Use of Soybean Meals in Diets of

Salmon and Trout

By Ronald W. Hardy, Director, Aquaculture Research Institute, Hagerman Fish Culture Experiment Station,
University of Idaho

Written in cooperation with the United Soybean Board and American Soybean Association

Introduction trout production, producing 25,863 mt, 70% in the

state of Idaho. In North America, Britain, Denmark,
Atlantic salmon, Pacific salmon and rainbow trout, France and Italy, most trout farming occurs in
collectively known as salmonids, are the most freshwater, using flow-through water supply
farmed carnivorous fish species in the world, mainly systems. In Chile and Scandinavian countries,
because they are prized food fish and relatively easy rainbow trout are initially grown in freshwater farms
to culture. Salmon and trout can survive in a variety followed by grow-out to harvest in marine cages.
of environmental conditions, such as water Trout can be acclimated to sea water once they reach
temperatures from 0oC to as high as 28oC for some about 100 grams in weight.
trout strains. They spawn successfully in water
temperatures from 2oC to 15oC, and grow at Global feed production for salmon and trout was
temperatures from 6oC to 25oC. Depending upon approximately 1,636,000 mt in 2000 and is predicted
their diet, salmon and trout can have pigmented (red) to reach 2,000,000 mt before 2010. This amount
or non-pigmented (white) flesh. Salmon and trout represented 12.5% of total world production of feeds
are sometimes thought of as freshwater fish and
other times as marine fish, but they are very
adaptable to a variety of saline conditions. Table 1: Global Production of Farmed
Salmonids (2000)
Atlantic salmon, Salmo salar, are the most widely
farmed salmonid species, with global production of Salmonid species Production (mt)
884,200 metric tons (mt) in 2000 (Table 1)
(Johnson, 2002). Norway, Chile, Scotland (United Atlantic salmon 884,200
Kingdom) and Canada are the top producing Rainbow trout 448,000
countries of Atlantic salmon (Table 2). Pacific Coho salmon 66,090
salmon, e.g., chinook salmon (Oncorhynchus Chinook salmon 16,000
tshawytscha) and coho salmon (O. kisutch), are also
farmed, mainly in Chile (coho), and Canada and
New Zealand (chinook). Total global production of
Pacific salmon is less than 100,000 mt. Total Table 2: Production of Atlantic Salmon
production of rainbow trout was 448,000 mt in 2000, by Country (2001)
making it the second largest production segment of
the salmonids, behind Atlantic salmon (Johnson, Country Production (mt)
2002).
Norway 430,000
Until 1994, global production of rainbow trout Chile 220,000
exceeded that of other salmonid species. Top trout United Kingdom 142,000
producing countries are France, Chile, Denmark and Canada 94,000
Italy, which account for 48% of global production Faroes 40,000
(Table 3). Production of rainbow trout in marine United States 23,600
cages was approximately 150,000 mt in 2000, about Ireland 17,650
one-third of global trout production. The United Others 92,000
States accounts for slightly less than 6% of global
for all fish and crustaceans, mainly shrimp, of rendered products (where allowed) and oilseed
13,106,000 mt (Table 4). Worldwide, dietary fish proteins, mainly soybean meal.
meal constitutes 25%-35% of rainbow trout feed
formulations, but this percentage varies with fish Salmon and Trout Feeds and Feeding
meal price, type of farming (freshwater or marine),
and location. Rainbow trout feeds currently utilize Salmon and trout are carnivorous fish having
about 176,000 mt of fish meal, about 3% of annual relatively short digestive tracts consisting of an acid
fish meal production (Table 5). However, this stomach, a pyloric cecae where digestive enzymes
amount constitutes about 8% of the fish meal used in
all aquafeeds, placing the trout sector in fifth place
behind salmon, marine fish, shrimp and carp in fish Table 3: Production of Rainbow Trout
meal consumption by aquatic species groups. by Country (2001)

In terms of quantity, it is likely that trout feeds will Country Production (mt)
remain at current levels of fish meal use in the next
few years, despite predicted growth in global trout France 48,750
production of approximately 5% per year. This will Chile 42,656
be accomplished by replacing a portion of fish meal Denmark 40,864
used in diet formulations with alternative protein Italy 40,150
sources. Salmon are the largest aquatic animal United States 25,863
segment users of fish meal for diet production, using
454,000 mt in 2000. This quantity was 21.5% of all
fish meal used in feeds for aquatic animals, and Table 4: Estimated World Fish Feed
about 7% of average annual production of 6.2 Production by Species Groups (2000)
million metric tons (mmt). Salmon diets are likewise
expected to contain lower percentages of fish meal Species Group mt of Feed % of Total
in the future.
Salmon/Trout 1,636,000 12.5%
Global fish meal production has been relatively Shrimp 1,570,000 12%
constant in the past 15 years, but production declines Catfish 505,000 4%
as much as 15% when El Nino effects are severe Tilapia 776,000 6%
(Hardy and Tacon, 2002). El Nino causes ocean Marine finfish 1,049,000 8%
warming off the coasts of Peru and Northern Chile, Cyprinids (Carp) 6,991,000 53%
causing anchovies to move elsewhere, thus reducing Miscellaneous 579,000 4.5%
the availability of anchovies that supports the
world’s largest fishery for fish meal production. Total 13,106,000
Although Peru and Chile account for less than one-
third of global fish meal production, they produce a
large proportion of fish meal traded throughout the
world, more than 60%. Other large fish meal- Table 5: Estimated Fish Meal Use in
producing countries, such as Norway, utilize nearly Aquafeeds (2000)
all of their production domestically.
Species Group mt of Fish Meal % of Total
El Nino events have a large impact on global fish
meal supplies and cost. Production often rebounds in Salmon 454,000 21.5%
the year after El Nino events, pushing global Marine fish 415,000 19.6%
production over 7 mmt. During severe El Nino Shrimp 372,000 17.6%
years, the price of fair and average quality (FAQ) Carp 350,000 16.5%
fish meal can double, from a low of approximately Trout 176,000 8.3%
$330 United States Dollars (USD) per mt to more Eels 173,000 8.2%
than $600 USD per mt (prices free on board Peru). Flatfish 69,000 3.3%
When this happens, salmon and trout feed Other Fish 106,000 5.0%
manufacturers turn to alternatives, including

Use of Soybean Meals in Diets of Salmon and Trout -- 2

are released, a small intestine where most nutrient troughs. Cortland dry feed mixture No. 10 was the
absorption occurs, and a large intestine for water and same as No. 6, except that soybean meal replaced
electrolyte re-absorption. The requirements of trout the cottonseed meal.
for essential dietary nutrients have been estimated,
and trout are known to require about 40 nutrients, Soybean meal was first tested in dry feed mixtures in
similar to other animals (Table 6) (National the early 1940s by the Cortland research team.
Research Council, 1993). They can obtain most Feeding trials using brook trout at the Cortland
minerals directly from water, if mineral levels are hatchery in New York indicated that growth rates
high enough, except for phosphorus. Fish meal- equivalent to those obtained using a meat diet were
based salmon and trout diets contain adequate achieved using the meat-dry meal mixtures. Feed
amounts of most essential minerals to meet their cost per unit of production was reduced by about
needs directly, regardless of rearing water half (Tunison et al., 1941).
concentrations. However commercial feeds contain
trace mineral supplements. When salmon and trout The first dry pellets were reported to increase trout
diets contain high amounts of plant-derived proteins hatchery production by 60% while reducing feed
in place of fish meal, additional mineral cost by 40% (Grassl, 1956). These formulas did not
supplementation is necessary. include a supplemental vitamin premix, so it was
necessary to feed beef liver to the trout once every
Prior to the development of the fish feed three weeks. Addition of a vitamin mixture to the
manufacturing industry in the late 1950s and 1960s, dry pellet formulation permitted the successful
feeds for salmon and trout were produced on-site by rearing of trout to spawning and subsequent rearing
hatchery staff. During the 1920s and 1930s, salmon of fry (Phillips et al., 1964). The early formulations
and trout were fed a variety of feeds based on the of scientists from the Cortland Laboratory and the
local availability of ingredients (Hardy and Barrows, Abernathy Station provided the basis for the
2002). These ingredients included salmon eggs; development of current dry pellet formulations
fresh, canned or frozen fish; oilseed meals; and produced for salmon and trout throughout the world
brewers yeast. These were combined with beef liver, (Phillips et al., 1964; Fowler and Burrows, 1971).
spleen, horse meat, chicken eggs and cottage cheese. Open formula diets for salmon and trout are
Mixtures such as one-third beef liver, one-third hog modified continually and tested by various
liver and one-third salmon viscera were chopped and governmental agencies to improve fish production
mixed at the hatchery, 2% salt was added to congeal efficiency. Recent specifications for the Abernathy
the mixture, and it was delivered to the fish by a salmon diets are shown in Table 7.
hatchery worker using a spoon or ladle. These feeds
contained about 60% moisture with a texture similar
to moist sawdust (Hastings and Dickie, 1972). The
feed cost per pound of fish ranged from $0.032 to Table 6: Required Dietary Nutrients for
$0.57 (Donaldson and Foster, 1937). Salmon and Trout
In the 1940s, the demand for ingredients used in wet Protein 10 essential amino acids
fish feeds increased due to increased hatchery
production and to competition from other users. To Lipids Omega-3 fatty acids (1% of diet)
extend the traditional ingredients, meat-meal Energy Supplied mainly from
mixtures for feeding salmon and trout were lipids and protein
developed. These feeds were blends of
slaughterhouse byproducts and dry, commercially Vitamins 15 essential vitamins
available feed ingredients. Cortland dry feed mixture Minerals 10 minerals shown to be essential*
No. 6, consisting of 24% each of dry skim milk, Astaxanthin Need for viable eggs
cottonseed meal, white fish meal and wheat
Pigments
middlings, with 4% salt added, was a typical dry
feed (Phillips et al., 1940). This mixture was blended
with an equal weight of beef liver and hog spleen, *Note: Other minerals are probably essential, but
water was added, and the mixed material was can be obtained from rearing water.
squeezed through a potato ricer to feed small fish in

Use of Soybean Meals in Diets of Salmon and Trout -- 3

Development of Extruded Pellets for introduced. Prior to the late 1980s, diets were
Salmon and Trout produced using compressed (steam) pelleting, a
process that produces a dense, hard pellet.
Extruded pellets are formed by extrusion of a moist Compressed pellets cannot absorb as much added
mixture heated from 100oC to 150oC under pressure lipid as can extruded pellets, limiting total lipid to
(20%-24%) followed by drying to reduce the about 20%. With extruded pellets, total lipid levels
moisture content to 10% or less. Moisture remains in of less than 35% can be realized. Of this amount, no
a liquid state in the barrel of the extruder and more that 10-12% lipid is present in the feed mixture
changes instantaneously to vapor (steam) as the prior to pelleting; the remainder is added after
pellets pass through the die and pressure is released. pelleting (top-dressing). Given this high lipid level,
This expands the pellets, lowering density and there is not much room in feed formulations for
changing buoyancy. By varying the feed mixture, anything other than fish meal and perhaps a small
moisture level and extrusion conditions, pellet percentage of another protein source, enough starch
density can be altered so that pellets will sink or ground wheat to hold the pellet together,
rapidly, sink slowly or float. For the catfish industry, vitamin/mineral premixes and fish oil.
floating pellets are the norm; farmers want to see
feeding activity on the surface of ponds. For the Salmon feed formulations have changed in the past
salmon industry, pellets that slowly sink in seawater 20 years, primarily the result of the adoption of
are produced. Given the porous nature of extruded high-energy diets. These formulations were
pellets caused by sudden water vaporization, high embraced in part so that the salmon farming industry
levels of fish oil (or plant oil) can be added to the could meet European Community regulations
pellets to produce high-lipid diets. Since they are governing nutrient losses from farms. Feeds were
dry, extruded pellets can be used in automatic or required to become more efficient (lower feed
demand feeders, a desirable characteristic for salmon conversion ratios) and to contain low percentages of
and trout farming. phosphorus. As a result, formulations were
simplified as described above and shown in Table 8.
Feed formulations for salmon and trout have Similar formulations are used worldwide in the
changed greatly since extrusion pelleting has been salmon farming industry. Approximate composition

Table 7: Open-Formula Diet Specifications for Dry Salmon Diets

Percent in Diet
Starter Crumbles Pellets
Ingredient S8-2 (18-2) (19-2) __
Herring meal 58 55 50
Dried whey 5 5 5

Blood flour (or meal) 10 10 10

Condensed fish solubles or 3 3 3
Poultry byproduct meal 1.5 1.5 1.5
Wheat germ meal ---- 5 5
Wheat middlings mill-run or shorts Remainder Remainder Remainder
Vitamin premix 1.5 1.5 1.5
Choline chloride (60%) 0.58 0.58 0.58
Ascorbic acid 0.1 0.1 0.1
Trace mineral mixture 0.05 0.1 0.1
Lignon sulfonate pellet binder 2.0 2.0 2.0

Fish oil or Soybean lecithin (max. 2%) 12 9 9

Abernathy Diets, 1986

Use of Soybean Meals in Diets of Salmon and Trout -- 4

of salmon diets has changed also, with total protein
decreasing and total lipid (fat) increasing (Figure 1). Table 8: Typical Salmon and Trout
Digestible protein has not changed as much as total Diet Formulations
protein because feed manufacturers have eliminated
protein sources having lower apparent digestibility Ingredient Salmon Trout
coefficients (ADCs) from their formulations,
limiting protein sources to those having high ADC Fish meal 51% 22-25%
protein values. Soybean meal 8% <15%
Animal byproduct meals 0% ~15%
In contrast, dietary protein levels in trout feeds have Wheat/wheat byproducts 8% 22%
increased from 35% to 45% in the last 35 years, and Corn gluten 0% <5%
dietary fat levels now exceed 22% in high-energy Vitamins/minerals 2.2% 1%
feeds (Figure 2). In the 1960s, feed conversion ratios Fish/soy oil 30.8% 7-8%
(FCR) were about 2.0, but today, the best
commercial, high-energy trout feeds yield feed Crude protein 44% 44%
conversion ratios from 1.2:1 to as low as 0.8:1, when Crude lipid >34% 16%
their use is combined with good feeding practices).
Similar changes have occurred with respect to FCR
values for salmon feeds with the adoption of high- a salmon and trout formulation must be there for a
energy diet formulations (Figure 3). Feed specific reason. Further, it is likely that ingredients
formulations for rainbow trout utilize fish meal, fish will be produced specifically for use in fish feeds.
oil, grains and various byproducts derived from Initially, this will entail the improvement of protein
production of other food products, e.g. meats and sources derived from fish or animal byproducts to
poultry (Table 8). reduce levels of bones and poorly digested fractions,
such as skin and connective tissue, and the use of
To lower the percentage of fish meal used in starch fractions from grains rather than ground
rainbow trout feeds, researchers have substituted whole grains.
other protein sources such as soybean meal, poultry
byproduct meal, and small amounts of blood meal Superimposed on these expected developments is the
and feather meal. In the past decade, the percentage issue of limited global supplies of fish meal and fish
of fish meal used in trout feeds has decreased by oil. This issue is becoming critical. The percentage
about 50% as a result of the use of alternate protein of global fish meal production used in fish feeds has
ingredients. increased from less than 10% prior to 1990, to more
than 40% in 2002. In the case of fish oil, the
Trends in Salmon and Trout Diet situation is even more critical. Prior to 1990, less
Formulations than 10% of global fish oil production was
consumed annually by the fish feed manufacturing
Salmon and trout farming has reached a critical sector, but by 2002, the percentage increased to
period in its evolution, as the foods that it produces more than 75%, mainly at the expense of use of fish
are becoming commodities. Similar developments oil to produce margarine. If current production
occurred in the poultry and swine industries, and trends continue upward, fish oil supplies will be
continued production gains depended on genetic inadequate to meet the needs of the fish feed
selection, changes in husbandry, and improvements manufacturing industry within a few years. Given
in diets and health maintenance. In the case of the high use of fish oil in salmon and trout feeds,
salmon and trout diet formulations, changes to date this segment of the aquaculture industry will feel the
have involved: the use of higher quality feed impact of insufficient supplies most acutely.
ingredients, particularly protein sources; elimination
of high-fiber, plant-derived ingredients; the use of Predictions of fish meal use in various sectors of the
extrusion technology to produce pellets; and the aquaculture industry call for lower use levels in
adoption of high-energy, nutrient-dense feeds for most species groups (Table 9). The
formulations. These developments will remain, and percentage of fish meal use in salmon and trout feed
formulations will advance in terms of refinement, formulations is predicted to decrease by 10% and
embracing the concept that every ingredient used in 5%, respectively, by 2010 (Barlow, 2000). This is
expected to lower the actual use of fish meal by

Use of Soybean Meals in Diets of Salmon and Trout -- 5

77,000 mt and 29,000 mt for salmon and trout, and metabolic excretions (urine and gill wastes).
respectively. This change will require higher use Many farms have quiescent zones at the ends of
levels of alternative protein sources to replace the raceways where fish are excluded and particles settle
fish meal protein removed from diets. Even greater without being disturbed. Settled material is regularly
reductions in fish oil use will be needed, perhaps as removed and this practice significantly lowers the
much as 50% of current use levels. Plant oils will be amount of solids and phosphorus in farm effluents.
needed to replace this fish oil. Phosphorus in hatchery effluents is present in two
forms: solid particles (e.g., bones and other insoluble
Environmental Considerations in forms), and soluble phosphorus excreted by fish in
Salmon and Trout Farming urine. Although particulate phosphorus can be
collected and removed, soluble phosphorus cannot
Salmon and trout farming does not consume water, be removed economically because it is present in
but it does enrich water with nutrients. These very low concentrations in very large quantities of
nutrients reduce water quality in lakes and rivers water. Thus, limiting the amount of digestible
into which farm effluents are discharged by phosphorus in feeds to the amount needed by the
increasing algae and aquatic plant growth. To fish is the approach used to produce low-polluting
control this, farms in Europe and the United States feeds. Using this approach, the amount of soluble
are subject to regulations limiting the levels of solids phosphorus excreted by fish has been reduced to
and nutrients in farm effluents. Phosphorus is the very low levels.
main nutrient of concern in effluents. Unassimilated
nutrients originate in uneaten feed, feed dust, feces

Figure 1: Changes in Protein and Fat Figure 2: Changes in Protein and Fat
Levels in Atlantic Salmon Feeds Over the Levels in Trout Feeds Over the Past Two
Past Two Decades Decades

60 45
50 40
Protein 35
40 Protein
30
30 Digestible 25
Protein Digestible
20 20 Protein
Fat
15
10 Fat
10
0 5
1960s 1970s 1980s 1990s 2000
0
1970 1980 1990 2000

Figure 3: Changes in Feed Conversion Ratios in Salmon and Trout Feeds

Over the Past Two Decades

2.5

1.5
Salmon
1 Trout

0.5

0
1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000

Use of Soybean Meals in Diets of Salmon and Trout -- 6

Reducing the amount of insoluble phosphorus in producer of farmed salmon in the world, so these
salmon and trout feeds requires two approaches: factors have a significant impact on global soybean
(1) using low-phosphorus feed ingredients; and meal use in salmon diets. The situation is different in
(2) increasing the bioavailability of phosphorus in Norway and Scotland, where soybean meal use in
feed ingredients by adding phytase, for example salmon diets can be as high as 25% when economics
(Cain and Garling, 1995). High-ash feed ingredients, so dictate. The best estimate of global soybean meal
such as fish meal, meat and bone meal, and poultry use in salmon diets, taking these factors into
byproduct meal, contain high amounts of account, is between 100,000 mt and 110,000 mt.
phosphorus associated with bones (Sugiura et al.,
2000). Plant protein ingredients, such as soybean Use of other soy protein sources is minimal in
meal, are low phosphorus ingredients. Replacing fish salmon and trout diets. Soy protein concentrates and
meal with soybean meal lowers the total phosphorus soy isolates are sometimes used in diets for fry, or
content of the diet. However, about 75% of the for specialty diets custom made for growers willing
phosphorus found in soybean meal is bound to to pay higher feed prices to obtain low fish meal
phytic acid (Hardy, 2002). This form of phosphorus, diets that do not contain rendered products. Full-fat
called phytate phosphorus, is indigestible to soybean meal is not widely used, despite positive
monogastric animals, like fish. As mentioned above, research reports concerning its use in salmon and
phosphorus can be released from phytate by the trout diets (described below). Soy oil is a leading
enzyme phytase, a natural constituent of seeds. candidate to replace a portion of fish oil in salmon
Phytase is available as a feed supplement, but the diets, especially in the United Kingdom. However,
enzymatic activity of phytase is destroyed by the canola oil is a leading competitor, and price dictates
heat associated with pelleting. Therefore, at present, use patterns. It is impossible to estimate use levels at
phytase must be added to pellets by top-dressing. present because feed manufacturers vary in their
ability to handle both fish and vegetable oils at plant
Current Use Levels of Soy Products in sites. This requires duplicating storage and in-plant
Salmon and Trout Diets conveying of oils unless oils are combined. The
industry is currently in the process of evaluating
As discussed earlier, soybean meal has been used in various options for contending with the prospects of
diets for trout for nearly 60 years, but only in diets insufficient fish oil supplies, and no clear consensus
for post-juvenile fish and only in limited amounts. regarding use strategies has yet emerged.
Other soy products evaluated or used in salmon and
trout diets are soy protein concentrate, soy isolate, Estimates of future protein requirements for
full-fat soybean meal and soy oil. Solvent extracted, aquaculture feeds depend on future production from
dehulled soybean meal (48% crude protein) is the various segments of the aquaculture industry and the
meal most commonly used in salmon and trout diets. supplies of fish meal. Barlow (2000) predicted that
aquaculture feed production would increase from
Current use levels in trout diets are no more than 13,098,000 mt in 2000 to 37,226,000 mt in 2010
20% soybean meal in post-juvenile diets (grow-out (Table 10). At today’s fish meal use levels in
diets). Given an estimated global production of formulations for various industry segments, the
503,000 mt of trout feed, and assuming that 75% of amount of fish meal needed to produce 37,226,000
this total is fed to post-juvenile fish, an estimate of mt of fish and shrimp feed would be 4,081,000 mt in
maximum soybean use in trout diets worldwide is 2010, up from 2,115,000 mt in 2000. This slightly
75,428 mt. Similar calculations can be applied to exceeds the amount of fish meal traded worldwide in
salmon diets, although other factors suggest that a non-El Nino years.
lower estimate is more reasonable, as discussed
below. This leads to a maximum estimate of soybean Barlow predicts that the percentage of fish meal in
meal use in diets of grow-out salmon of 151,000 mt. fish feed formulations will decrease and that total
In Chile, soybean meal is subject to import duties, fish meal use by the aquaculture industry will be
although product originating in Bolivia, Paraguay or 2,831,000 mt in 2010 (Table 9). The difference of
Brazil is exempt from the high duties imposed upon 1,250,000 mt (between 4,081,000 mt and 2,831,000
North American product. As a result, soybean meal mt) will be supplied by other protein sources. If fish
is used at levels between 5 to 10%, depending on the meal used in fish feeds contains 70% crude protein,
price of fish meal. Chile is the second largest 875,000 mt of protein from sources other than fish

Use of Soybean Meals in Diets of Salmon and Trout -- 7

meal will be needed annually in fish feeds by 2010. (Wilson, 1992) and likely lowers the levels of other
If soybean meal (48% crude protein) were used to heat-sensitive anti-nutritional factors. Full-fat
supply this protein, the increase in total use in all soybean meal has the advantage of adding both
aquaculture feeds would be 1,822,917 mt. If soy protein and lipid to the diet, an important
protein concentrate were used, the total would be consideration with respect to global fish oil supplies.
less, approximately 1,115,000 mt, because of its Providing that the full-fat soybeans are properly
higher protein content. Salmon and trout feed extruded to lower levels of anti-nutritional factors
production currently accounts for 12.5% of global (described below) they may see increasing use in the
fish feed production. It is likely that this percentage future. At present, however, their use in commercial
will drop by 2010, as other species sectors expand. If salmon and trout feeds is minimal.
salmon and trout feed production is 7% of global
fish feed production by 2010, then 2,606,000 mt of Nutritional Considerations Affecting Soy
feed will be produced. Product Use in Salmon and Trout Diets
At today’s use levels of soybean meal in salmon and Fish are similar to other animals in that they require
trout grow-out feeds (approximately 20%), by 2010 40 or more nutrients in their diets, including the
391,000 mt will be used annually in salmon and same 10 essential amino acids required by mammals
trout diets. If soy protein concentrate were to replace and birds. Fish meal has been the protein source of
40% of fish meal in salmon and trout diets by 2010, choice in salmon and trout diets because of its
the potential market would be approximately relatively high protein content (65-72%, depending
780,000 mt. This level of replacement has been on the species from which it is produced), and the
demonstrated to be feasible (Stickney et al., 1996; fact that the amino acid profile of fish meal is similar
Storebakken et al., 1998; Mambrini et al., 1999). to the amino acid requirements of salmonids. The
protein content of dehulled soybean meal is 48% and
Full-fat soybean meal has been evaluated in diets for the amino acid profile, while not as close to the
trout, Atlantic salmon and chinook salmon (Smith, dietary requirements of salmon and trout as fish
1977; Reinitz et al., 1978; Tacon et al., 1983; meal, is sufficient in most essential amino acids,
Wilson, 1992; Bjerkeng et al., 1997; Davies et al., except for methionine. Further, residual oil in fish
1997). In most studies, full-fat soybean meal was meal contributes essential fatty acids, e.g., long-
acceptable at levels equal to or exceeding those chain omega-3 fatty acids, especially
found suitable when soybean meal is used, perhaps eicosapentanoic acid (EPA, C20:5 n-3), and
because full-fat soybean meal is often extruded prior docosahexanoic acid (DHA, C22:6, n-3). Soybean
to its incorporation into diet mixtures. The additional oil contains about 8% linolenic acid (C18:3, n-3)
heat associated with extrusion of full-fat soybean that can be lengthened and desaturated to long-chain
meal lowers the level of trypsin inhibitor activity omega-3 fatty acids by salmon and trout. Soybean

Table 9: Fish Meal Use by Species Group (% in diet and 000mt),

Showing an Increase of 38% in Fish Meal Use by 2010

Species Group 2000 2010* 2000 2010*

Catfish 3% 0% 15 mt 0 mt
Salmon 40% 30% 454 mt 377 mt
Trout 30% 25% 176 mt 147 mt
Marine Fish 45% 40% 415 mt 688 mt
Flatfish 55% 45% 69 mt 263 mt
Shrimp 20% 20% 372 mt 485 mt
Carp 5% 2.5% 350 mt 675 mt

Source: Barlow (2000)

Use of Soybean Meals in Diets of Salmon and Trout -- 8

meal contains less than 2% residual oil and lowered in unheated soy flakes from 181 trypsin
negligible amounts of linolenic acid. units inhibited (TUI) per milligram sample to 1.8
TUI after 20 minutes of heat treatment (120oC, 25
Soybean meal contains anti-nutritional compounds psi) (Arndt et al., 1999). Protein solubility was
that must be removed or inactivated by processing reduced from 98% to 70% by this treatment, but
before the meal can be used successfully in animal further heating to 40 minutes or more reduced
or fish feeds (Storebakken et al., 2000). These vary protein solubility to below 33%, an indication of
in practical significance, and there are a number of over-heating (Araba and Dale, 1990). Protein
uncertainties with respect to the effects of various digestibility, measured in vivo using rainbow trout,
anti-nutritional factors on fish health or performance was increased from 74% to 91% by 20 minutes of
(Dong et al., 2000). Soy products are heated during heat treatment; this difference was presumably the
processing, and the degree of heat exposure result of heat inactivation of trypsin inhibitors.
influences the level or activity of several anti-
nutritional factors present in soybeans. The principal Regular solvent-extracted soybean meal, the most
compounds of concern in soybean meal are trypsin commonly used soybean product in feeds, is heat-
inhibitors, which reduce protein digestibility by treated to some extent during its manufacture,
binding with the digestive enzyme trypsin in the resulting in values of about 3.0 mg to 3.5 mg trypsin
intestine of the animal (Krogdahl et al., 1994). inhibited per gram sample (Tacon et al., 1983).
Further heating occurs during feed pelleting,
Trypsin inhibitors are sensitive to heat, and ordinary especially during cooking-extrusion pelleting,
processing after oil is extracted from raw soybeans presumably lowering trypsin inhibitor activity
lowers the level of trypsin inhibitors in the dried further. Full-fat soybeans (toasted whole soybeans)
meal to levels that do not affect the growth of most containing 46.5 mg TUI had TUI values of 7.6 and
domestic animals and some species of fish. Salmon 8.5 after being extruded (Wilson, 1992), illustrating
and trout are more sensitive to trypsin inhibitor the effects of cooking-extrusion on trypsin inhibitor
levels, and more extensive heat treatment is levels. Soy protein concentrates have low trypsin
necessary to reduce residual trypsin inhibitor levels inhibitor levels (Arndt et al., 1999; Mambrini et al.,
below the levels affecting protein digestibility and 1999).
growth performance, which is 5 mg/g (Krogdahl et
al., 1994; Rumsey et al., 1995). However, Given the importance of heat treatment on trypsin
overheating soybean meal may reduce protein inhibitor levels in soybean meal, tests to determine
quality by fostering reactions between amino acid the adequacy of heat treatment of soybean meal are
residues and portions of the carbohydrate fraction in critically important. The various chemical tests used
soybeans. Trypsin inhibitor levels were rapidly to determine the adequacy of heat treatment of
soybean meal can be divided into two groups—those
that detect underheated soybean meal and those that
detect overheated meal (Vohra and Kratzer, 1991).
Table 10: Predicted Use of Fish Meal in
Chemical tests to detect underheated soybean meal
Aquafeeds in 2010 are determined by urease activity, trypsin activity
and protein solubility. Urease, an enzyme naturally
Compared to amount needed if percentage of fish
present in soybeans, does not have any substantial
meal in feeds remains the same as 2000
nutritional relevance except that it is heat-sensitive
and its activity correlates well with residual trypsin
Feed Fish meal
activity in dried soybean meal. Urease activity in
(000 mt) (000 mt)
commercial soybean meal ranges from 0.02 to 0.1
2000 (est.) 13,098 2,115
increase in pH (Vohra and Kratzer, 1991). Values
2010 (today’s use levels) 37,226 4,081
that have more than a 0.5 increase in pH indicate
2010* 2,831
insufficient heat treatment of the soybean meal. If no
increase in pH is detected with the urease test, this
Difference for 2010 at today’s use levels and
may mean that the soybean meal has been
Barlow’s prediction - 1,250,000 mt
overheated, so some residual urease activity in the
meal is preferred, at least for soybean meal intended
Barlow (2000)
for use in poultry feeds. Unheated soybean meal has

Use of Soybean Meals in Diets of Salmon and Trout -- 9

a urease activity of more than 2.25 pH rise to 40-50% replacement (Refstie et al., 2000). Medale
(Waldroup et al., 1985). et al. (1998) showed that trout feed intake decreased
stepwise as the level of soybean meal in the diet
Another method for measuring the extent of heat increased. However, trout are reported to adapt to
treatment of soybean meal is the water solubility diets containing soybean meal, increasing feed
test, which involves measuring Kjeldahl nitrogen intake after a period of adaptation from pre-study
levels in the soybean meal and in a water extract of diets that nearly always contain fish meal. This
the soybean meal (Vohra and Kratzer, 1991). The suggests that the effects of soybean meal on feed
method has been slightly modified by extracting the intake may be temporary, at least in some feed
sample in 0.2% potassium hydroxide (KOH) (Araba formulations.
and Dale, 1990). Heating decreases the percentage
of 0.2% KOH-extractable proteins, from about 99% In an interesting study on adaptation to a diet
in raw soybean meal to about 72% after 20 minutes containing soybean meal, two groups of rainbow
of autoclaving, corresponding to a decrease in trout were fed either a fish meal-based diet or a diet
trypsin inhibitor units from 21.1 to 1.0 (Araba and containing 60% soybean meal and weight gain was
Dale, 1990). measured for two periods (Refstie et al., 1997).
During the first 28 days, gain was 40% higher in the
Soy products contain compounds that influence feed group fed the fish meal-based diet, but in the second
intake, gut histology and immunological function 28 day period, weight gain was similar. Refstie et al.
(Rumsey et al., 1995; Storebakken et al., 2000). (1997) then fed trout a fish meal-based diet or a 40%
Complete replacement of fish meal with soybean soybean meal diet for seven days, after which the
meal in trout feed lowers growth, primarily by fish were offered a 1:1 mixture of the two diets.
lowering feed intake, but soybean meal levels of Diets were supplemented with different inert
20% or less have little or no effect on trout markers, allowing the researchers to estimate feed
performance. Replacement of fish meal with preference by analyzing the proportion of the inert
soybean meal at levels between 20% and 40%, e.g., markers in the feces of the fish. Fish adapted to the
29% soybean meal and 42% fish meal in the diet, fish meal-based diet overwhelmingly preferred that
have had variable effects on feed intake or growth, diet, but those adapted to the 40% soybean meal diet
depending on the study (Rumsey et al., 1995; consumed it in a 6:4 ratio, eating slightly more of the
Medale et al., 1998; Refstie et al., 2000). This fish meal diet. The authors suggested that the ratio
variance is perhaps associated with the source of the might have been nearly even had the adaptation
soybean meal, feed formulation or experimental period been longer. No similar studies have been
design. Thus, studies involving partial or total conducted with salmon.
replacement of fish meal with soybean meal in diets
for rainbow trout are difficult to compare. Some studies with Atlantic or Pacific salmon
suggest that lower dietary soybean meal levels may
Early studies used diets that were low in total lipid be warranted in salmon compared to rainbow trout.
compared to today’s diets (Reinitz, 1980; Dabrowski Pacific salmon fingerlings are very sensitive to even
and Wojno, 1977; Tacon et al., 1983; Alexis, 1990). small percentages of soybean meal in the diet and
This is significant because fish oil likely contributes feed intake was severely reduced as dietary soybean
to feed palatability. Given the increase in lipid meal was increased (Fowler, 1980). Growth of
content associated with fish oil addition to high- Atlantic salmon smolts was reduced when fish meal
energy feeds, the negative effects on feed intake was replaced with soybean meal during freshwater
associated with the addition of soybean meal to rearing, mainly the result of lower nutrient
salmon and trout diets may be somewhat reduced digestibility (Olli et al., 1994). Subsequent studies
with today’s feeds. In some studies, experimental with post-juvenile Atlantic salmon reared in
diets differed in protein content, thus confounding seawater confirmed that growth was 44% higher in
interpretation of results (Pongmaneerat and fish fed a diet without soybean meal compared to a
Watanabe, 1992; Pongmaneerat and Watanabe, diet containing 30% soybean meal (Refstie et al.,
1993; Watanabe and Pongmaneerat, 1993). In 2000). Feed intake was not a factor in the differences
carefully-conducted studies designed to evaluate the in weight gain. Digestibility values for fat and
effects of soybean meal inclusion in diets for energy were 16% and 9% higher for the fish meal
rainbow trout, no differences have been observed up diet than for the diet containing soybean meal.

Use of Soybean Meals in Diets of Salmon and Trout -- 10

Alcohol-soluble components of soybean meal are palatability of feeds containing soy products.
reported to lower fat digestibility in Atlantic salmon Isoflavone levels are highly variable in soy products,
(Olli and Krogdahl, 1995) and also have been but to date no definitive research has demonstrated
implicated in distal intestine enteritis (van den Ingh that trout growth is affected by high levels
et al., 1996). Fish can recover from distal enteritis (Mambrini et al., 1999).
when fasted (Baeverfjord and Krogdahl, 1996).
The effects of oligosaccharides in soybean meal on
Including soybean meal in diets is reported to alter feed intake or growth performance of Atlantic
the intestine of salmon and trout. The intestinal salmon or trout are not clear. However, when salmon
mucosa of trout fed soybean meal-containing diets were fed a diet containing 40% of a soybean meal
was blunted or flattened, thus decreasing the having lower than normal levels of oligosaccharides,
absorptive surface of the proximal and distal trypsin inhibitors, lectins and soy antigens, feed
intestine, but it is not known if these changes were intake and fish weight gain were similar to those of
responsible for differences in growth associated with fish fed a fish meal-control diet, and both groups
feeding diets containing high levels of soybean meal performed better than fish fed a diet containing
(Rumsey et al., 1995). In Atlantic salmon, an regular soybean meal (Refstie et al., 1998). The
inflammation of the distal intestine (enteritis) when levels of lectin were 0.15 milligrams per gram (mg
soybean meal is included in the diet has been g-1) and 0.04 mg g-1 in regular and special soybean
reported by many researchers (van den Ingh et al., meal, respectively. Trypsin inhibitor activity was
1991; Refstie et al., 2000; Refstie et al., 2001). This 0.13 mg g-1 and 0.09 mg g-1, respectively.
condition is associated with higher moisture levels in Oligosaccharide levels were not reported. The
feces, suggesting more rapid passage through the relative importance of these anti-nutritional
gut, with less time available for digestion and components of soybean meals remains unknown.
absorption to occur. It is not known what component
of soybean meal causes intestinal changes, although Antigens present in soybean products stimulate the
alcohol-soluble components have been suggested as nonspecific defense mechanisms of trout, but it is
a factor in the development of distal intestine unknown if such stimulation of the immune system
enteritis (van den Ingh et al., 1996). results in higher resistance to infectious disease
(Rumsey et al., 1995). Further research is needed to
Soy protein concentrate production involves determine if low-antigen soy products are
extraction steps that remove the component of advantageous with respect to immune function in
soybeans that causes distal enteritis (Storebakken et salmonids. Susceptibility to furuncolosis, caused by
al., 2000). Rainbow trout performance is unaffected Aermonas salmonicida ssp. salmonicida, is higher in
by replacing 50% of dietary protein with soy protein Atlantic salmon fed diets containing soybean meal
concentrate (Stickney et al., 1996; Medale et al., compared to fish fed diets containing fish meal or
1998; Mambrini et al., 1999). soy protein concentrate, presumably because the
soybean meal diet caused distal enteritis, and the
Other components of soybean products postulated to pathogen is presumed to infect fish via the gut
affect growth, feed intake or metabolism of (Krogdahl et al., 2000). Immune function may also
salmonids are saponins, isoflavones, be affected when diets containing soybean meal are
oligosaccharides and phytate. Methanol extraction of fed (Bakke-McKellep et al., 2000).
soy flour improved growth rate of chum salmon
fingerlings fed diets in which 77% of the fish meal Soybean meal and soy protein concentrate contain
protein in the diets was replaced, providing that approximately 8.0 mg and 8.2 mg phosphorus kg-1,
essential amino acids were supplemented, but of which about 75% is present as phytic acid. The
growth was significantly less than fish fed the fish processes used to produce soy protein concentrates
meal-control diet (Murai et al., 1987). Purified increase the level of phytic acid to 1.3% to 2.2%
ethanol extracts containing saponins were added to (Storebakken et al., 1998). The enzyme phytase
the diets of chinook salmon and rainbow trout and releases phosphorus from phytic acid, and the
found to significantly lower feed intake (Bureau et addition of phytase significantly increases
al., 1998). The authors postulated that saponins are phosphorus availability in soybean products from
the component of soybean meal and soy protein less than 40% to more than 94% (Hardy, 2002).
concentrates (plus some soy isolates) that lowers

Use of Soybean Meals in Diets of Salmon and Trout -- 11

To summarize the anti-nutritional factors of interest containing plant oils are reported to be altered, with
in salmon and trout nutrition, trypsin inhibitors, panelists preferring samples from fish fed diets
saponins and phytate are the factors appearing at containing plant oils over those receiving all fish-oil
present to have the potential to lower fish diets (Skonberg et al., 1993).
performance when soy products are included in
salmon and trout diets. Heat treatment affects Future Outlook
several, but further processing, e.g., extraction or
enzyme treatment, are required to deal with the Aquaculture is the fastest growing segment of
others (Table 11). livestock production worldwide. It is expected to
exceed cattle farming in terms of total production by
Effect of Diet on Product Quality 2010. Aquaculture is growing in large part because
production is switching to more intensive, higher-
Studies designed to examine the effects of soybean input systems. The main input is feed, and as
products on sensory attributes of salmon and trout mentioned earlier, feed production for aquatic
are rare. No differences in taste or flavor of rainbow animals is expected to nearly triple by the end of the
trout fillets was found when fish were fed diets decade. This growth absolutely dictates greater use
containing protein sources primarily of animal of protein sources other than fish meal. Soy products
(including fish) protein sources or plant protein are the leading candidates to supply this protein (and
sources (Smith et al., 1988). Differences in sensory possibly oil).
and physical characteristics of trout fillets from fish
fed 33% or 100% replacement levels of soy protein Further research is needed to determine the
concentrate or 50% soybean meal for fish meal have importance of various anti-nutritional factors in soy
been reported, but the differences were not dramatic products on fish performance, and to either develop
or described in detail (Kaushik et al., 1995). cultivars to minimize the presence of these factors,
Substituting full-fat soybean meal for 10% of the such as the development of low-phytate cultivars, or
fish meal in a diet for Atlantic salmon resulted in no to develop processing methods to lower their levels
significant differences compared to salmon fed the in final products. Further research is also needed to
control (no soy) diet (Bjerkeng et al., 1997). identify the components of soy responsible for
reducing feed intake and for causing distal enteritis
The omega-3 fatty acid content of trout fillets in salmon and trout.
depends upon the omega-3 content of their feed, but
averages 22% of fillet lipids when fish are fed diets Feed processing, e.g., extrusion, requires further
containing fish oil. The current trend is toward study as well, given the prospect that the relatively
replacing up to 50% of added fish oil with plant oil high temperatures and pressures of extrusion could
in grow-out feeds for trout and salmon. The effects increase or decrease nutritional value, depending
of such replacement on fatty acid composition of upon operating conditions (Cheng and Hardy, 2002).
fillets are likely to be an elevation of linoleic acid Most attention has thus far been given to soybean
(C18:2, n-6) if soybean oil is used, as has been meal, but extruded full-fat soybeans may be
reported in Atlantic salmon (Hardy et al., 1987). increasingly useful in salmon and trout diets because
Sensory attributes of salmon and trout fed diets they contribute both protein and lipid to the diet.

Table 11: Anti-Nutritional Factors in Soy Products and Processing Steps to

Remove or Inactivate Them
Anti-Nutrient Heat Sensitive Extractable Other Treatment
Trypsin inhibitors yes no no
Hemagglutinin yes no no
Phytic acid no no phytase
Saponin no yes no
Phytoestrogen no yes no
Anti-vitamin yes ? no

Use of Soybean Meals in Diets of Salmon and Trout -- 12

Overall, however, the prospects are very Fowler, L.G. (1980). Substitution of soybean and cottonseed
encouraging for soy products as future components products for fish meal in diets fed to chinook and coho
salmon. The Progressive Fish-Culturist, 42(2), 87-91.
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Diet. The Progressive Fish-Culturist, 33(2), 67-75.
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Barlow, S. (2000). Fishmeal and fish oil. The Advocate, 3(2), Kaushik, S.J., Cravedi, J.P., Lalles, J.P., Sumpter, J.,
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Cain, K.D., Garling, D.L. (1995). Pretreatment of soybean meal Krogdahl, A., Berg-Lea, T., Olli, J.J. (1994). Soybean
with phytase for salmonid diets to reduce phosphorus proteinase inhibitors affect intestinal trypsin activities and
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114-119. mykiss). Comparative Biochemistry Physiology, 107A(1),
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Dabrowski, K., Wojno, T. (1977). Studies on the utilization by energy, extruded diets on the growth and nutrient utilization
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wheat gluten and influence of lysine supplementation in mykiss) fed increasing dietary levels of soy protein
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Donaldson, L.P., Foster, F.J. (1937). A summary table of some methanol treatment and amino acid supplementation of
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Dong, F.M., Hardy, R.W., Higgs, D.A. (2000). Antinutritional National Research Council (NRC) (1993). Nutrient
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(pp. 45-51). New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc. Press.

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Olli, J., Krogdahl, A. (1995). Alcohol soluble components of Smith, R.R. (1977). Recent research involving full-fat soybean
soybeans seem to reduce fat digestibility in fishmeal based meal in salmonid diets. Salmonid, 8-11, 18.
diets for Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar, L). Aquaculture Smith, R.R., Kincaid, H.L., Regenstein, J.M., Rumsey, G.L.
Research, 26, 831-835. (1988). Growth, carcass composition, and taste of rainbow
Olli, J.J., Krogdahl, A., van den Ingh, T.S.G.A.M., Brattas, L.E. trout of different strains fed diets containing primarily plant
(1994). Nutritive value of four soybean products in diets for or animal protein. Aquaculture, 70, 309-321.
Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar L.). Acta Agric. Scand., 44, Stickney, R.R., Hardy, R.W., Koch, K., Harrold, R., Seawright,
50-60. D., Massee, K.C. (1996). The effects of substituting selected
Phillips, A.M., Tunison, A.V., Fenn, A.H., Mitchell, C.R., oilseed protein concentrates for fish meal in rainbow trout
McCay, C.M. (1940). The Nutrition of Trout. Fisheries diets. Journal of the World Aquaculture Society, 27, 57-63.
Research Bulletin, 9, 2-32. Storebakken, T., Refstie, S., Ruyter, B. (2000). Soy products as
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Pongmaneerat, J., Watanabe, T. (1992). Utilization of soybean Storebakken, T., Shearer, K.D., Roem, A.J. (1998). Availability
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Suisan Gakkaishi, 58(10), 1983-1990. protein concentrate and phytase treated soy protein
Pongmaneerat, J., Watanabe, T. (1993a). Effects of extrusion concentrate based diets to Atlantic salmon. Aquaculture,
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Pongmaneerat, J., Watanabe, T. (1993b). Nutritional evaluation Utilization of fish and animal by-product meals in low-
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Refstie, S., Helland, S.J., Storebakken, T. (1997). Adaptation to Tacon, A.G.J., Haaster, J.V., Featherstone, P.B. , Kerr, K.,
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Refstie, S., Korsoen, O.J., Storebakken, T., Baeverfjord, G., diet for rainbow trout. Bull. Jpn. Soc. Sci. Fish., 49(9), 1437-
Lein, I., Roem, A.J. (2000). Differing nutritional responses 1443.
to dietary defatted soybean meal in rainbow trout Tunison, A.V., Phillips, A.M., Brockway, D.R. (1941). The
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Refstie, S., Storebakken, T., Baeverfjord, G., Roem, A. (2001). Alcohol soluble components seem to be responsible for the
Long-term protein and lipid growth of Atlantic salmon morphological changes in the distal intestine of Atlantic
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by soy protein products at medium or high lipid levels. of Fish Diseases, 19, 47-53.
Aquaculture, 193, 91-106. van den Ingh, T.S.G.A.M., Krogdahl, A., Olli, J.J., Hendrix,
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Anderson, D.P., Siwicki, A.K. (1995). Soy protein in diets Wilson, T. R. Full-fat soybean meal-an acceptable, economical
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Skonberg, D.I., Rasco, B.A., Dong, F.M. (1993). Effects of
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Use of Soybean Meals in Diets of Salmon and Trout -- 14

Managed Aquaculture Program
This technical review paper was created through the Managed Aquaculture Marketing and Research
Program (AquaSoy Initiative), funded through the United Soybean Board and American Soybean
Association. The AquaSoy Initiative is designed to remove the barriers to soybean meal use in diets fed to
aquaculture species. The program has been divided into two components, one focused on awareness, the
other on research.

The awareness program initially focuses on Southeast Asia and India, where there are significant
opportunities to intensify production within established aquaculture industries with the use of soybean
meal-based diets.

The focus of the research component is salmonids, specifically rainbow trout and Atlantic salmon, and
commercial crustaceans, all of which are large industries currently underutilizing soybean meal. The
highly integrated and collaborative nature of this initial series of projects should result in expansion of
soybean meal into new rapidly growing existing markets in North America, Europe and Asia.

This paper is one of a series of four technical review papers prepared by aquaculture specialists that
summarize soy product use and potential in the diets for key aquaculture species groups. The technical
reviews address the following species groups: 1) freshwater omnivorous fish; ø2) marine fish; 3) marine
shrimp; and 4) salmonids. All of these papers can be viewed at www.soymeal.org.
 United Soybean Board
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Suite 130
Chesterfield, MO 63005
800/989-USB1 (8721)
www.unitedsoybean.org

American Soybean Association Headquarters

12125 Woodcrest Executive Drive, Suite 100
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800/688-7692; 314/576-1770
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