Compare and contrast Tuned Radio Frequency (TRF)

receiver with a Superheterodyne receiver.

A TRF receiver consists of the following stages:

 Antenna input stage

 A few stages for RF-amplification

 A detector stage for demodulation

 One or more stages of AF amplifier

On the contrary, a superhet receiver consists of :

 RF Amplifier
 Mixer or Converter

 Local Oscillator

 IF Amplifier

 Detector

 Automatic Gain Control (AGC) Circuit

 AF Amplifiers

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In a TRF receiver a series of loosely coupled tuned circuits are used to increase
selectivity and each circuit are ganged so that they resonate at the same frequency. But in
a superhet receiver, this principle is not followed, instead, the RF amplifier, mixer and
local oscillator are ganged to produce an intermediate frequency.

In a TRF receiver the high amplitude original frequency is demodulated at the detector
stage. But in Superhet sets, the IF is demodulated.

In a TRF Receiver, no image frequency is produced. But image frequency is produced in

superhet receiver.

In a TRF receiver, selectivity is not constant; the receiver is more selective at the low
frequency bands, while less selective at the high frequency end. Because the detector and
amplifiers of a superheterodyne receiver can be designed to amplify only intermediate
frequency (IF), this type of receiver is more selective and offer high fidelity (exact
reproduction quality of the transmitted signal).

In TRF receiver, amplification is not constant over the tuning range. In superhet receiver
amplification standard is constant since all the time it amplifies a constant frequency at
the IF stages.

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How the RF amplifier, Local Oscillator and mixer
circuit of a superhet receiver maintains a constant
frequency separation and why?

The main objective of the superheterodyne receiver is to produce an intermediate

frequency (IF) by the process of heterodyning or beating. This can be accomplished when
two frequencies are mixed to produce the beat frequency. In superhets, the IF is usually
455 kHz which is selected because the broadcast band begins above that frequency. So, if
we imagine a situation when the RF amplifier is tuned to receive a 800 kHz broadcast
signal, the local oscillator must be tuned to 1255 kHz which will result in an IF of 455
kHz (1255-800 kHz=455 kHz).Since we have to tune the RF amplifier section throughout
the entire broadcast band, the frequency of the local oscillator must also vary in a manner
that it always maintains a gap of 455 kHz. To achieve this condition, the Local Oscillator
and RF Amplifier section are 'ganged', i.e. their tuning condensers are connected/ganged
mechanically in such a way that when we tune the variable capacitor in the RF section,
the variable capacitor in the local oscillator also changes its value, it 'tracks' the frequency
to which the 'Aerial Circuit' is tuned and remain separated from the tuned frequency by
455 kHz up.

The Intermediate Frequency (IF), which is a considerably low frequency is being used,
because-

 it is a suitable frequency to achieve amplifying efficiency.

 It provides better selectivity.

 It provides better sensitivity throughout the broadcast band.

 It provides uniform sensitivity as well as uniform selectivity.

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Write a short note on 'Selectivity'

Selectivity is the measure of the ability of a radio receiver to select a particular frequency
or particular band of frequencies and rejecting all other unwanted frequencies. But higher
selectivity does not necessarily make a better receiver. For instance, a 'broadcast signal'
consists of the carrier frequency and its two side bands. In a situation where a carrier
frequency of 800 kHz is modulated with a 5 kHz (5000 Hz) tone, the sum of the carrier
and the audio frequency results in the Upper Side Band (USB) of 805 kHz. The
difference of carrier and audio frequency results in a Lower Side Band (LSB) of 795 kHz.
So for proper reproduction of the broadcast signal at a particular carrier frequency, the
receiver must receive (select frequencies from 795 to 805 kHz. A receiver more selective
than this would reject a part of the frequencies thus proper reproduction would be
hindered.

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Draw the block diagram of a superheterodyne receiver
and explain the function of each stage briefly

Radio Frequency (RF) Amplifier section:

This section performs two major tasks:
It couples the antenna voltage to the converter of the receiver;
By selectivity, it accepts only the desired frequency and all others are rejected.
By amplifying the desired signal, the Signal-to-Noise ratio is increased in the converter
stage for efficient operation.

Converter or Mixer Section:

The main objective of the superheterodyne receiver is to produce a constant Intermediate
Frequency (most commonly used frequency being 455 kHz in commercial broadcast
band radio sets) which is suitable for-
gaining efficiency of the electronic circuit so far as its amplification is concerned;
providing uniform Selectivity;

So a Local Oscillator and a Mixer circuit are combined, where, by the process of
'heterodyning', i.e. 'beating', the 'Intermediate Frequency (IF)' is obtained. If the RF
Amplifier section selects and amplify a signal of 800 kHz, then the local oscillator
produces a frequency of 1255 kHz. By mixing both the frequency at the mixer stage, a
difference of frequency of the value 455 kHz is obtained (1255-800=455 kHz).

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Intermediate Frequency (IF) Amplifier:

The 455 kHz IF is fed to the IF amplifier through an IF transformer. The circuitry of the
IF section is so designed and tuned so that it gives the optimum gain at that particular IF
frequency.

Detector/Demodulator and 1st Audio Frequency Amplifier stage:

The Amplitude Modulated (AM) IF is demodulated and detected. A diode working as

rectifier solves this purpose. The triode/transistor amplifies the audio signal and the
volume control potentiometer system controls the intensity of sound.

AF Power Amplifier:

This section further amplifies the audio signals which is finally fed to an output
transformer which matches the impedance of output stage with the speaker (in modern
transistor receivers, the necessity of output transformer is eliminated).

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Write a note on AGC or AVC in a superhet radio set.

Automatic Gain Control is a most needed part of superhet circuitry.

A disadvantage of manual gain control (volume control) with a receiver is that it can't
provide constant output under all conditions. If a receiver is tuned from a weak signal to
strong signal, its output must increase intolerably. This would then require readjustment
of the volume control. Similarly, when a receiver is tuned to particular signal the output
level can vary widely if the input signal strength fluctuates as a result of fading and
adjustments of the volume control has to be done. Since such signal fluctuations are
rapid, constant readjustment of volume control would be necessary which is impractical.
This is where AGC or AVC comes into picture and is used in addition to the manual
control.

All AGC or AVC (Automatic Volume Control) circuits perform two basic functions;
The first of these is to develop a DC (Direct Current) which is proportional to the receiver
input signal all the time.

The AGC voltage is applied to the RF and IF stage of the receiver where it serves as a
Bias voltage. In this way the AGC voltage controls the gain of RF and IF stages, and
therefore the overall gain of the receiver. When the signal level at the receiver input
increases, the AGC voltage increases proportionately. Consequently, a larger bias is
applied to the IF and RF stages and their gain is applied to the IF and RF stages and their
gain is reduced. The receiver output thus remains relatively constant instead of increasing
in accordance with the input signal strength and vice-versa. In valve type RX (receiver),
the grids of RF and IF portions valves are biases by negative voltage. While in a
transistor it depends on transistor type.

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What is a squelch circuit ?

The squelch circuit or Q (Quieting) circuit is a circuit which is controlled by AGC or

AVC voltage. The modern high gain receivers shows a disadvantage without it, that is,
without a squelch circuit, annoying buzzing and cracking sounds are heard over the
loudspeaker in absence of input signal. So a circuitry is arranged in such a way that AF
gain is kept reduced in absence of input signal from the antenna.

With no signal there is no Negative AGC voltage, and the squelch tube allows current to
flow through it then passing through R3 to the +250 V point. Thus R3 produces a DC
voltage drop across it which is more negative at midpoint than at the bottom being in
series with the amplifier grid circuit, tube past cutoff, preventing it from functioning.

When a signal is received, AGC or AVC voltage biases the squelch tube to 'cutoff',
stopping plate current flow. Consequently, the voltage drop across R3 ceases, allowing
the AF amplifier tube to act in a normal manner.

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 Write a note on Image Frequency in a superheterodyne receiver set

The intermediate stage (mixer+local oscillator) of a superhet radio set produces an

Intermediate Frequency (IF) due to the beating of RF input frequency and Local
Oscillator Frequency. This frequency is obtained by deducting the RF input from the
tuned circuit from that of Local Oscillator Frequency. So, while receiving a 800 kHz RF
signal, the Local Oscillator is made to oscillate at a frequency of 1255 kHz which results
in an Intermediate Frequency (IF) of 455 kHz (which is accepted as a standard in almost
all the Broadcast band receiver circuits); but it is found that in case of comparatively less
selective receiver, if a broadcast frequency 455 kHz up, from the 1255 kHz local
oscillator frequency manages to intrude the RF tuned circuit even to a little extent, then
another difference of frequency equal to intermediate frequency results; viz. 1710-
1255=455 kHz. But this '455 kHz' being generated from a signal frequency having
different audio information causes adverse effect at the audio end of the receiver. The
intelligence of both would be present in the speaker at the same time making the sound
reproduction is unintelligible.

Prevention of Image Frequency:

By highly selective RF tuned amplifier; By using an IF which is convenient to use and at
the same time separation between desired and image signals is made large. Possibility of
image frequency generation is greater in a receiver designed for an IF of 175 kHz than a
receiver using an IF of 455 kHz.

What is a S-meter?

A S-meter is a visual indicator of signal strength. A simple S meter consists of a

milliammeter in series with an RF or IF amplifier plate/collector circuit. With no signal,
there is no AGC bias voltage and maximum plate current flows. With a signal, the AGC
biases the tube, reducing the plate current and the indication on the meter. The stronger
the signal, the less current the meter indicator signifying a strong strength.

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What is a Beat Frequency Oscillator?

To change the second detector from a rectifying or envelope detector to a heterodyne

detector to receive A1A (Continuous Wave Morse Code), A2A (Modulated CW Morse
Code), J3E (Single Side Band), the Beat Frequency Oscillator is turned on. It is a variable
frequency oscillator using a Hartley, Colpitts or Armstrong circuit. It is tunable to the
Intermediate Frequency and one or two kilohertz higher and lower. It heterodynes with
any signal coming through the IF strip, producing an audible beat frequency in the
detector. Both the BFO and LO (Local Oscillator) must have good frequency stability.

Why ham radio transmissions are not heard in ordinary radio receiver
sets? Can you receive ham radio transmissions in your ordinary radio
set?

The radio sets available in the market for general public are designed to receive
Amplitude Modulated (AM) or Frequency Modulated (FM) broadcasts only. But the ham
radio operators use a very efficient mode of transmission called Single Side Band (SSB)
transmission. The power of a ham radio station is also very low (usually not more than
100 watts) in comparison to the broadcast station (which use power in the kilowatts
range). In fact many of the broadcast band radio receivers available in the market also
cover some of the frequencies which are allotted to the ham radio stations. A 4 band radio
set (inclusive of the Medium Wave band) can be expected to cover some popular ham
radio frequencies like 7 to 7.1 MHz (i.e. 7000 to 7100 kHz), 14 to 14.350 MHz (i.e.
14,000 to 14,350 kHz) and 21 to 21.450 MHz (i.e. 21,000 to 21,450 kHz). This kind of
receiver can be improvised to receive ham radio transmissions with very little effort.

First, we will need an outdoor aerial. Because, these radio sets are not sensitive to receive
low power transmissions. Majority of the hams use power below 100 watts (a broadcast
station may use 4000 or 5000 watts of power!). A novice ham radio operator may be
found to be operating with a power as low as 0.5 watt!

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Ham radio conversation if heard on an ordinary radio set sounds like the 'Duck quacking'.
There is no intelligibility in the audio. As already mentioned, our ordinary radio sets are
meant to receive AM signals only and not to receive SSB signals-a separate unit is so
required at the 'Detector' stage of the AM receiver, which is nothing but a stable
'Frequency Generator' (RF Oscillator), called the 'Beat Frequency Oscillator' (BFO). The
BFO is used to introduce a 'Local Carrier Frequency' (frequency of the carrier is 10 to 20
Hertz within that of the transmitter carrier frequency which is suppressed at the
transmitter of the ham radio station willingly in order to save power). Another popular
technique of receiving ham radio stations on an ordinary receiver set is to employ two
radio sets. In this improvised technique, one radio set acts as the BFO. The radio sets are
just kept very close together. The volume control knob of the radio set which we intend to
use as a BFO should be kept at its minimum. Usually a two band (one Medium Wave and
one Short wave) AM pocket receiver can be suitably used as a BFO. The first step is to
locate a ham radio transmission over the main radio receiver (search for the "duck
quacking" like audio) tuned to a ham frequency (say in the 40m or 20m band, i.e. 7-7.1
MHz or 14 to 14.350 MHz respectively). Once a strong ham station has been detected,
the next step is to bring the pocket receiver (whose volume is kept at minimum) near to
the main receiver. The pocket radio set should also be tuned to a frequency near to the
frequency in which the ham transmission is received. By this way, frequency generated
by the local oscillator of the pocket radio can be made to produce the heterodyne effect in
the main receiver making the ham transmission intelligible. This technique of course
requires your patience. The first attempt should not become the last attempt!

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