IMPORTANT BEHAVIOURISTIC

THEORIES

BEHAVIOURISTIC
THEORIES

PAVLOV THORNDIKE SKINNER

 PAVLOV’S CLASSICAL CONDITIONING

I. Introduction: Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936) was a Russian Physiologist

who won Nobel Prize (1904) for his work on digestion. Today he is
generally regarded as a psychologist though his work is considered part
of physiology.
II. Classical Conditioning: It is a kind of learning in which a previously
neutral stimulus acquires the property of a natural stimulus, come to
elicit a response, through its association with a stimulus that naturally
brings about the response. It is also called signal learning.
III. Pavlov’s Experiment with dog: A deprived dog confined in a one way
glass sound proof cabin with metronome inside and a devise to drop
meat powder in front of it. Sound is followed by meat within ½ second.
Sound alone elicited salivation after conditioning.
IV. Important Terms:
1. Neutral Stimulus: A stimulus that before conditioning has no effect on
desired response. Eg. Sound of a buzzer
2. Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS): A stimulus that brings about response
naturally (without having being learned) Eg. Meat powder
3. Unconditioned Response (UCR): A response that is natural and needs
no training. Eg. Salivation at the smell of food.
4. Conditioned Stimulus (CS): A once neutral stimulus that has been
paired with an UCS to bring about a response formerly caused only by
the UCS. Eg:-Sound eliciting salivation
 5. Conditioned Response (CR): A response that, after conditioning
follows a previously neutral stimulus. Eg. Salivation at the sound of a
buzzer.

In classical conditioning, conditioning of respondent behaviour occurs

through a process of stimulus association and substitution.
V. Extinction : The process through which a CS gradually loses ability to
evoke CR, when it is no longer followed by UCS.
VI. Spontaneous Recovery : Reappearance of weakened CR to a CS after
an interval of time following extinction.
VII. Reconditioning: The rapid recovery of a CR to CS – UCS paring
following extinction.
VIII. Stimulus Generalisation: The tendency of stimuli similar to a CS to
evoke a CR. The greater the similarity between two stimuli, the greater
the likelihood of stimulus generation.
IX. Stimulus Discrimination: The process by which an organism learners
to differentiate among stimuli, restricting its response to one in
particular.
X. High Order Conditioning: A conditioning stimulus (CS), eg. Sound of
turning fork, can be used as UCS to produce further conditioning.
XI. Experimental Neurosis: When discrimination of CS & UCS becomes
impossible, the brain cell interaction leads to neurotic behaviour.
XII. Neural Basis of Classical Conditioning: Researchers indicate that
the site of conditioned response is cerebellum, a brain structure involved
in balance and coordination. Other structures now known to be involved
are hippocampus, amygdala and brain stem areas that project to or
receive information from cerebellum
XIII. Why classical conditioning is included in B.Ed. Curriculum?
 Most of the emotional experience can be conditioned –
 The attitude of students towards school, of teachers towards children
and towards some class divisions are through the process of stimulus
generalisation.
 Develop good habits.
 Develop interest and sense of appreciation.
 Eliminate undesirable habits.
 Eliminate phobias.
 Use in psychotherapy.
 Useful for language learning.
 Useful for animal training.
 ‘Experimental Neurosis’ indicates that unless similar concepts are
properly differentiated, the likelihood of confusion and problems in
learning.
Questions
1. Define Classical Conditioning?
2. What is the educational implication of experimental neurosis?
3. Distinguish between stimulus generalisation and stimulus
discrimination.
4. How extinction differ from spontaneous recovery in classical
conditioning?
5. Describe briefly the relevance of classical conditioning in education?
6. Explain Pavlov’s experiment with classroom implications
 THORNDIKE’S TRIAL & ERROR / SUCCESS
THEORY

I. Introduction: Edward Lee Thorndike (1874-1949) was an American

Psychologist.

II. Experiment with Cat: A deprived cat in a puzzle box with a lever that
would enable it to get out if pressed- and a fish visible to it kept out side
– random trails, progressive elimination of errors & successive
approximation of learned response.
III. Principles of Learning based on Thorndike’s Experiment
a. Learning involves trial and error.
b. Learning is the result of formation of connection or bonds (S-R)
c. Learning is incremental not insightful
d. Learning is direct; not cognitive.
e. The S-R connections are established in nervous system.
f. The connection (bond) strength can be increased or decreased.
IV. Laws of Learning based on Thorndike’s Experiment
All laws explain how to strengthen / weaken S-R Bonds
1. Law of Effect: When a modifiable connection between stimulus and
response is made and is followed by satisfying state of affairs, that
connections strength is increased. When made and accompanied by an
annoying state of affairs, its strength is decreased. It emphasises the
role of reward and punishment in education.
 Revised law of Effect: An unpleasant situation / punishment need not
necessary decrease the strength of S-R connection.

2. Law of Exercise:
a. Law of Use – Other things being equal, the more frequently, a
modifiable connection is made between a stimulus and response,
that connection strength is increased.
b. Law of disuse: Other things being equal when a modifiable
connection not made between stimulus and response over a period
of time, that connection strength is decreased.
c. Revised law of exercise: Mechanical use / disuse does not
necessarily lead to effective learning / total forgetting.

3. Law of Readiness:
a) When any conduction unit is ready to conduct for it to do so is
satisfying.
b) When any conduction unit is not ready to conduct, for it to conduct is
annoying.
c) When any conduction unit is ready to conduct for it not to conduct is
annoying.
Satisfaction strengthens the bond, but annoyance weakens.

V. Supplementary laws of Learning :

4. Law of multiple response:- When an individual faces a problem, he

responds in a variety of ways before arriving at correct response.
 5. Law of attitude:- Individual leans better if he develops a positive
attitude.
6. Law of analogy:- When an individual faces a problem, the response he
makes will resemble to an earlier response in a similar situation.
7. Law of pre-potency of elements:- Learner reacts to the learning
situation in a selective manner, due to the influence of past
experience.
8. Law of Associative Shifting:- Any response may be elicited from the
learner, of which he is capable, in association with any situation to
which he is sensitive.
VI. Educatonal implications of trial and error theory in B.Ed
Curriculum
a. Motivate the child before learning.
b. Make use of the previous knowledge.
c. Arrange task from simple to complex
d. Strengthen S – R connections of those things to be remembered by
regular use/ practice weaken others by disuse or by annoying
consequences.
e. Rote memory and mechanical repetition may be resorted judiciously.
f. Punishment should be judiciously used.
g. Provide maximum opportunity to review.
h. Provide rewards, prize and praise.

Questions

 Comment on revised Law of Effect.

 Define Law of Readiness
 How Law of Exercise is useful for teachers?
 Explain the principles of learning based on Thorndike’s experiment.
 Describe briefly the supplementary laws of learning

 Explain Thorndike’s theory of learning with special emphasis on

classroom implications
 SKINNER’S OPERANT CONDITIONING

I. Introduction: B. F. Skinner (1904 – 1990) was a professor at Harvard

University.

II. Operant Conditioning / Instrumental Conditioning: It is defined as a

process of learning whereby a response is made more frequent / more
probable by reinforcement. He holds the view that behaviour can be
shaped by reinforcement, and by chaining reinforcement, complex
behaviour also can be shaped.
III. Skinner’s Experiment with Rat & Pigeons: Skinner Box – deprived
organism – emitted response - instantly followed by reinforcement – eg.
Pecking a disc and getting a pellet of grain-repetition of the response.
IV. Important Terms

 Reinforcement/Reinforcer: A reinforcer is the stimulus whose

presentation or removal increases the probability of a response
reoccurring. It is important that reinforcer is contingent upon response
ie, response result in the occurrence of reinforcer. Reinforcement is the
process of manipulating the reinforcer.
 Positive Reinforcement: Any pleasant stimulus whose presentation
increases the likelihood of a particular behaviour. Eg. Prize to a child.
 Negative Reinforcement: Any aversive stimulus, the removal of which
increases the likelihood of a particular behaviour. Eg. Electric shock
 Punishment: The presentation of an unpleasant stimuli after an
undesirable response.
 Omission Training: Positive reinforcement is withdrawn following an
undesirable response . Eg:- Parents turning off TV following some
undesirable behaviour.
 Primary Reinforcer: Reinforcer which directly satisfies physiological
needs. Eg:-Food, Water,
 Secondary Reinforcer: Reinforcer that satisfies acquired need rather
than inborn ones. Eg. Money is a good secondary reinforcer. It does not
satisfy any physical need directly.
 Shaping:- It refers to the judicious use of selective reinforcement to
bring certain desirable changes in the behaviour of the organism. The
basic process in shaping is successive approximation to the desired
behaviour. Eg. Skinner taught a pigeon to walk in a fig.8 through
shaping.
At first Pigeon got its reward for simply turning its head in right
direction, then for taking a step in the right direction, then for making
the correct turn, and so on until it had learned to do a complete figure
– 8.

It is useful as a technique for introducing desirable modification in the

behaviour.
 Stimulus Generalisation: Tendency of similar stimuli to elicit same
response.
 Stimulus Discrimination: Probability for response to occur more often
in the presence of one stimulus than others.
 Why Skinner’s Operant Conditioning is included in B.Ed.
Curriculum?
1. Learning process should be so designed as to create minimum
frustration and maximum satisfaction, because behaviour depends on
consequence.
2. Useful for behaviour modification.
3. The complex learning task to be presented in simple units with
provision for reinforcement after each unit.
4. Motivation, especially extrinsic should be given importance.
5. Reinforcement should be given at proper time.
6. Avoid punishment.
7. Ignore improper behaviour for extinction.
8. Useful for programmed instruction & PSI

Programmed Instruction (P I)
A method of teaching, using teaching machines, a device for serial
presentation of ‘frames’ with smallest teaching units with provision for
immediate testing and feedback – self learning strategy with built in
feedback mechanism.

Following steps of shaping is used in PI

1. Complex task should be reframed into simpler tasks, for presenting.

2. Reinforcement contingent upon performance of each step.
(Knowledge of result or feedback is the reinforcement)
3. Learning proceeds at his own pace. (Self initiated learning}
Personalised system of Instruction (PSI)
Also known as Keller Plan. Fred. S. Keller developed it to teach psychology
for post graduate students, dividing the entire portion of the course into
small units, each learned by the student, tested by the proctor before
proceeding to next unit.
1. Materials of courses is divided into simple units, each must be
mastered before entering to the next.
2. Take their own pace.
3. Being allowed to go to the next unit after mastery of first unit is the
reinforcement.
Questions
1. Define Operant Conditioning.
2. Distinguish punishment from Negative reinforcement
3. Differentiate between punishment and omission training
4. Discuss how Operant Conditioning is useful for PSI.
5. Explain shaping with an example.
6. Suggest an instructional programme based on operant conditioning
theory of B.F. Skinner and explain it.
7. Explain Instrumental Conditioning theory of B.F. Skinner with special
emphasis on classroom implication.
Reference:
1. Atkinson & Hilgard – Introduction to Psychology (2009)
2. Berkeley Calif & Mc Cutchan – Learning and Instruction (1977)
3. Crow, LDT Crow Alice – Human Development & Learning (1964)
4. Fernald / Fernald - Introduction to Psychology (V Edition),2001
5. Gari. R. - The Psychology of Learning
6. Hilgard. R. – Theories of Learning (1956)
7. James .W. Kalat – Biological Psychology, V Edn. Books & Cole, 1993
8. Rober .A. Baron - Psychology ( V Edition )
9. Robert. F. Biehler – Psychology
10. Robert .S. Feldman – Understanding Psychology (IV Edition)]
11. Willam S. Sahakian – Theory of Learning