b e tw e e n r a d ii r a n d r + dr ,
an d

a c r o s s s e c tio n a la re a d s , a s sho w n in F ig u r e 2 2 If th e (a p p r o x im a te ly u n ifo rm )

d e n s ity w ith in th e e le m e n t is p ,
its m a ss A m is g iv e n b y

A m -
p dr ds ? w a
(2 10 )

T h e fo r c e s a c tin g o n th is e le m e n t a r e o f tw o k in d s : (a ) th e g r a v ita tio n a l fo r c e ,

e x e r te d b y th e m a s s o f th e s p h e r e in te r io r to r (th e n e t g r a v ita tio n a l fo r c e e x e r te d

b y th e sp he ńcalm a s s she ll e x te r io r to r van is h e s ) a n d (b ) fo r c e s r e s u ltin g fr o m
th e p re s s u r e e x e r te d b y th e g a s s u tT o u n d in g th e e le m e n t T h e g r a v ita tio n a l fo r c e

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l = ・» e lla r
ew lu tio n
st
s of
ı
e qı ıtio n
2 T he
20
to th e s
id e o f th e c y lin d ri
en dic u la r ly c al
ng
a c tı pe rp c tin g p e rp e n dic u la r ly oo
in pre s s u re
re Fo rc e s
s u r1e
fo t c e s a
a s su m e d
Th ę p r e s s u es
l th e p r
nd o n y
e b a la n c e d a
e le m e n t a r he fo rm
o fm o
tio n ın t
io n
uv rite t
he e q u a t
m ay
o f th e e le m
en t w e
ds (2 11)
Gm A t
tı ds P (r + d r ) y ie ld in g
+ p (r )
řA nï =
r
2

an d he n c e
?r )d r
p (r )+ (a p /
B u t p (r + tlr ) =
G m 八n ł
T he
ŕh ı=
ïł
r
2 a, P

0 W e m ay n o w div id e by Ą n ı
A ıfro m E q u a tio n (2 1 )
s u b s titu te d
tı
w h e re w e ha v e

to o b ta in
G nï l ap
(2 12)

v a r ia ble r a th e r th a n r a n d th e tra n sfo r

th e in d e p e n d e n t s p a c
e
If m is c h o se n as
le t F . b e
m a tio n dr - dm /(4 Jr r
z
p )is u s e d, E q u a tio n (2 12 ) b e c o m es

G m 2
ðP
r -
T
4 rr r (2 ı
3)
ðm

W n e n a c c e le ra tio n s a re n e g lig ib le , E q u a tio n s (2 12 )a n d (2 13 ) d e s c ń b e a s ta te o f

hy d m s ta lic e q u ilib riıa ıı w ith gr a v ita tio n a l a n d p re s s rıre fo rc e s e x a c tly in b a la n c e

dP G m
=
P 三厂， (2 14)
dr r

or m

dP ;
G m

4ï r r 4
(2 ı51
A s th e
ń g h t h a n d s id e o f E u a tio n 2 1
q ( 4 )o r (2 ı5)is a lw a s n e a tiv e h dro M ti.
y g y
e q u ilib riu m im p lie s th a t th e
,

p re s s u r e d e c re a se s o u tw a rd T
h e p re s s u r e gra die r ￥
v a n is h e s a t th e c e n tre s i
n c e o n the ri h
,
g t h a n d s id e o f E u a tio n 2 14 n ł r z te ı
to z e ro i h w t r
q 6 ) / 1. 0

W e m a y e s tim a te
m b
th e pre s su re
a t the e e n e
by in te gra tin g E u a h o n 2 o f a s ta r in h y d ro sta tic e qu i\ibńt
q ( 15)fro m th e c e
s ïr e to th e
su r fäc e o f th e s ta r

T h e le ft
O n the le ft h a n d s id
e w e a re l
e ft w ith the c e n tra l h
p re s s u r e p c = p (0 ) sin c e ıt t
,
m a y re p la c e r b y the s te il
a r ra ? us R > r
, to o b t
a in lo w tra
a er lim it fo r th e c e rı

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 2 4 Thı v ı
r lıl t h e o r* m t U ı

p re s s u re =r t

17 )

y ie ld in g

2
N m (2 18 )
8 tr R 4
M R
o

th e p re s s u re a t th e c e n tr e o f th e S u n e x c e e d s 4 5 0 m illio n a tm o s p h e r e s !

Ex e r c is e 2 l For a s ta r o f M d r a diu s R fin d th e c e n tr a l d

m a ss an , pre ssu re an

c h e c k th e lid ity f in e q u a lity (a ) a ifo

va o (2 18 ) fo r th e fo llo w in g c a se s : u n rm

d e n s ity an d (b ) a d e n s ity p r o file as in E x e r c is e 12

￡ X
ŢYï Yīī
i is p c a t th e c e n tr e a n d
.

2 4 The v ir ia l th e o re m

A n im p o r ta n t c o n se q u e n c e o f hy? o s ta tic e q u ilib ń u m is a lin k th a t it e s ta b lis h e s

b e tw een g r a v ita tio n a l p o te n tia l e n e r8 y a n d internal e n e r g y (o r k in e tic e n e rg y in

a s y s te m o f fre e p a r tic le s ) M u ltip ly in g th e e q u a tio n o f h y ? o s ta tic e q u ilib ń u m

(2 1 5 ) b y th e v o lu m e v -
7r r
3
an d in te g r a tin g o v e r th e w h o le s ta r , w e o b ta in

P (R ) "

V dp -
ģ (2 19 )

T h e in te g r a l o n th e ń g h t h a n d s id e o f E q u a tio n (2 19 ) is no ne o th e r th a n th e

g r a v ita tio n a l p o te n tia l e n e r8 y o f th e s ta r , th a t is , th e e n e qg y r e q u ir e d to a s s e m b le

th e s ta r b y b ń n g in g m a tte r fr o m in fin ity ,

n 1 G m dm
(2 2 0 )
Ëe
=

T h e le ft h a n d s id e o f E q u a tio n (2 19 ) c a n b e in te g r a te d b y p a r ts ,

P (R ) v (R )
Vdp =
[pv] pd v (2 2 1)

Ą
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T h e fır s t a t th e c e n tr e V
tre n n o n th e r i h t
g ha n d s id e v a n is h e s , s in c e = O an d al
th e s u r fa c e p 2 1), fin a lly b ta in
= o c o m b in in g E q u a tio ns (2 192 w e o

V (R )
3 pD V = Q , (2 2 2 )
.

留 s in c e dv 山n
、 一
lp ,

T h is is th e g e n e r a l lo b a l fo w h ic h w ill p r o v e e x tr e
g r m o f th e v ir ia l th e o r e m
,
m e ly ,

v a lu a b le in m
a n y la te r d is c u s s io n s A s im ila r re la tio n a p p lic a b le to p a r t o f
th e ,

s ta r M a b
y e o b ta in e d b y c a iT y in g th e in te g r a tio n o f E q u a tio n (2 1 9 ) u p to a r a d
iu s
R P

Ą イm -
įn . (2 24 )
H e re Q
is th e g r a v ita ti n a l o te n tia l e n e
, . q p rg y o f th e s p h e r e w h o s e b o u n d a r y is a t
R s w h ic h is u n a ffe c te d b th e h ll
,
y s e o u ts id e it (b e tw e e n R d R ), w h ile P is th e
s an
s
p r e s s lır e a t R e x e r te d b y th e w e i h t o f th e o v
e r ly in g s h e ll
s ,
g
C o n s id e r th e p a r tic u la r c a s e o f
a n id e a l g a s o f d e n s it
y p a n d te m p e r a tu r e T
(to b e tneated in m o r e d e ta il in th e n e x t c h a te r le t th
p ); e m a ss o f a
g a s p a r tic le b e
n z T h e g a s p r e s s i th i
n g v e n by P _
g u r e s e (p /m g )k T w h e r e k is th e B o ltz m a n n ,

c o n s ta n t T h e k in e tic e n e
r g y p e r p a r tic le is
ĝ
k T a n d s in c e fo r a n id e a l
g a s th e
internal e n e r g y is th e k in e tic e n e r
gy o f its p a r tic le s , th e internal e n e
m ass i
r8 y p e r u n it
s

3 kT 3 P
U = =
2 m 2 p (2 2 5 )
g

C b in in g E q u a tio n (2 2 5 w ith
o m
) th e v ir ia l th e o r e m
(2 2 3 ), w e h a v e u dm -
ģ
Q T h e in te g r a l o n th e le ft h d
an s id e is s im
p ly th e to ta l internal e n e qg y U a n d
he n c e

U _
知
W e c an u se th is r e s u lt to e s tim
a te th e a v e r a
g e internal te m p e r a tu r e o f a s ta r
( assu m in g th a t s te lla r m a te ń l
a be ha v e s a s
a n id e a l a s ll
b e ju s tifie d la te r o n T h
) e g r a v ita tio n a l
g a n a s su m
p tio n th a t w i
p o te n tia l e n e r g y E u a tio n 2 2 0 o f a s ta r
o f m a ss M a n d r a d iu s R is q ( ) ,

g iv e n b y
,

G M Ł
Q ol
2 2 7)
=
'
R
w h e re ce is a c o n s ta n t o f th e o rd e r o f u n ity
m a tte r w ith in th e s ta r , th a t
d e te r m in e d b th d i t ib u ı
y
,
e s r io n o f
is b y th e d e
n s ity
p r o file B y th e v ir ia l th e o re m w e
,
,

Scanned by CamScanner
 2 5 T h e t o t a ıe n e r g y o fa s ta r lb 23

ha v e o n th e o n e h a n d u =
ģce G M 2
/R ; o n th e o th e r h a n d , fr o m E q u a tio n (2 2 5 ) ,

M
3 k
U = dm = ŤM ,
(2 2 8 )
2 m 2 m
g
9,

h e re Ť is th e o v e r th e s te lla r C b in in g th e tw o
w te m p e r a tu r e a v e ra ge d m a ss o m

r e s u lts , w e o b ta in

ď M g G M
Ť =
12 29)
3 k R
3 tio n (2 2 9 ) w e o b ta in
S u b s titu tin g th e a v e ra g e d e n s ity p = 3 M /4 7r R in E q u a ,

d
in g th a t b e tw e e n tw o s ta r s o f th e s a m e m a s s th e e n s
2 /3 " 3 er o ne
Ť oc M p ,
m ean ,

is a ]s o th e h o tte r

R fin d th e v a lu e o f a in th e
For f M d r a d iu s
Ex e r c is e 2 3 a s ta r o m a ss an ,

fo c a se s : (a ) a u n ifo rm
th e g r a v ita tio n a ıp o te n tia l e n e rgy f tw o
ex p r e s s io n ľ
e a s in E x e l c is e 12
d e n s ity an d (b ) a d e n s ity p r o fiı

ic h y d r o g e n w e fin d th a t th e
in g th e g a s to b e a to m
T a k in g ď =
ģand a ssu m
,

fa s ta r is
a v e r a g e te m p e r a tu r e o

Ť w 4 × 10
6
( )(f ) K (2 3 o )

e r a tu r e T e fF (a s o b ta in e d
p f te m
Ť is m u c h h ig h e r th a n th e s u r a
ce
W e n o te th a t m u s t re a c h s till h ig h e r
te m p e r a tu r e s
o b s e f v a tio n s )
im p ly in g th a t internal
fr o m ,
v in h y d rw a n d h e liu m
f d e g re e s K e ı
f m illio ns o ,

A t te m p e r a tu r e s o
v a lu e s
e n ts a r e fo
m in g a s e o u s h ig h ly
n h e a v ie r e le m
,

i
l io n z e d a n d e v e
a r e c o m p le te y i
a m ix tu r e o f o n s
n u c le i
,

t i l is th e r e fo r e a p la s ı?ta ,

io n iz ń i fo r m S te l a r
l m a e r a

s tr ip

fa s ta r
2 S T h e t o ta l e n e rgy o

tir e s ta r
rg y e q u a tio n (2 6 ) o v e r th e en

W e s ta r t by in te g r a tin g th e ene

) (2 3 1)
M
M L
p ." L nuc
" "

n tia tio n a n
d
i d e n de n t t e
h o r d e r o f d ifr e r e
t and
n e p n ? a re ,

S in th e v a f ia b le s h n d s id e is
n th e le ft a
e fir s t te r m o
ce
d H e n c e th
c ha n ge
in te g r a t io n m a y b e in te r
M
Ů 0 3 2)
dm u dnı-
lł =

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島 Scanned by CamScanner
 25
tı ha n ge ı
p o ıı o n c
2 6 The e q u a tı
o n s go v e r n ı
n g co m

È O an d th e e n e r g y Is
is in th e r m ıe q u ilib r iu it fo lı
o w s th a t =
If a s ta r a m
In th is
,

ilib r iu /c is h e s
v a rı
s ta n t If in a d d itio n th e s ta r is in h y d r o s ta t ic equ m ,
co n ,
i es
i h e r o f th e m d e te r m n
,

c a se U an d Q a re re ıa t e d b y th e v ir ia l th e o r e m , a n d h e n c e e t
t o n ly
n tly e a c h o n e o f t e
h m is c o n s e f v e d n o
th e to ta ıe n e r g y o f th e s ta r C o n s e q u e
,

ib r iu m c a n n o t c o o l
,

l i h e r m a l a n d h y d r o s ta t
ic e q u iı
th e ir s u m F o r e x a m p e a s t a r n t
s io n
,

h o lin g d e c r e a s e s t
he e n e fgy a n d e x p a n
th ro u g h o u t a n d e x p a n d ( a lt h o u g c o
n d th e g r a v ita
tio n a l
i h internal ( th e r m a l) e n e r g y a
in c r e a s e s ); it t m u s t c o n s e r v e t e
c lu s io n is th a t
a s ta r
n tly p u z z lin g c o n
i aı e n e r8 y s e p a r a te ly A n o th e r a p p a f e
,

p o te n t ,

th a t it b e c o m e s
in h y d r o s ta tic e q u ilib ń u m h a s a n e g a t v e
i h e a t c a p a c ity m e a n in g ,

fo r a n id e a l
in fr o m th e v ir ia l th e o r e m
h o tte r u p o n lo s in g e n e rg y ! T h is fo llo w s a g a

ga s w e av e
,
h

门 び (2 4 4 )
E ー び十口 一 ー

d
i h h d id e is m u ltip lie d
b y a c o n s ta n t o f th e o r e r
h
a n d in t e g e n e r a l c a s e t h e r g t a n s
u a tio n (2 2 8 ))
th e a v e r a g e
if È O th en u a n d w ith it (b y E q
o f u n ity H e n c e
< , ,

m u s t c o n tr a c t
m e tim e th e s ta r
u s t in c r e a s e A t th e s a
te m p e r a tu r e o f th e s ta r m
,

im p ly v io la tio n o f
,

o t n e c e s s a f ily
W h l l h t ly th a t c o n tr a c tio n d o e s n
( e s a s e e s o r
In fa c t
h a t th e la s t a r g u m e n
t is n o t conadictory ) ,

h y d fo s ta t ic e q u i l ib ń u m s o t
b o th th e e n e rg y
,

i t i n a l p o te n tia l e n e r8 y r e
le a s e d in c o n tr a c tio n s u p p lie s
th e g f a v ta o
t r e to r is e
th a t c a u s e s th e te m p e r a u
n d th e th e r m a l e n e r g y
th a t is lo s t (r a d ia te d ) ü
o f a n id e a l g a s
in e q u a l a m o u n ts in th e c a s e

it L
if it m a in ta in s a c o n s ta n t lu m in o s y
・

°" " " " " " o n o f its r a d iu s ,

p o s it io ha n ge s
g o v e r n in g co m n c
2 6 The e q u a t io n s

d f fr e e e le c tro n s a n d (a ım )
o st
th a t s te lla 】 m a te
ń a l is co m po se o
A s w e hav e se e n
c an n o t
if a n y
h e m ic a lly u n bo u n d p o s itio n c h a n g e s
n u c le i co m
e n tir e ly b a r e
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30

A' N' (2 5 )
,

M = ' '
lh n \2 M
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n e g lc ? tln g
thť l\\tN o tthe o tde r
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lc n slly /$ = NI / ・ ,

tm in R n ils u ltlw Įw ţ ľ tŅc \

t} ť tm itv.

(2 57)
,

n b \\

\c l] n lıIt ł\d {o thc

l ln \c s? ł\lc , bu t lı
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ľ hi lų alx tt\\? w a ys to u btı
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Su n is a bo u t 1000 S (

、一
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t hc dyn n n ıic a ltin icsc u lc is c x tı ņ n rc ly s httľ t m ł

tha n typic a ls tc llı \ľ a ges T hc e stim ı ttc u I W o ı thų S u n Ib r e x a n tplc ls ￠\6 h illio n
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.

d yn +m ìic a lpı n ec ss o c c \11,s in a s lur w hc n cv e ľ ihc gra v iln lio n n lı b tľ e is n o l hn lı

m ce tl

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四 in to c o n tıa c tio n It thct is in s u n ic ic l\l pı

e x pa n s io n ,

co lla pse
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l stilte s w ill b c Łlc h ic v c d w ithin
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, s ho u ltl hc o bs e ľ v a b ıe
in its cntilly In tlc c d s u c h ev e n ts hav e be e n kn o w n I
o o c c u r the a ľ c
y
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dyn u m ic ttı pto c e sses a le ta kin g pla ce bu t o n a s m a lle t sc trlc n o t in v l i
,
, o v ng
the e n tire s ta r F ro m lhc lim e sc a ı '
c o l s u c H c ha n e s
g u su a ıly o sc illa tio n s
w ilh a c hı u a c lc ľ is lic pc rio d W C m u ro u hl
y g y o s lim tllo thc łwcl llgc de n s it
y
o lthc s ta r T hc S u n has bee n o b)ie lv o d Io o sc iı la lc w ith a c Ľio d o l i
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y lo s [tltic e qu iı ih,iu m
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 2 8 Th e c hara t e r is d t d 31
c ııı« c ıı
es o f e vo lu t io n

do e s n o t m ean f
o d u ń n g th e ir e n tiï e ı
c o u rs e ife
th a t s ta r s a r e s ta tic
ı

spa n B u t r a th e
r th a t th e
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internal s M ıc tu r e s o a s to m a in t i d
le ft h a u ld s id e o f E u a tio n 2 2
q
a n y n a m ic a l b a la n c e C o n s e q u e n tly th e
( 1 ) m a y b e a s s u m e d to v a n is h A n d th e v iń a l
ロ
th e o r e m (S e c tio n 2 4 ) m a
y b e a s s u m e d to h o ld a t a ll tim e s T h is m e a n s
th a t th e g r a v ita tio n a l o te n ti ı
ヒ
彗
p a e n e r g y a n d th e th e r m a l e n e rg y o f th e s ta r
e a c h fo llo w s th e b e h a v io tır
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e

T hem la l p ro c e s se s a fr e c t th e internal e n e r gy o f th e s ta r he n ce in th is c a se w e

m a y ta k e ￠ U B y th e v ir ia l th e o r e n ı (w h ic h
=
as w e have se e n ,
is ap p lic a b le ) ,

2
U H G M / R T h e c h a r a c te ń s ū c r a te o f c h a n g e o f u is th e r a te a t w h ic h e n e r8 y
is r a d ia te d a y b y th e s ta r th u L T h e th e r m a l tim e s c a le m a y
エ
aw s w e m a se t
y =

b e th e r e fo re e s tim a te d b y

U
恕
G M 2
(2 5 9 )
ロ
T tıı =
L R L
印
Fo r th e Su n ,
T tlı H 10 "
s ,
o r a bo u t 3 0 m illio n y e a r s , d
a iı g e n e r a lly 區
团
团

fm itu d e lo th a n th e d y n a m ic a l
ぴ
T h e th e l tim e s c a le is m an y o rd e r s o ag n n \ r

tin ıe s c a le
n n a

b u t it s till c o n s t itu te s o n ly a sm a ll fr a c ū o n abo u t 1% o r le ss o f th e 亡

,

life s p a n o fa s ta r T hu s ,
a lth o u gh w e w o u ld n o t be a b le to o b se rv e th e d e v e lo p m
in g w h e th e r a n y
en t
歹
hav e f kn
s ta r (in fa c t n o w a y o o w
th e r m a l p r o c e s s in a
w e 一
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) e th a t th r o u g h o u t
o bse rv e d s ta r is in th e rm a
i
l e q u ilib ń u
m ay

ib i If a s ta r m a in ta in s
m o r n o t ,
w e a ssu m
。
m o s t o f its life a s ta r
is in a s ta te o f th e r m a l e q u l r u m

b o th th e r m a l a n d h y ? o s ta t ic e q u
ilib ń u m d u ń n g a n e v o lu tio n a r y p h a s e its to ta
l , 乙
h t h a s e a n d b y th e v ir ia l 、
e n e r g y is c o n s e r v e d (o r c
h a n g e s v e r y s lo w ly ) d u ń n g t a p ,

l e n e r g y , s e p a r a te ly a r e 、
tia l e n e r g y a n d th e th e r m a
th e g r a v ita tio n a l p o te n
,

th e o r e m ,
s i s ta tic a 11y ) in s o m e p a r o
t f th e s ta r
t a c tio n o c c u r s (q u a
,

c o n s e r v e d T h u s if c o n r
Q S im ila r ly if th e
,

ld e x p a n d s o a s to c o n s e r v e
it fo llo w s th a t o th e r p a r ts s h o u
,

i a n o th e r s o a s to k e e p U
te m p e r a tu r e r is e s in s o m e la c e it s h o u ld d e c r e a s e n
p
,

\
,

ke f su c h a r g u m e n ts
c o n s ta n t L a te r o n w e s h a ll m a u se o

r te d a s th e tim e
it w o u ld ta k e a s ta r to
T h e th e r m y b e in te r p e
a l tim e s c a le m a
n c o n tr a c tin g (a s w e
h a v e s h o w n in 、

e m it its e n tir e r e s e r v e o
f th e r m a l e n e r g y u p o 、
i it T h is w a s in fa c t th e w a y
i s a c o n s ta n t lu m n o s y , ,

S e c tio n 2 5 ) p f o v id e d it ï ń a in ta n
,

a s L o rd K e
lv in ) a n d in d e p e n d e n tly H e r m a n n ,

W illia in T h o m s o n (b e tte r k n o w n
,

、
a n d fo r th is
o r e th a n a c e n tu y
r a go
u n s age m
'
S
,

v o n H e lm h o ltz e s tim a t e d t h e
l -
d th e K e lv iï z H e lm h o ltŁ tim e s c a e

\
r e a s o n th e th e r m a l tim e s c a
le is o fte n c a lle
,

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32
o n s o f sto ı
2 The e qu a tı la r ovo lu tı
on

H is to r ic a lN o te K e ]v in s (1862)e stim łılc iın po sctlŁ\n u PPE R lim it

'
o 11 lh h
c
E a r th w hic h w a i
, s n m a rke d c o n nic t w ith thc nc w the o ry pu t lb rw w d b c
y
'
hurllı
\ ņ
(in 1859) T his the o r re u ired tha t co lo ic tlltim e be ınu c h lo n c t s
y q g g g o
'

tls tu
.
,
(\cen
the s lo w e v o ıti j i
unt
fb
u o n o fco u n tle ss s ec ies o l ı
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t m ı
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s ı
( v ng nnd ı
i b >ix iı
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se le c tio n A l tur
o n g an d in te n se dc btlte ensu e d be tw e en thc tw o e m in e n t ıı
sc lc m i ı
stx I '

e n d D a rw in re h lı
m a in e d co n v in c e d tlm t, in tiin c phys ic ists w o u ı
,

d c ha n ge the i lc

c ritic ism
.
r mind þ
lı
o F K e lv in s e s tim a te cam e to w a rd t n l,
,

c n d c»l thc n in e te e n th c e
' '
thc n tu ı
y [\o m
'

ge o lo g is t T ho m as C C ha m be rlin the
.

Is pre se n t kn o w le d e re l tiv
g a e to the be ha v io u r o rm a tte r u n d e r s u c H e x t'
"rdinmy
c o n ditio n s a s o bt i i
a n n the in te rio r o l the su n slı f{ic ic n tı
y e x ha u s tiv e Io w arr
łlm
the a ssertio n tha tn
o u n rec o gn ize d so u rc es o Fhea tre s ide the tc ? W ha t th
c im c m
nl
c o n s titu e n ts o f th
n s m a y be is yc t an o pe n qu e s tio n It is no t i
e a to ı
m pı o bu bı
・
,

c
tha t the y a re c o m le x o r i i
p ga n za t o n an
s d th l
e se a ls o e n o r】 L1o u s en e i i g cs
T C C ha m be rlin A n n u a į R e o rt o rtł
le Sïłitı
so tlia lłIn s tilllrio lı
.
p ı ı
1899 ,

A n d tw
tha t the so u r
ce ol

O n ly the in e rtia o f tra ditio n ke e s the co n tra c tio n

p hypo the sis a liv e a ther,
or ı ・

n o t a liv e bu t a n u n bu ı
ie d c o rpse
, . .

A sta r is dra w in g o n so m e v a st rese rv o ir o f e n e r

gy by m e a n s u n kn o w n to
us T his re se r v o ir c an sc a rc e l be o the r tha n the
y su ba to m ic e n e r
gy w hic h Il
.

is kn o w n , e x ists a bu n da n tl in a ]1 m a tte r
y .
T he re is su ffic ie n t in thc SŁm to
m a in ta in its o u tpu t o f he a t fo r 15 billio n e ar
y s .

If in de e d , the su ba to m ic e n e r
,
gy in the sta rs is be in * e e l u se d to
g y m a in ta in
the ir gre a t fu rn ac e s it se e m s to brin g a little
, n e are r to fu lĥ llm e n t o u r d re am o f
c o n tro llin g this la te n t o w e r fo r the
p w e ll be in g o f th e hu m o r Ior its
"
a n ra c e
su ic ide

Sir Ar ur S Eddin to n : O b
g se r va ï o r y 43, 1920

F in a lly, a fte r a bo u t te n m o re ye ars the c o n tro v e rs

yw a s se ttle d (in D a rw in s fav o u r!)b)
'
,

q u a n tu m a n d n u c le ar physic s, w hic h so lv e d the pu z z le o f the e n e rgy so u rc e o Fstiu s

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 2 8 The ha r a c t e r is t ic t im ı
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33
c e sca ı
es o ar o n

a s s u m e th e r m a l e q u ilib r iu m w e m a y ta k e = L nuc
= L H en ce

Z
M c
てn u c 榴 (2 6 1)

o r u s in g s o la r u n its ,

T nu c - 4 5 * 10 2o
( )( ) , (2 6 2 )

F o r th e S u n th is is ,
m an y tim e s its a ge ; in fa c t, is ı
Tnuc a r g e r th a n th e e s ū m a te o
to
a ge o f th e u n iv e r s e A n im m e d ia te c o n c lu s io n th a t e m e rg e s is th a t s ta r s s e e m

ha v e ly a s m a ll fr a c tio n o f th e ir a v a ila b le n u c le a r e n e r g y ,
a c tu a lly c o n s u m e d o n

m e a n in g th a t o n ly a fr a c tio n o f th e s te ıla r m a s s h a s c h a n g e d its in itia l c o m p o s itio n

A n o th e r is th a t g e n e r a lly n u c le a r e q u ilib r iu m is n o t to b e e x p e c te d
, ,

T o s u m m a r iz e o u r r e s u lts ,

Td « T th « Tnuc
(2 6 3 )
yn

m in e th e p a c e o
f
C o n s e q u e n tly , it is th e r a te s o f p r o c e s s e s th a t d e te r
n u c le a r
m a in ta in th e r m a l
s te lla r e v o lu tio n ,
th r o u g h o u t w h ic h th e s ta r m a y b e a s s u m e d to

iı
ib ń u m a t e a c h s ta g e T h e s e t o f e v o
lu tio n e q u a tio n s (2 5 4 )
an d h y d r o s ta tic equ

re d u c e s to

ar, w e n e e d
f h e o ń g in a ıs e t In p a r tic u ı
T h is is a c o n s id e r a b le s
im p liń c a tio n o t
t a c e its e v o lu tio n
l r u c tu r e o f th e s a
t r in o rd e r to b e a b le to r
not n k o w th e i n iti a s t
b
i th e in itia l c o m p o s
itio n w h ic h w e s h a ll a s s u m e to e
A ll w e n e e d to k n o w s ,

d h i is p re c is e ly w h a t w e d o
d th r o u g h o u t th e s ta r , a n t s
h o m o g e n e o u s ly d is tr ib u te f ta r s n o w d iv id e s
ll O u r ta s k o f in v e s g
ti a tin g th e e v o lu tio n o s
kn o w r e a s o n a b l y w e
f c le a r
tw o m a in q u e s t o
i n s : (a )W n a t is th e s e q u e n c e o n u
in to tw o d e i ff r e n t p a r ts o r
i
b G iv e n th e c o m p o s itio n w h a t s
,

lla r in te ń o r s ? ( )
,

k l in s te
p r o c e s s e s th a
t ta e p a c e
i o f a s ta r in h y d ro s ta
tic
t re a n d d e n s ty
th e s tr u c tu r e d is tr ib u tio n o f te m p e r a u
b e a r a te d n u c le a r
s tio n s c a n n o t e s p
i lib ń m ? C le a r ly th e se q u e
a n d th e r m a l e q u u ,
d
t r e a n d d e n s ity a n
d th e s tn ıc tu r e o f a s ta r d e p e n s
u
nd on t m p e r a ,

p ro c e s s e s d e p e
e
e r e d in tu m a n
d th e a n s w e r s m a y th e n
iti n B u t th e y c a n be a n sw
o n its c o m p o s o
t re o f s te lla r e v o lu o
ti n
r e h e n s iv e p ic u
b e c o m b in e d in to a c o m p d th e s e c o n d in C h a p te r s 5
fi t t io n in C h a p te r 4 a n
W e s h a ll a d d r e s s th e r s q u e s
f s te lla r
d lin g in a g e n e r a
l m a n n e r w ith th e p h y s ic s o
a n d 6 T he n e x t c
h a p t e r e a
ith th e p h y s ic s o f g a s e o u s
,

d b d e r s w h o a r e fa m ilia r w
in te r io f s m a y b e s k ip p e y r e a
,

s y s te m s a n d o f ra
d ia tio n

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ı
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o ns * f st
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32
w R ļ iı
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te K e lv in s (
u s to r ic a ıN o
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fc o u n tle s s p
s
c v o lu titn ı
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o u ltl c h trn gc the ir m in d\ ĺ ï
h s ic is ts w
In tiīn e p y
rınh o r U R in
d th a t n th c e n tu r f
g
i e d co ı rv in c e
d o r th c n i n e te e y rom
c n d D a rw n i re m a n hc e n the
to w a td t
'
ti m a te c a in e
c r itic is m o f
K e lv in s e s

C h iın rbe rlin

lo g is t T ho r n s C
一
th c b c h a
v \o u ıu ı ıı 1
ı -

l d pe ıa tiv e to xhaustivc t
h e :+u n sufficiently 一
ls p re se n t k n o w e g e o w a rra nt

a in in th e
in te rio r o f t
d itio n s a s o b t id e th e rc ? W h a t th e i n te r niıı 一
co n f he a t re s
u n æc o g n
iz e d sou\es o
the a ss e rtio n th a t n o tio n ï t is n o t im p ro b b ı 一
e n qu e s ıı c
L1s m a y e
h is ye t łLn o p 一
c o n s titu e n ts o f t
he a to ı i
s e a ts o f e n o
r m o u s e n e rg e s
s a n d the
th iıt th e y a re c o m p e x
l o rgiın iz a tio n 、

T C C ham

th e s a n te is s u e P re d ic te d tlm t thc s o u rec o f

a d d te s s in g
A n d tw o a te r E dd in g to n
de c a d e s ı ,

ic
'

ld be su b a to m
e n e r gy in s ta rs s h o u

th e c o n tra c tio n h y p o th e s is a liv e o r ra the r ;

O n ly th e in e 】t ia o f u tıd itįo n k e e p s
:
iv e bu t a n u n b u ıie d c o ıp s e
n o t ilı ,

ir o f e n e rgy by m s u n k n o w n to
m eı
A s ta r is d ra w in g o n s o m e v a s t re s e t v o

be o the r th ł th e s u b a to m ic e n e rg y w hic h it
re s e rv o ir c an sc a rc e ly
m
us t his
in a ll m T he re is su ltic ic n t in th e Su n to
is k n o w n E x is ts a bu n d a n tly a tte r

m a in ta in i[s o u tp u t o f h e a t fo r 15 b illio n ye a rs

If in d e e d th e
,
su ba to m ic e n e lgy in the s ta rs is b e in g fre e ly u s e d to m a in ta in

th e ir g r e a t fu rn a c e s it se e m s to b r in g a little u c r to
neı fu ı
ĥ 1lm en t ou r d re a m of

c o n tro llin g th is ļ a te n t po w e r fo r th e w e lıb e in g o f th e hu m ace

n ı
Įı o r fo r its

R n a lly, a fte r a b o u t te n m o re ye a rs The by

s fa LTo u rl
\
c o m 】o v c ľ s y w n s s e ttle d
(in D a rw in
q u a n tu m a n d n u c le a r phy sic s h ic h s o lv e d th c u z z le o r th
æ c o l s talh
w
,
p c e n e rgy 5o \ı

The n u cı
ear tlm e s c a ı
e

T he q u a n tity tha t is c ha n
ge d by n u c lc a t p ro c e ss e s
be s id e s ł\hu n d t\n e e s is ł1(s11
fra c tio n o f the
, ,
re s t m a ss e n e ı
y g iv e n by E in s te in s lh
g ıE =
m o u s rc lt\lio ı
'

T h is frac tio n w h ic h m ł ty bc lu ln c d
,
in to o the r I" iu te
n u c le a r po te n tia le lle i
gy lence w o m a tu k
o m s o l cnet
g y c o n st t ,

y e qb 8 M ť 2 w h c ı8 c 1111 he e stin
ì
by the ty pic ztıbin din e n _

g e rgy o I *\ n u c l ,

c o n d iv ld c st 11
c LI b y th c n u c lc o n s ı
'
e n e ig y w hic h a ĺ 11o u n ts I
, o tl W 10 3
T hc ľ a te o l
e n e rg y is o bv io u s l ih c hn n g e o l°lhe n u v lc łlľ poli\1
,

,
y c n u c lc ıu lu
m in o s i[ L
,
l
y nu c ı\n d s in c e w c a ıe a ı lo w c\ ,

X
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 ı8 Th e c ha ra c s t ic t im e s c a le s o
te rı f s te ı
ıa r evo u tı
ı o n 33

a s s u tıī e th e m l e q u iı
ib r iu L L H
la m ,
w e m a y ta k e =
nuc
= en ce

ż
e M c
てn u c 划 (2 6 ı)

n r u s in g so lu T u n its

rn uc
° 4 5 * 10 2
o
( )( ) , (2 6 2 )

i d
g e ; in fa c t T n u c is la r g e r t a n t e e s t m
F o r th e S u T h is is h h a te
n n la n y t im e s its a ,

a ge o f th e u n iv e rs e A n in m ie d ia te c o n c lu s io n th a t e m e rg e s is th a t s ta r s s e e m to

ha\ a c tu a lly c o n su m e d o n ly a sm a ll fr a c tio n o f th e ir av a ila b le n u c le a r e n e r g y ,

m ean in g th a t o n ly a fr a c t io n o f th e s te lla r m a s s h a s c h a n g e d its in it ia l c o m p o s itio n

A n o th e r is th a t G e n e r a lly N u c le a r e q u ilib r iu m is n o t to b e e x p e c te d

T u s u m m a r iz e o u r re s u lts

td n « T th « T n u c
(2 6 3 )
y

C e n t ly It is th e r a te s f n u c le a r c e s se s th a t d e te r m in e th e pac e o f
o n se qu o p ro
d to a in ta in th e r m l
lı lu t io g h o u t w h ic h th e s ta r m a y b e
s te ar ev o n th r o u a ssu m e m a
,

an d h y d ro s ta tic e q u ilib r iu m a t e a c h s ta g e T h e s e t o f ev o lu tio n e q u a tio n s (2 5 4 )

re du c e s to

d p G m
=

i 4 7r r 4
'

dF (2 6 4 )
dm
文 一 K p ,
T 夏) ,

T h is is a c o n s id e r a b le s im p liń c a tio n o f th e o ń g in a l s e t In p a r tic u la r w e n e e d ,

n o t kn o w tlıe in itia l s tr u c tu r e o f th e s ta r in o rd e r to b e a b le to tr a c e its e v o lu tio n

A ll w e n ee d to k n o w p o s itio n w h ic h w e s h a ll a s s u m e to b e
is th e in itia ıc o m ,

h o m o g e n e o u s ly d is tr ib u te d th r o u g h o u t th e s ta r , a n d th is is p r e c is e ly w h a t w e d o
k n o w r e a s o n a b ly w e u O u r ta s k o f in v e s tig a tin g th e e v o lu tio n o f s ta r s n o w d iv id e s
in to t w o d ifï e r e n t p a r ts o r tw o m a in q u e s tio n s : (a )W n a t is th e s e q u e n c e o f n u c le m
,

i t lla r in te ń o r s ? (b ) G iv e n th e c o m p o s itio n , w h a t is
p r o c e s s e s th a t ta k e p la c e n s e
th e s tr u c M r e d is tr ib u tio n o f te m p e r a tu r e a n d d e n s ity o f a s ta r in h y ? o s t a tic

h
a n d th e r m a l e q u ilib ń u m ? C le a r ly , t e s e q u e s
tio n s c a n n o t b e s e p a r a te d n u c le a r

d d e n s ity a n d th e s tn ıc tu r e o f a s ta r d e p e n d s
p r o c e s s e s d e p e n d o n te m p e r a tu r e a n ,

o n its c o m p o s it io n B u t th e y c a n b e a n s w e r e
d in tu m a n d th e a n s w e r s m a y th e n

be co m b in e d in to p r e h e n s iv e p ic tu r e o f s te lla r e v o lu tio n
a co m

W e s h a ll a d d r e s s th e fir s t q u e s tio n in C h a p te r 4 a n d th e s e c o n d in C h a p te r s 5
l
a n d 6 T h e n e x t c h a p te r d e a lin g in a g e n e r a m a n n e r w
l
ith th e p h y s ic s o f s te lla r
in te ń o r s m a y b e s k ip p e d b y r e a d e r s w h o a r e fa m ilia r w ith th e p h y s ic s o f g a s e o u s
,

s y s te m s a n d o f r a d ia tio n

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Scanned by CamScanner
 3 ı The f s t a te 35
e q u a t io n o

v ic io u s p ro p e n s ity to b e h id d e n fr o m th e p u b lic e y e N e e d le s s to s a y th e p h y s ic is t
m u st if c h a lı
e n g e d b e p re a r e d to d e fe n d th e u s e o f h is d s c e m m e n t; b u t u n le s s
p
th e d e fe n c e in v o lv e s s o m e s u b tı il h
e p o in t o f d iffic u lty it m a y w e lıb e le ft u n t t e

c h a lle n g e is m a d e

S ir A r th u r S E d d in g to n : T h e ln te 17 tđl C o n s titu tio n o f tlt e S ta rs ,

19 2 6

3 ı The e q u a t io n o f s ta t e

A r e la tio n b e tw een th e p r e s s u re e x e r te d b y a s y s te m o f p a r tic le s o f kn o w n co m

a n d d e n s ity P P (p T X ) is ca lle d an
p o s itio n an d th e am b ie n t te m p e r a tu r e ,
=
, , ,

e q n a tio n o f s t a te
d th e lla r g a s to b e an id e a l
In p r e v io u s s e c tio n s w e hav e re p e a te d ly a s su m e s te

g p a r tic le s (a p e lje c g )
t as
w h ic h im p lie s a m ix tu re o f fre e n o n in te r a c tin
ga s , ,

t h e tim e has co m e to ju s tify th is a s s u m p tio n A t th e te m p e r a tu r e s p r e v a ilin g in

i s c a n b e e x e c te d to o c c u r W e
g a s e s a r e io n iz e d a n d C o u lo m b in te r a c p
s ta r s ,
t on
,

i m a ll c o m p a r e d w ith
th a t th e e n e r g y in v o lv e d in s u c h in te ra c tio n s s s
s h a ll s h o w
F o r a n a v e r a g e d e n s ity p a n d a g a s
th e k in e tic (th e r m a l) e n e r g y o f th e p a r tic e s
l

o a r tic le m a s s M H ,
th e m e an in te r p a r tic le d is ta n c e is

f s te lla r M an d ra d iu s R If th e p a r tic le
h e r e p h a s b e e n e x p r e s s e d in te r m s o m a ss
w
h a r g e ) th e ty p ic a l C o u ı
o m b e n e rg y pe r
d e n o tin g th e e le c tr o n c
c h a r g e is Z e (e
,

s tim a te d a s
p a r tic le m a y b e e

o rd e r kŤ d he n c e a fte r s u b s titu tin g

(p e r p a r tic le ) is o f th e
an ,

T h e k in e tic e n e r g y
Ť fr o m E q u a tio n (2 2 9 ) ,

2 2
Z e
c
'
(3 3 )
kŤ 4 7r e o AĄ/3nĄ G 3
M 2 /3

it F o r Z = 1 A = 1 a n
d M = M o th is
e o rd e r o f u n y
« ,

ig n o r in g fa c to r s o f t h ,

f be
t h i s a c c u ra c y C o u o
l m b in te r a c tio n s m a y th e r e o r e
1 % d t o
r a tio is a b o u t
a n ,

h ic h v a r ie s a s
,

Z h a v e A H 2 2 , a n d th e r a tio (3 3 ), w
n e g le c te d F o r
h gi h e r w e ,
i W e s h o u ld
b e lo w u n ity e v e n
fo r a c o m p o s itio n o f p u r e r o n
ź 2/ 3 i n s w e l l
10 3 M o A lth o u g h s ta r s d o n o
re m a t
1 fo r m a s s M
,

t h t / k Ť
n o te , h o w e v r a c 3
e , l 10 M o
h m a s s o f J u p ite r is r o u g h y
d z o n e p la n e ts d o : t e
b e lo n g to th is a g n e r o u s ,
f fr e e
f la n e ts c a n n o t e
b d e s c ń b e d b y a m ix tu r e o
C o n s e q u e n tly th e s t r u c tu r e o p
,
i
s ta te m u s t b e n v o
k e d S in c e c / k Ť > 1
c o m p lic a e t d e q u a tio n s o f
g a s e s ; m o re a s s th e c lo s e r
'

a y c o n c lu d e t a
h t th e s m a lle r a p la n e t s m ,

i
c h a r a c te r z e s s o li d s w e ,
m

tu r e
to a s o lid is its s tr u c

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 \
\
l

t* r y p h y * ı
c* o f H il l nm ln t ı
ıľ a tı on
3 Eı
o m ・n
36

f p łlr tic le s im p in g in g tm u hy ı c n ıH \ı
ì o th c lı rıhct n \Į\k ln g 【 \m
\n ł ı
￠a
F ig u re 3 ıB e im o ,

w ith th e n o m n a l to th e s u r ti
nG e

A g e n e r a l th e o re m e n llb le s ih e c a lc u ln lio n o ıth c p rc N # u t e o l t\ IIc e p u r tlc ı

e

s y s te m by m ean s o f n n in te g ra l k n o w n i\s [h c p lv v v llr p b ite w

・
y l/

w he re is th e p a r tic le v e lo c ity p its m o m e n tu m , ttn d /i (p ) d p ii th c n u m b e r

u

o f p a r tic le s p e r u n it v o lu m e w ith m o m e n īa w ith in th c in te r v tlı(p , p t t/} ) T h c

pro o f o f th is th e o re m is as fo llo w s: C o n s id e r 11 s u r th e e (t c a l o r im a g in a r y ) w ith in

th e f p a r tic le s T h e p r e s s u r e o n th is s u Ľ la c e re s u lts lľ o
s y s te m o lh e m o m e n tu m

im p a r te d b y p a r tic le s c o llid in g e la s tic a lly w ith it T h e m o m e n tu m Lr a n s ıb r 1ıe d b y

a n in c id e n t p a r tic le is tw ic e th e m o m e n tu m c o m p o n e n t n o r m a l to th e s u r lł
\c c

A p = 2p co s o (3 5 )

C o n s id e r a beam f p a r tic le s im p in g in g o n th e s u ľ la c e a t a v e lo c ity u m a k in g a n

o

an g le 0 w ith th e n o r m a l to th e s u l-fa c e (a s s h o w n in F ig u r e 3 1) L e t /ı(O , p ) 4 0 d p

b e th e m b e r d e n s ity o f p a r tic le s w ith m o m e n ta in th e r a n e (
n u
g p , p + dp)and
d ir e c tio n s w ith in a con e (0 0 ,
+ d 0 ) S in c e th e
p a r tic le d is tr ib u tio n is is o tro p ic ,

th e n u m b e r o f p a r tic le s w ith in a n y s o lid a n g le tlm is p ıo p o r tio n a l to th e s o lid

an g le ,
o r

n {? p ) d e 山)
,
d co 2 Tt s in o cle
n (p )d p
=

4 7r
=

4 7r
=
ģ in
s 0 00 (3 6 )

T he be r
f p a r tic le s fr o m th is b e a m s tr ik in th e s u r Fa c i
n u m o
g e n a tim e in te r v a l
ô t is g iv e n b y th e n u m b e r d e n s ity m u lti lie d b th e v o lu
p y m e u ò t d s c o s O w h e re
,

d s is th e a r e a o f in c id e n c e o f th e b e a m o n th e s u l fa c e H
e n c e th e m tu m o m en
tr a n s fe r r e d to th e s u r fa c e b y th e s e a r tic le s is g iv e n b y
p

Bp e = n (? p)d 0 d p ôt d S o h p
, u co s (3 1 )

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 卫ı Th * h 附 耳

t h e w w w iln ııi{ ın o f ıh ırq e p m c ı h ￠p m * u m

r ı Io ı ı* ı n ın n « n ￠u m ı
rın9￠
em%łp «
u n it tim e pcr u n ii w r fıc t a r e a ls ıh e ır g iv e n b y pĄ w łltm (3 7 ) C O m b
- .

* 湖南 ó q ıı《 in m (3 5 ) a n d (3 6 ) ın e r d lv ı
d in g b y B rd S
.

dp =
į s in o do n ( p )d p u co s Q 2p co s a . u p n (p ) d p co s
'
ů # ln tņ d Q (3 8 )

d th e tm aı m u r e is
an o b t a in e d b y in ı
e g r a tin g o v ￠r a lıa n g le q o f in c id e n c e
(O ￡ Q 5 ar /2 ) a n d a ı
ım o m e n ta S in c e

# /2 ı

co s
2
Q s in o d Q _ cos
2
Qd co s o . 4 (3 9 )

lıe
ı p ro o f \s c o m p le te d O b v io u s ly th e p r e s s u re o f a m ix ıu re o f fr e e n n n ın te r ıc tm l
,
,

p a r tıc ı ıb e g iv e n b y ıh e s u M o f th e p m l u re s e M a d
e l o f d ifr e r e n t s p c c Ie s w iı

b y e a c h s p e c ie s s e p a r a te ly T h is w iııin c ı u d e th e ra d ia tio n p r e » s u re w
h ic h il th e
o f th re e
p re s s u re e x e r te d b y p h o ıo n s C o n s e q u e n tly in s ta rs P w ilıb e th e s u m , .

d i t m n ıls : P fo r th e io n s ı fo r th e e le c tr o n s a n d P fo r th e p h o to n * Th e
Ą
ir s ıtw
ı o c o n s titu tin g th e to ta l g a s p re s s u r e ,

P - P \+ P c + P m = P g. + P ra d 0)
(3 ı
d

th e fr a c tio n f th e p r e m u r e c o n tn bu ı
ed
ï t is c u s to m a r y to d e fin e a p a ra m e te r þa s o

b y th e g a s ; th tıs
\
P ea s = ßP l (3 ıI
\

Pm d = (1 P )j (3 ı2

3 2 T h e io n p re s s u re

id e a ıio n g a s is th e w e ll k n o w a tio n
n re ı
T he e qm io n o f s ta le fo r an

Pr = n ik T ,
(3 13 1

r u n it v o ı T h is a tio n
re ı ls b tıin e d b y a p p ı
o y
w h e re n ıis th e n u m b e r o l io n « W um c
o d y n n m ic e q u iıib n u m
in g th e 【h e o r c m ju ril p ro v e n Io a fre e p ıırtic le g n s in th e r m ,

M ia n v e ı
c lı o c i[y d lıtr ib u tio n
w h ic h is c h a ra c ıe r i» e d b y a ax w

f lo l vo ı
n ıi In a u n ı um e by
(2 A 7 ) w e o b ta in th e to ta l n u m b e r u
U = in g r e la tio n * ,

ıth c io n * p c e ie » t
sł
ım m in g o ver aı

/J ı= n i

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 3 2 The ı
o n p re ssu re
37

T he c o n tr ib u
tio n o f th e s e a r tic le s to th e r e s s u r e th e m o m e n tu m transfemd \ r
p p
u n it tim e p e r u n it s u r fa c e a r e a is th e r e fo r e g iv e n b y E q u a tio n (3 7 ), c o m b in e d
w ith E q u a tio n s (3 5 ) a n d (3 6 ) a fte r d iv id in g b y B t U S
,

d p =
ļ s \n ? đo n (p ) d p u co s o łp cos o = u p n (p ) d p co s
ż
e s \n o d e 13 8 )

and th e to ta l p re s s u r e is o b ta in e d b y in te g r a tin g over a ll an g le s o f in c id e n c e

(0 < 0 5 ır /2 ) a n d a ll m o m e n ta S in c e

n /2 1

co s
2
0 s in 0 do _ Co
c Os
S
2'
0 d CO S e =
ģ (3 9 )

i
th e p r o o f is c o m p le te d O b v io u s ly , th e p r e s s u re o f a m ix tu r e o f fr e e , n o n in te r a c t n g

p e s o f d iffe r e n t s e c ie s w ill b e
a r tic ı iv e n b y th e s u m o f th e p re s s u r e s e x e r te d
p g
h s p e c ie s s e ill in c lu d e th e r a d ia tio n pre s s u r e w h ic h is th e
by eac y T h is
p a r a te ı w ,

ill b e th e f th r e e
q u e n tly in s ta r s P w
su m o
pre ssu re e x e r te d b y p h o to n s C o n se , ,

fo r th e p h o to th e
d iffe r e n t te r m s: P ï fo r th e io n s p e ,
fo r th e e le c tr o n s a n d n d
ns

fir s t tw o c o n s titu tin g th e to ta l g a s p r e s s u r e ,

P - Pi+ P e + n d -
Pg a s + n d (3 10 )

th e fra c tio f th e p re s s u r e c o n tr ib u te d
It is c u s to m a r y to d e fin e a p a rm e te r p as n o

b y th e g a s ; th u s

3 2 T h e io n pre ssu re

ll k n o w n r e la tio n
f s ta te fo r an id e a l io n g a s is th e w e
th e e q u a tio n o

lt lk T (3 13 )
Pk = ,

b a l
l e T h is r e la tio n is o b ta in e d y p p y
he re n l is th e n u m be r o f io n p e r u n it v o u m
s
w ib ń u m
i th e r m o d y n a m ic e q u iı
to a fr e e p a r tic le g a s n
,

in g th e th e o r e m ju s t p r o v e n
ib tio n
h a r a c te r iz e d b y a M a x w e llia n v e lo c ity d is tr u
w h ic h is c

n i4 tr p dp
(3 14 )

it v o lu m e by
be r f io n s in a u n
b ta in th e to ta l nu m o
U s in g r e la tio n s (2 4 7 ) ,
w e o

io n s p e c ie s i
su m m in g over a ll th e
X
P i (3 15 )
ï ıI = /? i 艺众 一

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 d a t io n
ra dı
fg an
p h y r la
o
3 Eı
*m * n ta r y
38
i cd by
ıï is d c ın
m a te r ia l ı
l s te lla r
o n tic m a s
s o
T hc n n e a n a ı
(3 ı
6)

§0 th a t
(3 17 )
nl = ,

lıï ï n \1

tx a p p ro x im a te d by
an d $- ! m ay

ı
Al
4 (A )
le m e n ts o th e r th a n
f th e /ie a vy e le ın e n ts (e
ic m a ss o
<
h e re is th e a v e r a g e a to m l
th e S u n fo r e x a m p e
w
fe r re d to a s ın e ta ls ) F o r
,
,

h y d ro g e n a n d h e liu m s o m e tim e s re i
H 2 0 ; w h e n c e /Łı=
1 2 9 T h e ra tio k /m H 8
X = 0 70 7 r = 0 2 7 4 a n d (A ) ,

u s u a ll kn o w n a s th e id e a g
l a s c o n s ta n t
y
k (3 ı
9)
冠王
n zH

E u a tio n (3 13 ) w e ly o b ta in
fin a ı
S u b s titu tin g E q u a tio n s (3 17 ) a n d (3 19 ) in to q ,

pi - pT
(3 20 )
P I

3 3 The e le c t r o n p re s s u r e

If th e e le c tr o n s c o n s titu te a n id e a l g a s th e e q u a tio n
,
o f s ta te is ,
as E q u a tio n (3 ı
3)

a bo v e ,

八 一 n ekT ,
(3 2 1)

w h e re n e
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n e n t
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dı c ex po
3 6 The a

h ic h w ill b e o f in te r e s t in la ter
f i l k in d w
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ith o u t e x c h ıin g e o f h e a t w ith
s e s o
T h c r m ıx ly n a m ic p r o
c e s
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a s c u w iio n s a r e t h o s e o c c
h e fir s t la w o f th e rm o
i b tłtic F r o m t
a lle d tıtl tt
s h r o c e s se s m e c
e m ir o n m e n t u c p th a t a d ia b a tic p r o c e s s e s s a tis fy
d in S e c tio n
2 2 it fo llo w s )
dy n a m ic s (m e n t io n e

th e co n d itio n

du + p d
{1 = 0 (3 48)
\p j
at le a s t fo r s im p le s y s te m s th a t the
In th e p r e v io u s s e c tio n w e ha v e se e n

l to P /p W a y th e r e fo r e w r ite
p r o p o r tio
e m
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w h ic h b y d iffe r e n tia tin g an d su b s titu tin g in to E q u a tio n (3 4 8 ) le a d s ,

to

A c c o r d in g ly , th e d e p e n d e n c e o f th e p r e s s u r e o n d e n s ity is d e s c r ib e d b y a po w er
la w

T h e p o w e r (d In P /d In
p ) is ca lle d th e
d itıb t7 ric e r o tı
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p e n t d e n o te d y a ; th e pru
P o r tio n a lity fa c to r (to b d e n o te d K
e
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) is d e te i m in e d b he
y th e p r o p e r tie s o r t
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t \ p \m c n ıL h n n g e s lu o S in c e th is w iı
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s tn h ilil o l s lu r s il Łle s c r v e s , s o M e d is c u s s io n W e s h a ı l o n ly c o n s id e r th e v e r y
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ľ c ,

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c re a te a n io n by re m o v in g a n e le c tr o n fr o m a n a to m ) In te r m s o f th e d e g r e e o f
io n iz a tio n .
w e ha v e

P = (1 + x )(n o + n + )k T = (1 + x )7Z p T , (3 5 5 )

d Saha q u a tio be c o
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X g (ZTmcìlł
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2
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ene rBy o f io n iz a tio n T hu s

E q u a tio n (3 4 9 ) U s in g E q u a tio n s (3 5 5 ) a n d (3 5 6 ) to e x p r e s s th e d e g re e
r e p la c e s

o f io n iz a tio n a s a fu n c tio n o f p r e s s u f e a n d d e n s ity x = x (P p ) d iffe r e n tia tin g , ,

E q u a tio n (3 5 7 ) a n d s u b s titu tin g in to E q u a tio n (3 4 8 ) y ie ı

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， y a (x ) = (3 60)

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3 7 R a d ia t iv e t r a n s fe r

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rg e s a t B a fte r lo s in ic h
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p ro c e s s e s a r e d o m in a n t s im p ly b e c a u s e th e r e a r e v e r y fe w b o u n d e le c tro n s
,

th e m a te r ia l b e in g a lm p le te ly io n iz e d F u r th e r m
o st c o m o re ,
th e e n e r g y o f m o st

p h o to n s in th e P la n c k d is tr ih u tio n is o f th e o r d e r o f k e v ,
w h e re a s th e s e p a r a tio n

e n e r8 y o f a to m ic le v e ls is o n ly a fe w te n s e v H e n c e m o s t h o to n s in te r a c tin
p g w ith
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ount of c l
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L o g T (K )

Fig u re 3 3 0 p a c ity co e flic ie n ts (in u n its o f c m

2
g
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tio n o f te m p e r a tu r e fo r d iffe re n t d e n s ity v a lu e s ; th e n u m b e r s b e s id e e ac h curv e a re

3
lo g p (8 c m ) (d a ta fr o m C A Ig le s ia s & F J R o g e rs (19 9 6 ) ,
A s tr o p hys J 464 )

2 ' 2 '
w he re ı
ce s o - 0 04 m kg (0 4 cm g ) T he o p a c ity r e s u 1ū n g fr o m fre e fr e e
a b s o r p tio n fir s t d e ń v e d b y H e n d ń k A K
,
ram e rs , is w e ll a p p r o x im a te d b y a p o w e r
la w o f th e fo r m (3 6 3 ) w ith a - 1 a n d b ,
7 /2 k n ,
o w n a s th e K r a m e r s o p a c ily

舀
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) w ith
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a n a c c u ra c y
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ffic ie n ts ,
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d
d fr e e fr e e o p a c itie s
th u s p r o p o r tio n a l to
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th e
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仃
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乙
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n u m b e r d e n s ity a n d h e n c e to H . (s e e E q u a tio n (3 2 4 )) O p a c ity c o e ffic ie n ts fo r
￠
s o la r c o m p o s itio n m a te ń a l a r e g iv e n a s a n e x a m p le in F ig u r e 3 3 ; n o te th a t a b o v e
, ,

固
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T he a v e ra ge o p a c ity o f s te lla r m a te ń a l (o f so la r co m p o s itio n ) is o f th e o r d e r

m
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a b o u t 0 0 0 1 K (e s tim a te d a s Ť / R ) T h is is w h y th e r a
d ia tio n in s te lı a r in te ń o r s is

so c lo s e to th a t o f a b la c k b o d y B u t b la c k b o d y r a d ia tio n is a ı
s o is o tr o p ic ; w h a t,

th e n ,
is th e m e an in g o f a r a d ia tio n flu x fr o m th e in te ń o r o f th e s ta r to th e s u r fa c e

(th e fu n c tio n F in E q u a tio n (2 6 ))? It t u r n s o u t th a t th e m in u te d e v ia tio n fr o m

r
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sp ac e v a ri b le
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dT 3 F
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 4

N u cı
ea r p ro ce sse s t h a t ta k e

p la c e in s ta r s

th e ev o lu tio n c o n tin u o u s c h a n g e o f s ta r s is d u e to th e ir s u s ta in e d e m is s io n o f
ra d ia tio n o ń g in a tin g fr o m a n internal s o u r c e T h e e n e r g y s o u r c e th a t s u p p lie s th e

lu m in o s ity o f s ta rs d u ń n g m o st o f th e ir life tim es is n u c le a r fu s io n w h ic h tu rn s a

a ll fr a c tio n o f th e r e s t m in to n ly re a liz e d a t th e
sm a ss e ner y A lth o u g h th is w as o

b e g in n in g o f th e tw e n tie th c e n tu r y w ith E in s te in s fo r m u la E = n tc
2
th e c o n c e p t

o f c o n v e r s io n o f m a tte r in to ı ig h t d a te s b a c k to N e w to n a t th e b e g in n in g o f th e
e ig h te e n th cen tu r y

T he c h a n g in g o f b o d ie s in to lig h t An d lig h t in to b o d ie s is v e r y c o n fo r m a b le to
th e c o u r s e o f N a w h ic h m s d e lig h te d w ith ı
ran sm u ta tio n s

Is a a c N e w to n : O p tic k s 17 0 4

T h e fo rm a lis m by w h ic h n u cı
e a r r e a c tio n s a r e in c o r p o ra te d in to th e s te lla r evo

lu tio n th e o r y g iv e n in S e c tio n 2 6 T h e p u r p o s e o f th e p n e s e n t c h a p te r is to
w as

e x a m in e in m o re d e ta il th e n u c le a r p r o c e s s e s th a t a r e b o u n d to ta k e p la c e in s t? s

a n d th e e n e rg y e a c h o f th e m c a n s u p p ı y

4 ı T h e b in d in g e n e rg y o f th e a t o m ic n u cı
eu s

T he e n e r g y r e le a s e d o r a b s o r b e d in a n u c le a r r e a c tio n b e in g a fr a c tio n o f th e
re s t m a s s e n e rg y f th e p a r tic le s in v o lv e d m a s s
o n o t sı r ic tly c o n s e r v e d th e
,
is
to ta l m a s s o f th e p r o d u c ts d ifĺ e r s s lig h tly fr o m th e to ta l m a s s o f th e r e a c ta n ts ,

th e d ifr e r e n c e d e p e n d in g o n th e b in d in g e n e r g ie s o f th e in te r a c tin g n u c le i A s w e

ha v e sæ n in S æ tio n 2 6 th e g e n e r a l d e s c ń p tio n
,
o f a n u c le a r r e a c ūo n is o f th e
fo r m (2 4 8 ) ,

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a s e le c tr o n
W n ow c a lc u la te th e to ta l r a te o f e n e r8 y r e le a se a t a g iv en p o in t in star
e m a y
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tim e is n in j R ijk f İ - J ,
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re į ,
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th e s ta r , w h ic h is tr a n s , gy bre ak u p
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u n d e rg o in c o n te x t \
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ą u is th e n e u tr in o e n e To th e b in
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m o l s tr o n g ly b o u n d
T h e n u c le a r s h e 1ım o d e l, s im a r
p h o to 11s Th e tĘ b y lecoming i th e s e p r o p e r tie s
h ll m o d e l o f th e a to m e x p la n s
in \tru n y \ţ s p c e ts to th c c le c tm n s e
,

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F o ľ o u r p u t p o s e s th c im p o r ta n
i F ig u r e 4 1 r e la t iv e to th e fr e e
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p e r n u c le o n w
,

f th e b in d in g
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t o n th c h y d m g e n n u c le u s
p m
l w m o n o to n ic
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l w ith itto m ic m a s s u p
e n ıJ w ' p e r n ï ıc e o n h o u gh
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c le o n (u n it m a s s ) c o n s
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t? le ı ıs c a la tg c a m o u
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f h e liu m in to c a r b o n E n e r g y m a y e g
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c o n te x t w e ıg n iz e th e ıs p
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n o s ta b le c o n fig u r a tio n s o r
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p o te n tia l 1
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o ,
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M e Jlia n v e lo c ity d is tr ib u tio n (E q u a tio n (3 14 )): th is th a t th e p r o b a b ilin
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[m g im g j /( g m i + m g j )] T h e c r o s s s e c ti it w as th
P ro d u c t P r e s e n ts a m o re d iffic u lt
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.

i Io tu k e p la c e in s ta ls s im p ly s ta ts
jt w a s th o u g h t im p o łiFilb lc lb r H u c H In te r w tio n ł
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a p p e a re d n o t to h ċ # u lĺ lc o n l y
n n rttio n ls h c y o n d th Ľ s c o p e o f th is te x t :
S\ı
A r ig o ro u N e x p ı
q u a n tu m m e c h Į tn le s
u m m e c h t\n le s th c lţ is t\ lìn ite (n o n v a n is n g )
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i l 1o p c n c lr t\[o ih e C o u h ì m h h a ľ ľ ie ľ z\s if i\ tu n n c r e x is te d
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,

tì o 11c e l, tllscovettl b y G e o rg e G ı ım o w in 19 2 8
to c a r ry il th ro u g h T h l» q tıu n tļ rı
lo u c llv l[ lti In tlo c Łl c n \lc u tu n n e llin g It Lv w w p tie d to
・ '

In c o n n e c tio n w ith Iļ m y,
tm tl \ t itz l u u t e m i a n s in 19 2 9
h y lĮ o h o r l A lk in s tm
g e n e r a tio n in H l111H
,
e n e r8 y

s o o n a lLe J its U itł c o v e ry

d i h i th u le a r
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c ro ss se c tio n s a t n e ig h b o u r in g e n e r g ie s
T h e ty p ic a l tim e s c a le o f a n u c le a r r e a c tio n is in v e r s e ly
p r o p o r tio n a l to the
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b y c o llis io n s w ith ty p e J n u c le i le a d in to r e a c ti
, g o n s o f th e fo r m (2 4 8 ), w o u ld
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ri - ĺn j R ijk )
T he e x tr e m e ly h ig h s e n s itiv ity o f n u c le a r r e a c tio n r a te s
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p n c e o f th e
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a tu r e o b ta in e d at

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th e y c o n s titu te a tw o p o in t b o u n d a r v a lu e b l
y p r o em w h ic h r e q u ir e s ite r a tio n s ,

fo r its s o lu tio n A n d y e t a g r e a t d e a l o f o u r u n d e r t d i
, s an n g o f s te lla r s tr u c tu r e
d a te s b a c k to th e e a r ly d e c a d e s o f th e tw e n tie th c e t
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s in c e n u c le a r
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ld b e a b le to te a m a g r e a t d e a l
w o u ld b e th e d p t o f th e s ta r W e s h o u
m o s t e v o lv e
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a b o u t th e e v o lu tio n o f a s ta r b y c o n s
id e r in g its c e n tr a l p o in t a lo n e T h is w ill b e
ń ti
th e s u b je c t o f C h a p te r 7 T h e s u r fa c e o f th e s ta r (th e g lo b a l s te lla r c h a r a c te s c s )
is im p o r ta n t fr o m a n e n tir e ly d iffe r e n t p o in t o f v ie w it is th e on ly ' p o in ť w h o s e
m o d e l d e r iv e d p r o p e r tie s c a n b e d ir e c tly c o m p a r e d w ith o b s e r v a tio n s In s o m e
T he s o lu tio n
c a se s g lo b a l q u a n titie s an d re la tio n s b e tw e e n th e m m ay be o b ta in e d , a s w e s h a ll

in C h a p te r 7 , ith o u t s o lv in g th e f s tr u c tu r e d iū o n s T he st
se e w se t o q u a tio
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titie s a s fu n

5 3 P o ly t r o p ic a c c e le r a tio n
m o de ı
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T h e firs t p a ir o f t l
s e la r s tr u c tu r e
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) (5 2 ), is lin k e d to th e s e c o n d
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p e n d e n c e o f p r e s s u r e o n te m e r a tu
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,

w e r e o n l a fu p r e If th e p r e s s u r e
y n c tio n o f d e n i
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S u b s titu tin g E q u a tio n (5 2 ) o n th e ń ght ha n d s id e w e o b ta in

六壬( ) - 4 ?r G p (5 9 ) °
°

W e n o w c o n s id e r e qu a tio n s o f s ta te o f th e fo ıu ı

P - K p v (5 10 )

w h e re K d y a re
an c o n s ta n ts ,
kn o w n as p o ly tro p ic e q u a tio n s o f s
la te It is cu s 0
to m t
a ry o d e fin e th e c o rre s p o n d in g p o ly tr o p ic in d e x d e n o te d b y n a s

D
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l tr o p ic
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h c a s e s la te r
,

C
e q u a tio n o f s ta e
t u n d e r c e r ta in c o n d t o n ;

on S u b s titu tin g E q u a tio n s (5

10 ) (5 1 1 ) in to (5 9 ) w e o a
b t in a s e c o n d o r d e r , 7
d iffe r e n tia l e q u a tio n

n d a ry c o n
r e q u ir e s tw o b o u
o < R c a lle p o ly tr o p e
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p (r ) fo
< r
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s u r fa c e (r
-
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d itio n T he se p im p lie s
h d r o s ta t ic e q u ilib ń u m
s a re =

O a t th e cen ? e (r = O ) s in c e y ,
ń e d by
an d d p /d r =
l tr o p e is u n iq u e ly d e n
tio 2 3) H e n c e a po y
o th e r e (s e e s e c
n
d p /d r =

r a v it a t io n a l
th e m a s s o r th e g
d iu su c h a s
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titie s a s fu n c tio n s o
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e 1
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l
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by d im i
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r = c￠ Ę (5 1 6 )

b ta in th e w e ll k n ow n
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n (5 14 ) ,
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L a n e E m d e n e q u a tio n o f in d e x n ,

d itio 0 1 d d 0 /d Ę = O at Ę 0 E q u a tio n
=
su b je c t to th e b o u n d a r y co n n s: = an

s ta r tin O ; fo r 11 5 th e s o lu tio n s o (Ę) a re fo u n d to

(5 17 )c a n b e in te g ra te d g a tş = < ,

d e c re a s e m o n o to n ic a lly an d hav e a z e ro a t a fin ite v a lu e Ę = ş ı w h ic h

,
c o r re s p o n ds

to th e s te lla r r a d iu s

R - a şl (5 18 )
E x am p le s o f s o lu tio n s (p /p c a s a fu n c ū o n o f r / R ), fo r n - 1 5 a n d n - 3 , a re
g iv e n in F ig u r e 5 1 A s s h o w n th e s tr u c tu r e o f a p o ly tro p e d e p e n d s o n ly o n n A
,

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a n a ly tic a lly fo (a ) n 0 d
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Exercise 2 S o lv e th e e r -

\ 1 d fin d 81 an d M (R ) in eac h c a se
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a tio n
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In la te r d is c u s s io n s w e s h a ll o fte n r e s o r t to ge n e ra s

T h e s e fo llo w ily fr o m
ltin g fr o m a p o ly tr o p ic q u a tio n o f s ta te
e as
p r o p e r tie s r e s u b ta in a
i b e tw e e n E q u a tio n s (5 1 8 ) a n d (5 2 0 ) w e o
E q u a tio ï ı(5 2 0 ) E lim in a t n g a
,

d e n s ity p
tr a l d e n s ity a n d th e a v e r a g e
lin e a r r e la tio n b e tw e e n th e c e n
,

fr o th e so lu tio n o f
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ly th e c o n s ta n t D
es
w h ic h is g e n e r a lly v a lid O n .

l ofn
o n th e v a u e
E q u a tio n (5 17 ) a n d d e p e n d s

ci r

U s in g E q u a tio n (5 2 0 ) a g a in
bu t n o w C t l ııı
e n th e
r e la tio n b e tw e
,

w e o b ta in a
E a ti o n (5 1 8 )
(5 15 ) a n d s u b s titu tin g (e fr o m s ta n ts M tı
A q u ,

s o f tw o c o n
e d in te r m
,

h b e e x p re s s
te d s te lla r m a s s a n d f a d iu s w h ci m a y
,

J \

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a

3 ,
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w u n iq u e r e la tio n b e tw e e n K a n d M E q u a tio n (5 2 4 ) d e r iv e d in ,

th e p r e v io u s s e c tio n R eam n g in g te r m s a n d in s e r tin g th e v a lu e s o f c o n s ta n ts w e ,

o b ta in

4 4
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2
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ic a lly w id e r a n g e o f m a s s e s W e n o te h o w e v e Ļ th a t o n ly fo r a r a th e r r e s tr ic te d ,

g e d o e s p d iffe r s ig n iń c a n tly fr o m u n ity (p u r e g a s p re s s u r e ) o r r o m z e ro (p u r e

r a īı f
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m a s s e s a s d e r iv e d fr o m o b s e r v a tio n s In E d d in g to n s o w n w o r d s
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a c lo u d bo d p la n e t ho ha s h e a r d te ll
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n

o f g lo b e s o f ga s o f v a r io u s s iz e s , s ta r tin g s a y w ith a g lo b e o f m a s s 10 g m
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th e n d s o th a t M s n th g ı o b e c o n ta in s 1 gm [ ]
10 0 g m ,
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T he s ta b ilit y o f s ta rs

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co n d itio n s r e q u ir e d fo r it to o p e r a te ?

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88 6 The s ta b ilit y o f s ta rs

F ig u re 6 1 illu s tr a tio n o f s ta b le (le ft) a n d u n s ta b le (r ig h t) e q u iı

ib r iu m s ta te s

6 ı Se c u ı
a r the rm a l s t a b ilit y

th e to ta l e n e rg y o f a s ta r in h y d r o s ta tic e q u ilib r iu m is g iv e n b y th e s u m o f th e
internal e n e rgy U an d th e g r a v ita tio n a l p o te n tia l e n e fg y Q a s w e ha v e
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C h a p te r 2 T h e s e a r e r e la te d b y th e v ir ia l th e o r e m ,
E q u a tio n (2 23)

3
ť dm = 口

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w e h a v e b y E q u a tio n

(3 4 4 )

an d c o n se qu en tly ,

E -
ģQ _ U (6 2 )

Fo r an id e a l g a s an d a n o n n e g lig ib le r a d ia tio n p r e s s u r e ,
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(3 2 8 ) (3 4 0 ) (3 4 4 ) a n
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P
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E _
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ligas 6 4)

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re th u s
ta d m a y
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E = L j
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c
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p e r tu r , 5 o th a t L
nue e x ce e d# . B y E q u ia io n (6 5 )
th e to ta l e n e r8 y w ill in c r e a s e (É > O ) a n d s in
,

, ce E is n e g a tiv e , it fn e a n » th a t
its a b s o lu te v a lu e w ill b e c o m e s m a lle r T h e r e fo r e b E
y q u a tio n (6 2 ) o r (6 A ), ,

th e a v e r a g e t e m p e r a tu r e w ill d e c r e a s e A t th e s a m e tim e th e s$ta r w ill e x a n d

p ,

th e a v e r a g e d e n s ity th u s d e c r e a s in g A s a r e s u lt th e (a v e r a e r M e o f n u c le a f
g ) ,

r e a c tio n s , w
h ic h is p r o p o f tio n a l to o s itiv e o w
p p e r s o f p a n d T , w ill s lo w d o w n

an d L nuc w l
i l d r o p T h e p e r tu r b a tio n w ill b e r e v e r s e d a n d th e r m a l e u ilib r iu m
q
w ill e v e n t u a ll y b e r e s t o r e d T h is th e r m o s ta , p f o v id e d b y th e v
t iń a l th e o re m , i￡
th e s ta b iliz in g m e c h a n is m b y w h ic h s ta r s a r e c a p a b le o f m a in ta in in g th e f ī n a l

equ ilib r iu m fo r su c h lo n g tim es S ta r s a re sa id to b e in a s ta te o f s e c u fa r s tů b iE ry

6 2 Ca se s o f th e r m a ıin s t a b iı
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T he c r u c ia l lin k in th e rg u m e n ts le a d in g to th e c o n c u s o
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l
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is t h th e rm a l s ta b ility s e c u f e d
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lie s to th e internal e n e r g y o f t e g
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h E q u a tio n (6 2 ) s till h o s ( ld o r a
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o f n o v a o u tb u r s ts (s e e C h a te r 1 1 )
p
T o b e tte r u n d e r s ta n d th e a
p p lic a tio n o f th e s ta b ility c r ite r io n , c o n s id e r a s t
ar
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e n tr a l
p r e s s u r e a n d d e n s ity a r e I e la te d b y

d P. 4 cĮ p c

八
一

3 (6 6 )
1o c

(s e e E q u a tio n (5 2 8 )) T h e r e s s u r e d e n s it a n d te m e r a tu
p y p , re a re lin k e d b y th e
e q u a tio n o f s t a te w h ic h m a y b e w r itte n in g e n e r a l fo r m a s
,

引队 山と 竺
一 a 十b . (6 7 )
凤 爪 孔
w h e re d b p o s itiv e coefficients C b in in g E q u a tio
a an a re o m n s (6 6 ) a n d (6 2 ) ,
w e
o b ta in

S o lo n g as a 4 /3 td p c /p c ] [d T c / T ] d he n tio
< ,
sgn = sg n ,
an c e c o n tr a c n (c a u s e d
by e n e rg y lo s s ) is p a n ie d b y h e a tin g , w h ile e x p a n s io n (c a u s e d b y e n e rg y
acco m

g a in ) is a c c o m p a n ie d b y c o o lin g a s r e q u ir e d fo r s ta b ilit
, y T h is is th e c a s e fo r
id e a l g a s e s w ,
h e re a = b 1 F o r d e g e n e r a te m a te r ia l o n th e o th e r h a n d a
=
4 /3 , ,

an d O < b « 1 T hu
s d p c /p c a n d d l c / h a v e o p p o s ite s ig n s T h is m e a n s th a t
ex pan i
s o n w h ic h w o u ld r e s u lt fr o m a n in c r e a s e in internal e n e r
,
g y w o u ld b e ,

ac co m p a n ie d b y a (s m a ll) r is e in te m p e r a tu r e , th a t in tu m w o u ld le a d to a fu r th e r
en ha n cem en t o f L n c
u
S u c h a s itu a tio n is o b v io u s ly u n s ta b le B u t s in c e th e te m
p e r a tu r e r is e s a s th e g a s e x p a n d s th e g a s m a y g r a d u a lly b e c o m, e id e a l (in te r m s o f
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in w
c a se s ta b ility w ill b e r e s to r e d W e n o in p a s s in g th a t g e n e r a liz in g E q u a tio n
te , , ,

(6 8 ) ,
a dege n e r a te s ta r th a t lo s e s e n e r g y is e x p e c te d to c o n tr a c t a n d c o o l u n lik e
,

an id e a l g a s o n e

T h e t h in s h e ll in s t a b ilit y

C o n s id e r a th in she ll o f m a ss A m te m p e r a tu r e T d d e n s ity p w ith in a s ta r

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7 I Cha ra c t e r iz a t io n o f t h e (lo g T lo g p ) la
p , n e

T he (T , p ) p la n e w ill b e d iv id e d in to zo n e s do m in a te d b y d ifr e r e n t e q u a tio n s o f

s ta te a n d d iffe r e n t n u c le a r p ro c e sse s O f p a r tic u la r in te r e s t w ill b e th o s e r e g io n s
h e r e th e d itio bo d to le a d to d y n a m ic a l in s ta b ility A s th e r a n
w co n n s a re u n
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d e n s ity a n d te m p e r a tu r e ty p ic a l o f s te lla r in te ń o r s s p a n m an y o rd e r s o fm a g n itu d e ,

lo g a r ith m ic s c a le s w ill b e u s e d fo r b o th

Zo n es o f th e e q u a t io n o f s ta t e

T h e fo llo in g en ts a re b a se d o n o f C h a p te r 3 a n d le a d to
th e m a te ńal
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d s te a r g a s is th a t o f a n id e a l g a s
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th e n b e a p p r o x im a te d b y
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o r b y th e C N O c y c le , h e liu m ,

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a re l tt
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In m o st o f th e c a se s m - 1 an d n > 1 ,
an d he n ce th e (n e g a tiv e ) s lo p e in
l
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s o s te e ,

d d e fin e d b y E q u a tio n (7 10 ) s h o u ld b e a s tr a ig h t lin e in r e a lity th e

th e th r e s h o ı ,

v a lu e s o f th e p o w e r s in E u a tio n (7 9 ) c h a n e s li h tl fo r d iffe r e n t te m
q g g y p e ra tu re
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F o r h y d r o g e n burning th e s lo e is m ild e r a t l
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,

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R\ re 7 2 M a p p in g o f th e te m p e r a tu r e ?
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伍
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く
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ll fi
a m íc a l s ta b ility is y a > 4 /3 (S e c tio n 6 3 ) W e th u s e x p e c t s te a r c o n \ r a o n s
ti ロ
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, e n e ra c y zo n e m a n d o f th e r a d ia tio n p r e s s u r ,
、

飞
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Ya te n d s a s y m p to tic a lly to 4 /
o ,

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tń c te d r e g io n s
e re y a < 4 /3 A s w e a r e d e a n g
li ,

i lie o u ts id e th e
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it th a t w e c o n s id e r P a r p r o ,

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tr 4 /3 , a ï i s h o w n in F ig u r e 7 3 \
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Lo g [T (K )]

f th e b le d u n s ta b le z o n e s in th e te m p e ı ıtu r e d e n s ity d ia g r a m
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n u c le a r burning o re

th e b o u n d a ry in to th e d e g e n e ra c y z o n e II

7 2 The e v o lu t io n a ry p a th o f th e ce n t r a l p o in t o f a s t a r in t h e
(lo g T ìo g p , ) pı
a n e

H a v in g be c o m e a c q u a in te (lo g T ìo g p ) p la n e , th e q u e s tio n w e n o w
d w ith th e ,

a sk is w h e th e r th e c e n tr e f
f g iv e n m a s s M m a y a s s u m e a n
s ta r o
y c o m bi
o a

n a tio n o f te m p e r a tu r e a n d d e n s it
y v a lu e s , th a t is , m a y b e fo u n d a n y w ı ıe r e in
th is p la n e o r w h e th e r th e s e v a lu e
s a ľ e in s o m e w a
y c o n s tr a in e d b y M W e now
r e g a r d th e (lo
g T lo g p ) p la n e a s a (lo g T t lo g p ) la n e r e f
p e iT in g to th e s te l
,
c ,
la r c e n tr e A s s u m in a ,

g p o ly tr o p ic c o n fig u r a tio n (E q u a tio n 5 10

h y d r o s ta tic e u ilib r iu ( )) fo r a s ta r in
q m , th e c e n tr a l d e n s it
y is r e la te d to th e c e n tr a l p r e s s u r e b y
E q u a tio n (5 2 8 )
,

Pc =
(4 Ĵ r )" 3 B . G M 2 /3
y3 1 1)
p (7
T h is r e la t o n i is on ly w e a kl d e p e n d e n t o n th
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e s p e c ia ı fo r
r , w h ic h n v a r ie s b ,

e tw e e n 15 an d 3 (s e e S e c tio n 6 6 ) ,
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su c H a s e l
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ton ( e c tio n 6 6
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o p ic s c a le
,

) A lth o u g h ,
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 L o g [ï (K )]

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c ir c u m
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b n d e to n a tio n th a t is bo u n d to h a v e ly s m ic c o n s e q u e n c e s S u c h a
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s o n e s a n d m o r e m a s s iv e
n m o r
p u rs u e
tw o ty p e s o f w
h ite d w a r fs : lo w m a s
tin g u is h e s b e t w e e n h th e c o n n e c tio n b e tw e e n
h t o ty p e s d iffe r n
i c o m p o s itio n a lth o u g ,
s ; a l s o t e w
f th e in te r io r is d e b a ta b le W n e r e d o
o n e
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e s s th a t th e y s h o u
ld b e a s s o c ia te d w ith
r e d g ia n ts fit in to
th is p ic tu r e ? M a y w e g u
h th e c o r e c o n tr a c ts
th a t p h a s e o f e v o Į u tio n o
f llo w in g h y d r o g e n e x h a u s tio n w e n ,

to w a r d th e n e x t c o r e burning e p
is o d e ? T h is p u z z lin g q u e s tio n w ill b e a d d r e s s e d
s h o r tly (S e c ū o n 7 5 )
F in a lly o b se rv e d s te lla r e x p lo s io n s su pe m o va e are o f tw o d is tin ct ty p e s
,

te r m e d fy p e I a n d fy p e ı[ w ,
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a s s o c ia te o n e ty p e w ith c a rbo n d e to n a tio n a n d th e o th e r w ith ir o n p h o to d is in te

g r a tio n B y a n a ly s in g in m o r e d e ta il th e p r o p e r tie s o f e a c h o b s e r v a tio n a lly a s
,

w e ll a s th e o r e tic a lly w e s h a ll s h o w in C h a t
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,

th e lu m in o s ity a n d th e f y
e f ec tiv e te m a n a
p e r a tu r e o f a g r o u o f s ta ľ s c a lle d a c c o r d in
p ,

h 自自 由

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c e s ta r s a r e th o s e s ta r s th a t b u m h y d r o g e n in th e ir c o re s , th e ir c e n tre s ly in g
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th e ty p e (7
14 ) e x is ts a n d a n a d d itio n a l o n e b e tw e e n m a s s a n d lu m in o s ity , lik e
i n
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T h u s Ħu x es at a g iv e n fr a c tio n a l m a ss in s ta r s o f d ifr e r e n t m a s s e s r e la te a s th e
c u b e o f th e m a s s r a tio Fo r ex am
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e s a s ta r o f lO M o
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3
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m an m a s s , to be c o m p a re d w ith
th a t d e r iv e d o b s e r v a tio n a ll fo r m a in s e u e n c e t
y q s ars (s e e b e lo w ) W e re c a lıth a t a
s im ila r r e la tio n e m e d f th i le s ta n d a rd m
rg e r o m e s m p o d e l d is c u d in C h a p te r 5
s se
If w e r e ta in th e de pe n de n r e la tio n ll th e n
ce o n II as w e , (7 3 4 ) im p lie s L o c M 3 R 4
C o m b in in g E q u a tio n s (7 3 4 ) a n d (7 3 2 ) a n d s u b s titu tin E
g qu a tio n s (7 2 8) 47 3 0 )
y ie ld s th e d e p e n d e n c e o f R . o n th e m a s s M in th e fo r m

R . oc MÎ , (7 3 6 )
w h ic h r e la te s r a
d ii c o r re s p o n d in g to a g iv e n fr a c tio n a ım a s s in s ta r s o f d ifre r e n t
m a sse s T h is h o ld s in p a r tic u la r fo r x
,
1 th a t is fo r th e s te lla r r a d iu s R H e n c e
,
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,

or a la r g e /ı s u c h a s n H 1 6 c o rr e s o n d in to C N O c c ı
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a d iu s w ill b e Fo r n 4 th a t a p p r o x im
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Tc Z Tm in

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liu m burning w e fin d h v o burning s h e lls w h e te D in te r s e c ts th e h e liu m burning
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d s id e o f E q u a tio n (8 0 ) v a n s h e s , 2 i
S in p o in t w h e r e u
c e a t th e
-

k ts o n th e r ig h t h a n d
a n d s in c e o b v io u s ly u O th e r e , th e te r m in s q u a r e b r a c e

s id e m u s t v a n is h a s w e ll T h is c o n
d itio n s e r v e s to d e te r m in e th e p o in t r c , w h e re
fi h e r ic a l s u r fa c e
u - u k n o w n a s th e c r itic a l p o in t, w h ic h in o u r c a s e d e n e s a s p
s l

o f r a d iu s Tc

Ex e r c is e 8 I A s su m in g th e te m p e r a tu r e to b e u n ifo r m in th e flo w ' " o n

ev (d e n o te d
b y To ) fin d th e
,
c ń tic a l r a d iu s rc F in d th e r e la tio n b e tw een th e s o u n d s p e e d a n d
th e e sc a pe v e lo c ity a t Tc

8 3 S o lu t io n s to t h e w in d e u a t io n s
q t h e is o t h e rm a ıc a s e

ln o rd e r to g a in
in s ig h t in to th e
so m e
p r o p e r tie s o f s te lla r w in d s a v o id
in g a t th e s a m e tim e n u m e r ic a l c ,

o m p lic a tio n s
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fo r m o f th e w in d e q u a tio n s fo
r w h ic h th e
s o lu tio n s c a n b e
d e s c r ib e d T h e c o n c lu s io n s r e la tiv e ly e a s ily
w ill b e q u a lita tiv e l
c a se s
y v a lid fo r m o r e c o m p lic a te d

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p e r a tu r e fo r a n o u t at
a ra d iu s r o , th u s d e s c r ib in
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g a n is o th e r m a l s te lt
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( 7 ) F o r a n id e
8 ,
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2 TZ T
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e x p ￠e ** T in ıen11
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ce s ı
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m
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(8 2 3 )
s o lv e d fo r u (r ) a n d p (r )
m lw w h e re

G M
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s th e p o in t a t w h ic h th e r ig ht ha n d s id e o f E q u a tio n (8 2 3 ) he
n (8 2 3 ) is in d e p e n d e n
v am
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l c o n s ta n t sa
y p (r o ) = Po W e sha ın o
ı w sho w th a t th is s o lu tio n 1
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o n e F M
o uo , o r e q u iv a le n tly fo r w h ic h
v s rc ıl s o u tio
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es

r 2
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X 三 an d y 三 (8 2 5
ıC U s

te r m s o f w h ic h E q u a tio n (8 2 3 ) b e c o m es

T h e fa m ily o f s o lu tio n s is d e te r m in e d b y th e in itia l v a ıu e s o f y ; th e v a r io u s c la s s e s

o f s o lu tio n s a r e s h o w n in F g u r e
i 8 3 W e a s s u m e th a t th e o u te r la y e r o f th e s ta r

w h e re th e m a s s flo w o c c u r s (o r th e w in d is g e n e r a te d ) is tig h tly b o u n

d to th e ,

b a s e f o o f th is re g io n liesc » u . » oo an d th e re fo re
s ta r, w h ic h m e a n s th a t a t th e

in te g r a tio n o f E q u a tio n (8 2 6 ) a t so m e x < 1 an d

fo < fc H en ce w e s ta r t th e
i fy
ı he s u n ity
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i l E qu a ı ly
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2 o f F ig u r e 8 3 w h ic h is u n p h y s c a
u n p h s ic a l a r e th e s o lu tio n s in r e g io n 4 o
f th e fig u r e If o n th e o th e r h a n d x ,

y
i m at x - 1 w h ic h m e i\n s
re a c h e s u n it h e n y (x ) h a s a m a x m u
y b e f e y do e s, t
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p
u tio n s iıp p e ł g in F ig u r e 8 3 th a t
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th e b u s e o f t
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c o rr e s
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Fig u re 8 3 T he n o m i a liz e d is o th e r m a l w in d s o lu tio n s T he c ir c ı

e m a rk s th e s o n ic p o in t

T he u n iq u e v ia b le s o lu tio n is h ig h lig h te d in b o ld

lo w v a lu e s Re a c h u n ity s im u lta n e o u s ly , w h ic h m e a n s th a t u (r ) p a s s e s th r o u g h th e

p o in t (f c ,
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ıı b s o n ic b e lo w rc a n d su p e r s o n ic a bo v e

iL
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m a s s lo s s r a te is o b ta in e d a s Jii _ 4 rr r p o u o (T M ) T h e r e s u ltin g d e n s ity p r o file

ŝ ,

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fr o m E q u a tio n (8 17 ) A lte r n a tiv e ly , w e m a d is

c a r d E q u a tio n (8 1 7 ) a n d o
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h e a t flu x a s th e s o lu tio n o f E q u a tio

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M [ģ(u (r )2 u
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,

th a t in o r
d e r to m a in ta in a n is o th e r m a l w i
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flo w a lo n g t h e w a y A s r in c r e a s e s u in c r e
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te r m w il l m o n o t o n ic a ı ı i
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ly b e c o m e p o s itiv e ) T h u s
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i
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y

Ex e r c is e 8 2 A p o ly tr o p ic w in d is d e ń n e d b y th e a ssu m p tio n

P _ K pv ,

w h e re K is a c o n s ta n t H e n c e

1
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冗
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th a t o b ta in e d fo r a n is o th e r m a l w in d ,
w ith th e is o th e r m al so u n d sp e e d re p la c e d
by

11s =

(b ) S h o w th a t fo r y - 5 /3 , o n e o b ta in s F - c o n s ta n t, w h ic h m e a n s th a t th e flo w

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s p c c tr tıın w o m ny u e W ie n '
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, , ra d i ua
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c s s ıe ı tio n y (x F E q u a tio n 8 ) th c so ı
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p p ep ı /ı a n d i
ts
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Ķ tc llu ı ılld ia tio n is e

m itte d in to s p a c e T h u s th e r e la tio n
,

, -
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u se D ils th cdcinition o F th c p h o to s p h e r ic r a d iu s R ill s u p p ly p (R ) T h e d e n i

w
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sho w n in F ig u r e 8 4 fo r s e v e ra l
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v a lu e s o f th c s o ı a r w in d , A i . 2 3 × 10 " M 1
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w e r e th e s e c o n d te ľ m o n th e r ig h t h a n d s id e v a n is h in g ly s m a ll T h is te r m v a n

is h e s w h e n th e r a d ia tio n flu x a
p p r o a c h e s th e E d d in g to n lim itin g flu x th a t i , s,
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b y W illia m M c c r e a a s e a r ly a s 19 3 7 in th e c o n te x t o f n o v
, a o u tb u r s ts w h ic h ,

w e s h a ll e n c o u n te r in C h a te r 1 1 T h e id e a w
p a s la te r p u r s u e d in a v a s t n u m b e r
o f a n a ly tic a l a n d n u m e r ic a l s tu d ie s o f s te a d
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c le a r tim e s c a le o f th e s ta r a n d sh o w
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th a t, u s u a tı
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9 I T h e H a ya s h i z o n e a n d th e p re m a in se qu e n ce pha se

C h a p te r 7 d e a lt w ith th e e v o lu tio n o f s ta r s b y fo llo w in g th e a th o f th e s te lla r

p
c e n tr e in
th e (lo g T lo g p ) p la n e T h e
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s u r fa c e
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H R d ia g r a m In th e (lo g T lo g p ) p la n e w e fo u n d z o n e s o f in s ta b ilit w h ic h
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ha v e c o n s tr a in e d th e ev o lu tio n a ry p a th s o f s ta r s W e s h a ll n o w sho w th a t th e

(lo g T e ff lo g L ) p la n e h a s its fo r b id d e n z o n e ' It is k n o w n a s th e H ya sh i

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6 w e s h o w e d th a t in a c o n v e c tiv e z o n e
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th e te m p e r a tu r e g r a d ie n t is v e r y c o
l s e ly a d ia b a tic O n th e o n e h a n ,

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c o n v e c tiv e s ta r a s a p o ly tr o p e o

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p = K p
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4 Jr R 2 c r Tr T h e o p tic a l d e p th o f th e p h o to s p h e r e is o i th c o rd e r o l u n ity (s e c
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e ll fr o m F ig u r e 3
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o b ta in f M s h iftin g
=

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d ifte r e n t s e
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A > O a g e r
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t r e in c r e a s e s ı
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re c a ll t h a t i n t e ,

l th e s lo p e
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w h ic h , in tu m is s e p a r a te d fr o m
, th e h y d r o g e n r ic h
e n v e lo p e b
y th e h y d r o g e n burning s h e ll H e liu m
th e C 0 c o r e b o u n d a r
burning c o n tin u e s in a s h e ı1 a t
y E v o lu t io n a r y p a th s in th e H R d ia g r a m u p to h e liu m
burning n a s h e ll a r e tr a c e d in F ig u r e 9 9 fo r s ta r f
s o d iffe r e n t m a s s e s a n d
th e c h a r a c te r is tic tim e in te ,
r v a ls a r e lis te d in T
a b le 9 4 A c o m p a r is o n b e tw e e n
th e o r y a n d o b s e r v a tio n s is
m a d e p o s s ib le b
y v a r y in g th e s h a d e o f th e a th s m
F ig u r e 9 9 in p r o p o r tio n to th e l p
e n g th o f tim e s
p e n t a n d h e n c e to th e n u m b e r o f
s ta r s e x p e c te d to b e o b s e r v d
e in e a c h p h a s e A
m o n g c o r e h e liu
th o s e o b s e r v e d m e m burning s ta r s ,

p r e d o m in a n tly th e lo w m a s s
bra n c h
o n e s
p o p u la ū n g th e h o r iz o n ta l

9 6 The rm a lpu ı
.
se s a n d th e asym p t o t ic g ia n t b ra n c h
T he c arbo n o x yge n
'
c o r e s e v o lu tio n a r c o u
y rse a n d
its ila r
to th e h e liu c o n se qu e n c e s a r e s in ı
D
'
m c o re s ev o id o fen
e rgy so u rc
e s , th e c o r e
a r e s u lt , th e e n v e lo c o n tr a c ts a n d h e a ts u p a s
p e e x p a n d s a n d c o o ls
, a n d c o n v e bo u t
it A s th e in n e r b o u n d a r c tio n s e ts in a in tĺ ? o u g
y o f th e c o n v e c tiv e
a g
e n v e lo e u te r
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n g u is h e d h
y dro g e n te ria l
m a in ly h e liu m a n d n itr o e
g n , is o n c e m o r e d
burning s h e ll , p ro c e sse d m a
,

re d g e d u
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 Lo g (Ħ )

e r e n t in itia l
l
R d ia g r a 】n fo r s ta r s o f dÀ iff
4r ◆ t e mm aa sc sc pe sç
re 9 9 E vo lu tio n a fy p a th s in th e H
ll T h e sha de o f th e se gm e n ts is
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a r ke d ) u p tjo th e s ta ge o f h e liu m
5
» m le s s th a n 10 y r (lig h t) to m o
re
"
f th e tim e s pe n
h p h a s e r a n g in g o
t in eac ,
e o
h e s in d ic a te d b y n u m b e r s
4 T h e d iffe r e n t p a s
,

i T b l 9 ,

Op y f (d a r k ) a s g iv e n n a e
h ic k s h e ll
5 h y d ro g e n burning in t
,

ll c o n tr a c tio n ; 3
Ł m a in s e q u e n c e 2 3 , o v e r a
iu m burning 8 9 e n v e lo p e
b ra n c h ; 7
10 c o re h e ı ,

l n a m m H in g 6 , 7 re d g i m t ,

eł A s lıu p lłv s 5 )
A n n R e v A s tn m
.

J ( ] 9 6 7 )
a io n (a ? p te d fr o m I Ib e
n r ,

'
s ta r s s p e c
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a rs in th e ,

l m e n ts a p p e e x p a n d in g s ta r
g n a tu r e o f th e s e e e its d e e p in te r
io r T h e
i
s to th e p r o c e s s e s ta
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th e c o r e p ıu ıic g ia n t
Iıa s b e ein te f r u p te d b y
n is ca lle d th e u s tm ı
o c o re s ,
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b r a n c h p o p u la te d b y s ta r s
,

b r b id d e n
f th e H a y a s h i
zo n e

he bo u n d a ry o
re s a t t
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f 6M o de l s ta r fr o m th e m a in
s tr u c tu r e o a o m
F ig u re 9 1o E v o lu tio n o f th e in te r io r
burning a n d sha de d o n e s con
in d ic a te n u c le a r
h e D a rk a r e a s
se q u e n c e to th e A G B p a s
S h a v iv (1 9 8 0 ) A s tr o n A s tn o p h y s 8 8)
D P r ia ln ik d G
v e c tiv e z o n e s (iĮ d a p te d fr o m
an ,

N o te th e o c c a s io n a l c h a n g e s in tim e sc a ı
e

H e n c e s ta r s in th is p h a s e o f e v o lu tio n (k n o w n a s A G B s ta r s ) a r e e v e n b ig g e r th a n
th e fo rm e r re d g ia n ts th e y a r e n o w b e c o m in g s u p e rg ia ııts C o o lin g o f th e la y e r s

a bo v e th e C 0 c o r e e x tin g u is h e s th e h y d r o g e n burning s h e ll t e m p o r a r ily ; it w ill

;e ig n ite la te r on ,
a fte r e n v e lo p e e x p a n s io n w ill c o m e to a h a lt C o n tr a c tio n o f th e

c o r e r a is e s th e d e n s ity u p to th e p o in t w h e n e le c tr o n s b e c o m e d e g e n e r a te a n d s in c e ,

d e g e n e r a te m a tte r is a n e ffic ie n t h e a t c o n d u c to r th e c o r e b e c o m e s is o th e r m a l A n
,

illu s tr a tio n o f th e internal e v o lu tio n o f a 6 M s ta r fr o m th e m a in s e u e n c e u to

o q p
th e o n s e t o f th e as y m p to tic g ia n t p h a s e is g iv e n in F ig u r e 9 1 0 c h a n g in g burning
z o n e s, c o n v ec tiv e z o n e s a n d b o u n d a r ie s b e tw e e
n r e g io n s o f d iffe r e n t c o m
p o s itio n
a re m a rk e d T he r e m a r k a b ly d iffe r e n t e v o l
u tio n a r y tim e s c a le s a r e
p a r tic u la r ly
n o te w o r th y

T h e re a r e th r e e o u ts ta n d in g c h a r a c te r is tic s fo r A G B s ta r s

1 N u c le a r burning ta k e s p la c e in tw o s h e lls a th e r m a ll u n s ta b le c o n ń g u
r a tio n le a d in g to lo n g s e r ie s o f
a
y
tlie n ?ta l
2 T h e lu m in o s it is u n i p u ls e s
y q u e ly d e t e r m in e d b
th e to ta l m a s s o f th y th e c o r e m a s s in d e e n d im ttıyot
e s ta r p ,

3 A s tr o n g s te lla r w i
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p s a s a r e s u lt o f
th e e n v e lo e th e th e h i h r a d i ti in
p s t a r th u s l g a o n p re s su r e
o s in
,

g a s ig n ific a n t f
r ac tio n o f its m a s s

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 9 6 T he rm a ıp u ı
se s a n d th e
y y m p t o t ic ia
g n t b ra n c h ı7 ı
ll n o w a d d re ss e ac h
w e sh a s t ic in
c h a i a c te r i
11 1 o r e d t
e a il T h e t
s u p p ly y d u r in g th e a s m
e n e rg w o b u r n in g s h e ı ls
th a t y p to tic ia n t
g p h
e x te r n a l s h e ll a t a s e
er T
he th e b o tt
a r e s e p a r a te d b
y a h e liu m
ay o m ,
o f th e h d
th i i y r o g e n r ic h e n v e lo e bu rn s
hyd ro g
e n u s,
n c r e a s n g th e h e liu m ı a y e r 's m
p ,

a s s T h e in te
b u 】7 1 s h e liu m th u s e a tin r n l
a s e h ll o n to p th e
C o c o re , g in to th e h e liu m l
,
,

a y e r a n d b u ild in
In p r in c ip le a s te a d g u p th e
c o c o re y s ta te c o u ld b e
,

a c h ie v e d w ith th e tw o b u r n in
n c in g o u tw a r d a t th e s g
lro n ts a d v a
,
a m e r a te H
o w e v e r th e r e a t d iffė r e n c e s b e tw e e n
g
n u c le a r b u r n in g p r o c e s s e s d
,

th e tw o o n o t a llo w
s u c H a s te a d
y s ta te to d e v e ı o p
it h a p p e n s , th e tw o s h e lls d o n o t
A s su ppl e n e
y r g y c o n c o m ita n tl
y b u t in tu r n
in a c y c lic p
r o c e s s a n d th e m a s s
,

, o f th e h e liu la y e r s e p a r a tin g th e m c h a n g e s
m
d ic a lly
p e r io
Ū

D u r in g m o st o f th e c y c le
'
du r a tio n
s h y d r o g e n is burnt in th e external s h e ll ,

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w
y p g
in W ith
g ro w s m a ss n o e n e rg y s u
p p ly , th is la y e r c o n tr a c ts a n d h e a ts u p u n til th e
at its b be c o ffic ie n tly h ig h fo r h e liu m to ig n ite H e liu m
te m p e f a tu r e a se m e s su

burning n th is th in she ll is th e r m a lly u n s ta b le a s e x la in e d in S e c tio n 6 2 it

, p
re s e m b le s th e h e ı
iu m fla s h th a t ta k e s p la c e in th e e le c tr o n d e e n e r a te c o r e s o f
g
lo w m a s s s ta r s a t th e tip o f th e g ia n t b r a n c h A t th e p e a k o f th e s h o r t liv e d fla s h

th e n u c le a r e n e r g y g e n e ra tio n r a te re a c h e s 10 8 L o T he e n e rg y is a b s o r b e d b y th e
h h d ro g e n
o v e r ly in g la y e r s w h ic h e x p a n d a n d c o o l A s th e s e la y e r s c o n ta in t e y
,

n s u in g
burning s h e ll th e r a te o f h y d r o g e n burning q u ic k ly d e c lin e s D u ń n g a n e
,

h h h li s h e ll
s h o r t p e r io d o f tim e
th e h e liu m burning fr o n t a d v a n c e s th r o u g
,
t e e u m ,

e x tin c t
u m in g h e liu m in to c a r b o n a n d o x y g e n u n til it c a tc h e s u p w ith th e n o w ,

d ro g e n she ll
i f
h h e liu m burning s h e ll le a d to a c h a n o
T h e h ig h te m p e r a tu r e s a tta in e d in t e
o f th e s e n e u tr o n s
b y tr a c e s o f h e a v y
n e u tr o n s C a p tu r e
e a c ū o n s th a t p r o d u c e s
th e c r e a tio n o f tr a n s ir o n s o
i to p e s
e m e n t s th a t a r e p r e s e n
t in th e s h e ll le a d s to
tio n 4 8
b v th e s p r o c e s s e x p la in e d in S e c i n ite
h l i burning fr o n t c a u s e s th e h y d r o g e n to r e g
i
T h e p r o x im ty o f th e h o t e u m
h ll is s ta b le
e m p e r a tu r e
h y ? o g e n burning in a s e
D u e to its le s s e r s e n s i t iv i ty to t ,

th e r m a l e q u il
ib ń u m A t th e s a m e tim e ,

d d ity a d ju s t in to
T h e te m p e r a tu r e a n e n s
te m p e r a tu r e n o w
e la tiv e ly lo w
u lt o f th e r
s h e d a s a re s
um burning q u e n c
i in ity T h u s a n e w c y c
le b e g in s
h l l a n d its v c
r e \ a ilin g in th e h y d r o g e n
burning s e
a 5 /ıe ll l a s h , is
l l k n o w n a ls o a s
u ls e c y c e ,
h m a p
h e e v o lu tio n th r o u g h o u t a t th e d r e d g e u p o f
e r
p l n o te w o r th y is
a r tic u la r y
9 1 1
o w n s c h e m a tic a lly in F g
i u re i e r b o u n d a ry o f
e n v e lo p e
b y th e m o v in g n n
c tiv e
c e s s e d m a te f ia l in to th e
co n v e

w e e n hu n
d r e d s to th o u s a n d s
io d s v a fy b e t
c a u se t
he pe r
b o n o x y g e n c o re
e se c a n n o t b e o b s e r v e d b e th o f th e c a r
le i s th e g ro w
lt o f e a c h c y
c
e a r s T h e la s tin g r e s u

s ity o f a n
A G B s ta r w ith a c o r e
th e lu m in o
w th a t f h e liu m
v o lu tio n a r y c a lc u la
tio n s s h o w e ll p a s
t th e o n s e t o
ta r is now
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 b

F ig u re 9 ıI S k e tc h o f th e p r o g r e s s o f a th e r m a l p u ls e c y c le th r o u g h it s d iffe r e n t s ta g e s

(n o t in s c a le ) H y? o g e n is burning d u r in g s ta g e s a a n d d ,
w h ile h e liu m is burning d u ń n g
th e o u te r c o n v e c tiv e z o n e e x te n d s in w ard b e y o n d th e
s ta ge s b an d c W n en ,
in s ta ge c ,

h e liu m burning s h e ll s '

b o u n d a ry , h y ? o ge n an d h e liu m burning p r o d u c ts a re m ix e d in to
th e e n v e lo pe an d d re d g e d u p to th e s u r fa c e S ta g e a
'
is th e sa m e as a ,
ex ce p t th a t th e
c arbo n o x yge n c o re ha s g ro w n at th e e x p e n s e o f th e e n v e lo p e

burning is q u ite a c c u r a te ly re p r e s e n te d b y th e fo llo w in g r e la tio n

- 6 × 10 4
( 0 5 , (9 2 6 )

r e g a r d le s s o f th e s te lla r m a ss, a s w a s ń r s t p o in te d o ut by B o h d a n P a c z y ń s k i in
19 7 1 W e n o te th a t th is lu m in o s ity is o f th e o r d e r o f th e E d d in g to n lu in o s ity
m
4
L /L o - 3 2 × 10 M /M o (s e e S e c tio n 5 5 ) T h u s s ta r s o f th e sam e c o re m a ss
fo th e s a m e h e ig h t o n th e a s y m
d at
p to tic g ia n t b r a n c h in th e H R d ia g r a m
are u n
,

r e g a r d le s s o f th e ir e n v e lo e m a s s S ta r s r e a h th
p c e a s y m p to tic
g ia n t b r a n c h a t
d iffe r e n t p o in ts , d e p e n d in g o n th e m a s s o f th e c
o r e a t th e e n d o f th e c e n tra l
h e liu m burning s ta g e T h e y c lim b u th e b r a n h
p c , a s th e c o r e c o n tin u e s to
gro w
d u r in g th e th e r m a l p u ls e s s ta e A t th e s a
g m e tim e th e e n v e lo d e c re a s e s
pe m a ss ,

n o t o n ly a t th e e x pen se o f th , bu t
c o re
ly b e c a u s eg ro w
m a s s lo s s a t th e m a in o f
s u r fa c e H e n c e th e p o in t a t w h ic h
a s ta r le a v e s th e a s
y m p to tic g ia n t b r a n c h is
d e te r m in e d b y th e m a s s o f th e e n v e lo
p a th e e n d o f c o r e h e liu m burning a iıd b y
e t
th e in te n s ity o f th e s te lla r w in d T h i
s b r in g s u s to th e h i
t r d c h a r a c te ń s tic of A G B
s ta r s

T he o u te r la
y e r s o f g ia n t a n d s u p e r g ia n t s ta r s
a r e s u f fic ie n tl c o o l fo r a to m s to
c o a le s c e in to m o le c u le s a n d y
m o le c u le s in to ti
n y d u s t a r tic le
p s It is th e s e p a r tic le s
th a t a r e a c c e le r a te d b
y th e ra d ia tio n p re s s u re th
a t d r iv e s th e s te lla r w in d (s e e
S e c tio n 8 5 ) H O W e v e th e n a tu
re o f su c H
p a r tic le s a n d t h in te r a c tio n s in v o lv e d
a r e e x tr e m e ly d iffic u lt to c l
a c u la te a n d th
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p o in t th e s te lla r e v o lu tio n
,
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 9 7 The su ı
p e rw n d a n d th・ ı
p ın e ta r y n e b u ı
a phm e ı7 3

o n tin u eits p u r s u it o f th
or d e r to c e chan
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n d s u p e g ia n ts r e v e a l th a t th e
r s ta r s o b s e r v a t io n s o f r e d
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M o p e r y e a r M a s s lo s s is e n e a
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yp w

A s te lla r in d th a t m
1 w
y b e d e s c r ib e d b a
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R e im e r s lin k in g th e s te lla r m a s s
,
r a «liu s a n d \
th e fo r n i (8 3 1 ) th c c o n s ta n t b e i
u m in o s it
y b y a r e la tio n o f ,
,
n g d e te r m in d f
e ro m o b s e r v a tio n s o v e r a
w id e r a n g e o f s te lla r p a r a m e te rs

'
M o yr (9 2 7 )
L o R M
o

r y p ic a l w in d r a te s a r e o f th e o rd e r o f 10 6
M ı
yr o ,
w h ic h fo r c h a r a c te r
is ū c M L an d R v a lu e s im p ly ￠ 1 in E q u a tio
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-
n (8 3 1) th a t is, ,
a h ig h
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2 A rw in d , e s s e n tia lly a s tr o n
su pe ge r w in d le a d in g to
, a c o n c e n tr a tio n o f th e
s te lla r e je c ta in a n o b s e r v a b ı
e s h e lıs u rT o u n d in g th e ce n tr a l s ta r

9 7 The su pe rw in d a n d th e p ı
a n e ta r y n e a pha
bu ı se

1 e e x is te n c e o f th e p e r w in d is im p o s e d b y tw o d iffe r e n t a n d in d e p e n d e n t
su

d h ll fo r m e d b y th e
b s e r v a tio n s : fir s t, th e M g h d e n s ity w ith in th e o b s e r v e s e s
s te l A r e je c ta (a s
lo w w in d w o u ld h a v e g iv e n r is e to m o r e d ifFu s e s h e lls ) a n d ,

b n ch
l ti e p a u c ity o f v e r y b ń g h t s ta r s o n th e a s y m p to tic g ia n t r a
s e c o n d ly , th e r e a v
lla r s a m p le s
H R d ia g r a m s o f s ta tis tic a lly s ig n iń c a n t s te
d h
th e s e c o n d o b s e r v a tio n is n o t s tr a ig t
T h e in fe r e n c e o f a s tr o n g w in d b a s e o n
b o f
i e r m s o f s im p le a r g u m e n ts T h e n u m e r
fo n Ą a r d b u t it c a n b e u n d e r s to o d n t
,
c h in th e H R d ia g r a ]n is
s e x p e c te d to r e s id e o n
th e a s y m p to ū c g ia n t b r a n
d b le s h e ll burning e v o lu tio n a r y
p o r tio n a l to th e t m
i e s p e n t b y s ta r s in th e o u
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so u rc e s If it h a d n u c le a r b u rn in g w o u ld h a v e b e e n u n s ta b le (a s se e n in
,

S e c tio n 6 2 ) an d s o m e th in g w o u ld h a v e h a p p e n e d to e ith e r s to p it or
,

d is r u p t th e s ta r

N o te In fa c t ,
as a w h ite d w m f c o o ls , it d o c s c o n tıa c [ s lig h tly , r e le a s in g s o ln c

g r a v ita tio n a l en e rg y A t th e s a n to tim e ,

how e v e r , th e h ig h e r d e n s ity r a is e s th e in te r n a l
2 /3
en e gg y o f th e d e g e n e r a te e le c tr o n s (fo r w h ic h t￠ o c p se e S e c tio n s 3 3 . tm d 3 5) and
a ls o th e e le c tr o s ta tic p o te n tia le n e rg y M e s te l a n dM a lv in R u d e rm a n s ho w e d (in ı9 6 7 )山a t ,

to first o r d e th e r e le a s e o f g r a v ita tio n a l e n e r g y co m p e n s a te s fo r th e r is e in d e g e n e r a c y a n d

e le c tr o s ra (ic e n e rg y T h u s th e y v in d ic a te d th e lo n g d in g th a t th e e n e r8 y
s ta n assu m p tio n

s o u rc e o f w h ite d w a r fs is th e th e r m a l e il e rg y o f th e io n s, as if th e w h ite d w a r F w e re r ig id

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ı
n a l s ta te o f n o n m a ssı
ve s ta r s

14 S k e tc h o f th e co n fig u r a tio fa lin g h ite d w a rf

Fig u r e 9
n o co o w

ed
m a y be a s su m
e r a tu r e d r o p s a s w e ll a n d r a d ia tiv e e q u ilib u m
ń ,

la y e r th e te p
m
b a fs
it T h e c o n fig u f a tio n e
w ith t e
h te m p e r a tu r e g r a d ie n t d e te r m in in g th e lu m in o s y
o th e
d in S e c tio n 9 1 : th e r e to
ty to th a t o f a fu lly c o n v e c tiv e s ta r d s c u s s e
i i , ,

s irrıil a f ,

in g in a th in r a d ia tiv e o
u te r
i v a iı
i w a s d e te rm in e d b y th e c o n d it o n s p r e
,

lu m i n o s t y to a n
h t s p h e r e ) O b v io u s ly th e tr a n s t o n
ii fr o m a d e g e n e r a te s ta te
la y e r ( th e p o o ,

s h a ll a s s 1ım e a s
h a r p tr a n s itio n
t t i s g r a d u a l, b u t, fo r s im p lic ity w e
id e a l g s a e ,
a s
a te c o r e a n d t e
h id e a l g a s o u te r
s u r fa c e b o u n d a r y b e tw e e n th e d e g e n e r
a c ro s s a ıv a lu e s
i h r e th e p h y s ic a l c o n
d itio n s a r e s u c h th a t e q u a
¡a ye r d e n
f i e d a s t h e p o n t w e
t th e r a d iu s
te g a s p r e s s u r e L e
l

id l e s s u r e a n d fo r th e d e g e n e r a
re s u lt fo r t e
h e a g a s p r
tu r e is
h i n F ig u r e 9 14
F o r r < r b th e te m p e r a
d a ry b a s s o w n
o f th is b o u n
e r b
,
th e lu m in o s ity s c
i o n s ta n t
h t l v a lu e Tc F o r r > rb
c o n s ta n t a n
d e q u a l to t e c e n r a
la y e r r e d u c e
tio n s fo r th e o u te r
,

M T h s tr u c tu r e e q u a
in a d d itio n m (r > r b )
e
,

th e re fo f e ,
to

dp G M (9 3 2 )

云 一
4 ic 戸 瓦引 万
M an d th e se c o n d is d e r iv e d
(5 1) w ith m =

q u a tio n
,
E la w
T h e fir s t is d e f iv e d fr o m s h a ll a s s u m
e a po w er
F th e o p a c ity w e
L
fro m E q u a tio n (5 3 ) w ith
F o r
=
o a c ity la w (
3 65)
it th e K r a m e r s p
,

a n d d e n s y,
d e p e n d e n c e o n te m p e r a tu r
e

(9 3 4 )
PT
9 /2
7 /2
K op T
,
_
K =

9 32)
d iv id in g E q u a tio n (
E q u a tio n (9 3 3 ) a n d
S u b s titu tin g E q u a tio n (9 3 4 ) in to p re s s u r
e an
e r a tu r e
d th e te m p
b e tw e e n th e
i a r e la tio n
w e o b ta n
b y E q u a tio n (9 3 3 ),

o f th e fo r m

16 n a c
M
T čG 二 15 /2 dT
(9 3 5 )
T
a r L
ľ 3Ko

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o , in w a rd w e hav e
8o p = T = ,

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s u r fa
ce
fr o ln th e
,
! h s w e
In te g r a tin g
(9 36 th e r m a )em
)
b e in g n e g li
o u te r
fr in g e (a tm o s p h e re ) o f s ta rs
a pphe
d to th e in
n ìa y
be
w h ic h
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n
T h is ,
tio n o f s ta te a r
f th e id e a l g a
s e qu a
, e lą ti
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h it b y n le a
e de n s y H e nce th e
te m p e r a tu
i to t re
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n
i;ttv a n d th e
e n th e de n s y d e p le tio n
is o b ta in e
d b e tw e

n s titu te a n
id e a l g a s o n b o th s id e s o f r
S in c e th e io n s c o b ,

w h ic h h o
ld s d o w n to r b l l tr o n p r e s s u r e E q u a tio n (3 2 7
h e r e th e id e a e e c ) ,

is th e p o in t w
,

it fo llo w s th a t ı1b E qu a tio n (3 3 4 ) ,

a r e th e s a m e T h is le a d s t
o
n e r a te e le c
tr o n p r e s s u r e ,

a n d th e d e g e
s ity a n d te
m p e r a tu r e a t r b
l tio n b e tw e e n d e n
a s e c o n d re a

i t
p r e v e n t a ju m p n e m p e r a u r e w h ic h
t
hav e Ą T c in o r d e r to ,
C le a r l)\ w e m u st
=

ld lt in an in fin ite h e a t fı
u x E lim in a tin g p b e tw e e n E q u a tio n s (9 3 7 ) a n d
w o u r e su

(9 3 8 ) ,
w e fin a lly o b ta in
r3
L 6 Ąx a c G K
5 172 4 x o plıe u

w h ic h r e la te s th e Iu m in o s ity e m itte d a t th e s u r fa c e to th e c o r e te m p e r a tu r e o f th e
w h ite d w In s e r tin g th e v a lu e s o f c o n s ta n ts in E q u a tio n
a rf (9 3 9 ) fo r a ty p ic a l
W M t e w a r f c o m p o s itio n (s a y h a lf c a r b o n a n d h a lf o x y g e n ),
,
w e hav e

Or

(5)
"
' " " o7 . (9 4 o

EXercise 9 3 (a ) S h o w th a t th e te m
p e r a tu re p r o file th r o u g h o of
a w hite d w u t th e o u te r la y e r
a rf o fm M
a ss an d r a diu s R i
s g iv e n b
y

(b ) S h o w th a t th
e la y e r '
s th ic k n e s
(e ) C a lc u la te s t = R
th
rb « R
e r e la tiv e
ce h a
fr o m L g in
n mn r e
th ic k n e s s
L
in o s ity
] = 10 2
L a, to L = , I / t 2 Fo r
. a ? o p in lu m
2 10 4 L
o (n e g le c tin g th e s m a ll c han g e in R )

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o n o n m a s s iv e s ta rs ı8 ı

A s w e hav e a lr e a dy m e n tio n e d th e e n e ,rg y s o f is th e

th e r m a
l e n e rgy o f th e io n s in th e is
u rc e o a w h ite d w arf
o th e r m a l
b e in g n e g lig ib le )
c o re (th e o u te r la y e r ' s c o n tr ib u tio n

3 冗
U I =

2 H 【
M Tc (9 4 3 ) 0
H ence th e r a te o f e n e rg
y e m is s io n L m u st e
q u a l th e r a te o f th e r m a l e n e rg y
0
d e p le tio n
く

中
卅

w h ic h m e a n s th a t th e
f c h a n g e o f th e lu m in o s it (o r e u iv a le n tl th e c o o lin g
r a te o
y q y , ,

r a te ) de c re a se s s h a r p ly w ith d e c r e a s in t T h u s th e e v o u tio n a r y p a c e
ı
g e m p e r a tu r e
o f a w h ite d w ar f l
s o w s d o w n g r a d u a ll
y a n d a w h ite d w a r f o f lo w m a s s e v o lv e s
,

m o r e s lo w ly th a n a s s iv e o n e To e s tim ld ta k e h ite d w a rf

o fm a ss M to c o o l fr o m
a m

an in itia l te m p e r a tu r e
a te th e tim e

(a n d c o r r e s p o n d in g lu
it w o u a w

m in o s ity
Ç
L ' ) to a te m p e r a tu re Tc (lu m in o s ity L ), w e in te g r a te E q u a tio n (9 4 4 ) ,
(

If » b y E q u a tio n (9 3 9 )
Tc ,
th e n /L ' « T /L a n d th e tim e r e q u ir e d fo r ,

r a tu r e ) o r
a w h ite d w a ]f to c o o
l to a te m p e r a tu r e Ą (fr o m a m u c h h ig h e r te m p e
i iv e n b y
m u c h h ig h e r lu m in o s ty ) s g
i
d e c lin e to a lu m in o s ity L (fr o m a
5 /7

Tco o l 2 5 * 10
6
( ) yr (9 4 7 )

h lu m in o s ity o f a
10 9 y r w o u ld b e re q u ir e d fo r t e
Fo r p le a bo u t 2 ×
ex am
l 1 0 7 y r w o u ld b in g
p a r is o n o n y
,
4 For
d f o p to 1 0 L o
co m ,

1M h ite d w u f to
Ł it
o w ic a l la n e ta r y n e b u la lu m in o s y
y th e ty p p ,

to 0 1 L o fr o m
sa
s ity d o w
,
th e u m in
ı n ,
o

i o s itie s )
h s v e ry lo w te m p e r a tu r e s (lu m n ,

h ite d w a rf r e a c e
lity w he n a w i b e c a u s e th e
In re a ,
th e s im p le r e
a l t io n (9 4 4 ) T h is s
f fo llo w s
th e c o o lin g r a te n o lo n g e

l ic e
a s c r y s ta
lliz e s in to a p e r io d ic a tt
ity , th e io n g
d th e n s u f p a s
se s u n
e s d u e to th e a
d d itio n a l
a ppro a c h e s a n io n in c r e a s
t ca ac y p it e r
p
A t first th e c o ïT e sp o n
d in g h e a
,

3
la w T h is m e an s th a t
T
tu r e fo llo w in g a
ith te m p e r a ,

p id ly
w
eatca pac ity fa lls ra

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gt\»w s till ï ininr a \h \ ı

d m p s d \le m th
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bm In th e ţ n d th e
ci war ill tu n
y w \ lb・in \ is ib\i
inMpmLtĥ iı

9 The e v o lu t i
on o fm ats s lw
T lıe s ta r s
e \Đ lu tic
lın o fm \s
ł ū v Ę s tĉ m
te r is tic (A to
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9 9 Th ・ w u t ï ın o fm * v e ı8 3 飞
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￠W 9 ı6 W h ite d w a r f» in th e }4 R d ia g F a m L in e s o fc o n s ta n t r a d iu s (m ass )a r e m a rk e d
M A Sw ( 19 7 6 ) A
ı【a 加 m ee n ey , r tm n & A s tn w hy s ,
49)

I Th eı
e c tr o n s in th e ir do be c de ge til th e fin l
C
e c o re s n o t o m e n e r a te u n a

burning s ta ge s , w h e n th e c o r e c o n s is ts o f if o n

2 M
l d
lo s s p la y ti a n im p o r ta n t f o le a lo n g th e e n tir e c o u r s e o f e v o ı
a li#

i h i h i l
a n s e q u e n c e p a s e (s n c e t e m a s s o s s f h
u tio n
9
In c u n g t e m h t e o t e s e s ta r s
C
r a

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th e ir e v o lu tio n
)
)
u m in o s ity h ic h is a lr e a d y c lo s e th e E d d in g to n c r itic a l lim it
3 T he ı ,
w to

o n th e m a in s e ce f e m a in s a lm o s t c o n s ta n t, in s p ite o f internal c h a n g e s
quen ,

T he evo lu tio n a r y tra c k in th e H R d ia g r a m is th e r e fo re h o ń z o n ta l, s h iftin g

ba c k an d fo r th b e tw een lo w an d h ig h ffe c tiv e te m p e r a tu r e s S u c h tr a n

e

o f n u c le a r burning in th e c o r e a n d r a p
id
s itio n s a r e s lo w p is o d e s
d u r in g e

th e c o r e c o n tr a c ts a n d h e a ts u p w h ile th e
d u r in g in te r v e n in g p h a s e s w h e n ,
,

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w e r fu l s te lla r w in d s a s to re s u lt
S ta rs o f [n itia ] m g 30 M o h a v e so p o
a s s e x c e e d in
th a n m a in s e q u e n c e tim e s c a le s M Q /
L
m a s } o 8 8 tim e s c a le s M /ı1l s h o r te r
to w a r d th a t o f a
o lu tio n a r y p a th s c o n v e rg e
COnieqmtly th e ir m a in s e q u e n c e e v
f th e h e liu m c o r e a t th e e n d o f th e m a in
,

30 M o s ta r īn particuï a th e e x te n t o
i v o lu tio n a r y s ta g e s T h e
e q u e n c e p h a s e iti s im ila n a n
d h e n c e s o a r e th e e n s u n g e
h a s e le a d s to c o n fig u
d in th e m a in s e q u e n c e p
t e m e m a s ß Jo s s th a t o c c u r s u r g
r e n v e lo p e s (X R s 0 1) o r
a tio n s c o m p o s e d m a in ly o f h e
liu m , w ith h y d ro g e n p o o
f h y d r o g e n a n d lo s in g m a s s
o h y d ro g e n a t a ll S u c h s ta r s
Ju m in o u s , d e p le te d o ,

T hey hav e
e r v e d , b e in g
k n o w n a s W o lj R a y e ıs ta r s
a h ig h r a te a r e in d e e d o b s
d 10 M a n d a re c o n s id e re d a s th e
5 an o
Ja tiv e ly lo s b e tw ee n ,

w a v e ra g e m a s s e , d iffe r e n t ty p e s f
30 M T h e re iu e o
a s s iv e th a n o
E c o re s o f Eita rs in itia lly m o re n l
d i to th e ir s u r fa c e c o m p o s itio n E le m e n t
N o Rayet s ta r s d is tin g u is h e d a c c o r n g i li ff f
,

e s c o r re s p
o n d to a p ro g r e s s io n n p e e n g o o
)u n d a n c e 吕 ín th e s e q u e n c e o f ty p

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 9 9 Th・ ew ı
u tı
o n f
o m aa *ı
v ı s ta r s ı8 5

Ī
"

1
m iM e

Fig u r e 9 ı8 C o m p o s itio n
p r o file s in th e in 8M
n er
o o f a 25M s ta r p r io r to supernova
co lla p s e BUrning s h e lls a re m a rke d (a d a p te d fr o
o
m s E w o o s le y & T A w e av er (19 8 6 )
An n R ev A s tr o n A s tr o p

H burning
m r ıc n

H e n ve ı
o pe
e burning

C burning

0 bu rn in g

Si burning

Fi\ re 9 ı9 S c h e m a tic s tr u c tu r e o f a sup er no va p r o g e n ito r s ta r

m ass lo ss A r e c e n t im a ge o fm j
a s s e e c tio n by a ty p ic a l W o lf R a y e t s ta r is sh o w n

in p a n e l (b ) o f th e fig u r e
In a lĮ m a s s iv e s ta r s h e liu m burning in th e c o r e is s u c c e e d e d b y c a r b o n burning
,

i iń l
p e r a tu r e is s o h ig h a s to c a u s e s g n c a n e n e r g y o s s e s
A t th is s ta g e th e c o r e te m
t

d u e to n e u tr in o e m is s io n T h u s th e n u c le a r e n e r g y s o u r c e h a s to c o m p e n s a te fo r
th e s e lo s s e s a s w e ll a s s u p p ly th e h ig h lu m in o s ity r a d ia te d a t th e s u r fa c e A s fu s io n
,

l e n e f g y p e r u n it m a s s o f b u r n t m a te r ia l th a n
o f he a v
y e le m e n ts r e le a s e s fir e s s
fu s io n o f li h t e le m e n ts (s e e C h a p te r 4 ) n u c le a r fu e ls a r e v e r y r a p id ly c o n s u m e d
g ,

il i c o re m a d e o f
A ll th e m a jo r burning s ta g e s p a s s in r a p id s u c c e s s io n u n t a n n n e r ,

ll f d iffe r e n t c o m p o
ir o n g f o u e le m e n ts is fo r m e d S u r r o u n d in g th is c o f e a r e s h e s o
p
b o n h e liu m a n d fin a lly th e e n v e lo p e w h ic h
s itio n s s ilic o n o x y g e n n e o n c a r
, , ,
,
, ,

itio n a n d c o n ta in s m o s t o f th e
,

r i in a l c o m p o s
fo r M < 3 0 M
o o re a
t in s m o s t o f th e o g
n tf a c tio n o
f th e ir o n c o r e w ill le a d th e s ta r to w a r d
s T h e in e v ita b le c o
s te lla r m a s
f a m a s s iv e s ta r a n d its s c h e m a tic
c o lla s e i
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