Chapter 1: 1-Phase Induction Motor

1.1 INTRODUCTION:
We use the single-phase power system more widely than three phase system for domestic
purposes, commercial purposes and some extent in industrial uses. Because, the single-phase
system is more economical than a three-phase system and the power requirement in most of the
houses, shops, offices are small, which can be easily met by a single phase system. The single
phase motors are simple in construction, cheap in cost, reliable and easy to repair and maintain.
Due to all these advantages, the single phase motor finds its application in vacuum cleaners,
fans, washing machines, centrifugal pumps, blowers, washing machines, etc. An induction
motor or asynchronous motor is an AC electric motor in which the electric current in
the rotor needed to produce torque is obtained by electromagnetic induction from the magnetic
field of the stator winding. An induction motor can therefore be made without electrical
connections to the rotor. An induction motor's rotor can be either wound type or squirrel-cage
type.

1.2 HISTORY:
The first commutator-free single phase AC induction motor was invented by Hungarian engineer Otto
Blathy, he used the single phase motor to propel his invention, the electricity meter.The first
AC commutator-free three-phase induction motors were independently invented by Galileo
Ferraris and Nikola Tesla, a working motor model having been demonstrated by the former in 1885
and by the latter in 1887.
Mikhail invented the cage-rotor induction motor in 1889 and the three-limb transformer in
1890.The General Electric Company (GE) began developing three-phase induction motors in 1891.

1.3 CONSTRUCTION:
Like any other electrical motor asynchronous motor also have two main parts namely rotor and
stator.

Stator: As its name indicates stator is a stationary part of induction motor. A single phase AC
supply is given to the stator of single phase induction motor.

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Rotor: The rotor is a rotating part of an induction motor. The rotor connects the mechanical
load through the shaft. The rotor in the single-phase induction motor is of squirrel cage rotor
type. The construction of single phase induction motor is almost similar to the squirrel cage
three-phase induction motor. But in case of a single phase induction motor, the stator has two
windings instead of one three-phase winding in three phase induction motor.

1.4 STATOR OF SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR:

The stator of the single-phase induction motor has laminated stamping to reduce eddy current
losses on its periphery. The slots are provided on its stamping to carry stator or main winding.
Stampings are made up of silicon steel to reduce the hysteresis losses. When we apply a single
phase AC supply to the stator winding, the magnetic field gets produced, and the motor rotates
at speed slightly less than the synchronous speed Ns. Synchronous speed Ns is given by
Ns=120f/2 Where, f = supply voltage frequency, P = No. of poles of the motor.

The construction of the stator of the single-phase induction motor is similar to that of three
phase induction motor except there are two dissimilarities in the winding part of the single
phase induction motor.
Firstly, the single-phase induction motors are mostly provided with concentric coils. We can
easily adjust the number of turns per coil can with the help of concentric coils. The MMF
distribution is almost sinusoidal.
Except winding and the auxiliary winding, these two windings are placed in space quadrature
to each other. For shaded pole motor, the asynchronous motor has two stator windings namely
the main and the auxiliary winding. These two windings are placed in space quadrature to each
other.

1.5 ROTOR OF SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR:

The construction of the rotor of the single-phase induction motor is similar to the squirrel cage
three-phase induction motor. The rotor is cylindrical and has slots all over its periphery. The
slots are not made parallel to each other but are a little bit skewed as the skewing prevents
magnetic locking of stator and rotor teeth and makes the working of induction motor more
smooth and quieter, i.e., less noise. The squirrel cage rotor consists of aluminum, brass or
copper bars. These aluminum or copper bars are called rotor conductors and placed in the slots
on the periphery of the rotor. The copper or aluminum rings permanently short the rotor
conductors called the end rings. To provide mechanical strength, these rotor conductors are
braced to the end ring and hence form a complete closed circuit resembling a cage and hence

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got its name as squirrel cage induction motor. As end rings permanently short the bars, the rotor
electrical resistance is very small and it is not possible to add external resistance as the bars get
permanently shorted.

Fig: 1.1 Rotor of Single Phase Induction motor

1.6 WORKING PRINCIPLE:

We know that for the working of any electrical motor whether its AC or DC motor, we require
two fluxes as the interaction of these two fluxes produced the required torque.When we apply a
single phase AC supply to the stator winding of single phase induction motor, the alternating
current starts flowing through the stator or main winding. This alternating current produces an
alternating flux called main flux. This main flux also links with the rotor conductors and hence
cut the rotor conductors. According to the Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction, EMF
gets induced in the rotor. As the rotor circuit is closed one so, the current starts flowing in the
rotor. This current is called the rotor current. This rotor current produces its flux called rotor
flux. Since this flux is produced due to the induction principle so, the motor working on this
principle got its name as an induction motor. Now there are two fluxes one is main flux, and
another is called rotor flux. These two fluxes produce the desired torque which is required by
the motor to rotate.

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1.6.1 Starting Techniques of Single Phase Induction Motors

According to double field revolving theory, we can resolve any alternating quantity into two
components. Each component has a magnitude equal to the half of the maximum magnitude of
the alternating quantity, and both these components rotate in the opposite direction to each
other. When we apply a single phase AC supply to the stator winding of single phase induction
motor, it produces its flux of magnitude, φm. According to the double field revolving theory,
flux as forwarding component of flux, φf and the backward component of flux this alternating
flux, φm is divided into two components of magnitude φm/2. Each of these components will
rotate in the opposite direction, with the synchronous speed, Ns. Let us call these two
components of, φb. Now at starting condition, both the forward and backward components of
flux are exactly opposite to each other. Also, both of these components of flux are equal in
magnitude. So, they cancel each other and hence the net torque experienced by the rotor at the
starting condition is zero. So, the single phase induction motors are not self start.

1.6.2 Methods for Making Single Phase Induction as Self Starting Motor
Depending upon the methods for making asynchronous motor as Self Starting Motor, there are
mainly four types of single phase induction motor namely,
 Split phase induction motor,
 Capacitor start inductor motor,
 Capacitor start capacitor run induction motor,
 Shaded pole induction motor.
 Permanent split capacitor motor or single value capacitor motor.

1.7 APPLICATIONS OF SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION

MOTOR:
 Vacuum cleaners
 Fans
 Washing machines
 Centrifugal pumps
 Blowers

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 Chapter 2: 3-Phase Induction Motor
2.1 INTRODUCTION:
In case of three phase AC operation, most widely used motor is Three phase induction motor as
this type of motor does not require any starting device or we can say they are self-starting
induction motors. A three Phase Induction motor consists of a stator which contains three phase
winding connected to the three phase AC supply. The arrangement of the winding is so as to
produce a rotating magnetic field. The rotor of the Induction motor contains cylindrical core
with parallel slots that contain conductors.

2.2 CONSTRUCTION:
This Motor consists of two major parts stator and rotor

2.2.1 Stator of Three Phase Induction Motor

The stator of the three-phase induction motor consists of three main parts

1. Stator frame,
2. Stator core,
3. Stator winding or field winding

 Stator Frame

Fig. 2.1 Stator Frame of Three Phase Induction Motor

It is the outer part of the three phase induction motor. Its main function is to support the stator
core and the field winding. It acts as a covering, and it provides protection and mechanical
strength to all the inner parts of the induction motor. The frame is either made up of die-cast or
fabricated steel. The frame of three phase induction motor should be strong and rigid as the air

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gap length of three phase induction motor is very small. Otherwise, the rotor will not remain
concentric with the stator, which will give rise to an unbalanced magnetic pull.

 Stator Core

Fig. 2.2 Stator Core of Three Phase Induction Motor

The main function of the stator core is to carry the alternating flux. In order to reduce the eddy
current loss, the stator core is laminated. These laminated types of structure are made up of
stamping which is about 0.4 to 0.5 mm thick. All the stamping are stamped together to form
stator core, which is then housed in stator frame.

 Stator Winding or Field Winding

The slots on the periphery of the stator core of the three-phase induction motor carry three
phase windings. We apply three phase ac supply to this three-phase winding. The three phases
of the winding are connected either in star or delta depending upon which type of starting
method we use. We start the squirrel cage motor mostly with star-delta starter and hence the
stator of squirrel cage motor is delta connected. We start the slip ring three-phase induction
motor by inserting resistances so, the stator winding of slip ring induction motor can be
connected either in star or delta. The winding wound on the stator of three phase induction
motor is also called field winding, and when this winding is excited by three phase ac supply, it
produces a rotating magnetic field.

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 Fig. 2.3 Field Winding of Three Phase Induction Motor

2.2.2 Rotor

The rotor is a rotating part of induction motor. The rotor is connected to the mechanical load
through the shaft.

The rotor of the three phase induction motor is further classified as:
1. Squirrel cage rotor.
2. Slip ring rotor or wound rotor or phase wound rotor.
 The other parts, which are required to complete the induction motor, are:
 Shaft for transmitting the torque to the load. This shaft is made up of steel.
 Bearings for supporting the rotating shaft.
 One of the problems with electrical motor is the production of heat during its rotation.
To overcome this problem, we need a fan for cooling.
 For receiving external electrical connection Terminal box is needed.
 There is a small distance between rotor and stator which usually varies from 0.4 mm to
4 mm. Such a distance is called air gap.

2.3 TYPES OF THREE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR:

2.3.1 Squirrel Cage Three Phase Induction Motor
The rotor of the squirrel cage three phase Induction motor is cylindrical and have slots on its
periphery. The slots are not made parallel to each other but are bit skewed (skewing is not
shown in the figure of squirrel cage rotor besides) as the skewing prevents magnetic locking of
stator and rotor teeth and makes the working of the motor more smooth and quieter. The
squirrel cage rotor consists of aluminum, brass or copper bars (copper bras rotor is shown in the
figure beside). These aluminum, brass or copper bars are called rotor conductors and are placed
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in the slots on the periphery of the rotor. The rotor conductors are permanently shorted by the
copper, or aluminum rings called the end rings. The squirrel cage rotor winding is made
symmetrical. As end rings permanently short the bars, the rotor resistance is quite small, and it
is not possible to add external resistance as the bars get permanently shorted. The absence of
slip ring and brushes make the construction of Squirrel cage three-phase induction motor very
simple and robust and hence widely used three phase induction motor. These motors have the
advantage of adopting any number of pole pairs. The below diagram shows a squirrel cage
induction rotor having aluminum bars short circuit by aluminium end rings

Fig. 2.4 Squirrel Cage Induction Motor

Advantages of Squirrel Cage Induction Rotor

 Its construction is very simple and rugged.
 As there are no brushes and slip ring, these motors requires less maintenance.
Applications of Squirrel Cage Induction Rotor
We use the squirrel cage induction motors in lathes, drilling machine, fan, blower printing
machines, etc.
2.3.2 Slip Ring or Wound Rotor Three Phase Induction Motor
In this type of three phase induction motor the rotor is wound for the same number of poles as
that of the stator, but it has less number of slots and has fewer turns per phase of a heavier
conductor. The rotor also carries star or delta winding similar to that of the stator winding. The
rotor consists of numbers of slots and rotor winding are placed inside these slots. The three end
terminals are connected together to form a star connection. As its name indicates, three phase
slip ring induction motor consists of slip rings connected on the same shaft as that of the rotor.
The three ends of three-phase windings are permanently connected to these slip rings. The
brushes are used to carry current to and from the rotor winding. These brushes are further
connected to three phase star connected resistances. At starting, the resistance is connected to
the rotor circuit and is gradually cut out as the rotor pick up its speed. When the motor is

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running the slip ring are shorted by connecting a metal collar, which connects all slip ring
together, and the brushes are also removed. This reduces the wear and tear of the brushes. Due
to the presence of slip rings and brushes the rotor construction becomes somewhat complicated
therefore it is less used as compare to squirrel cage induction motor.

Fig. 2.5 Slip Ring Three Phase Induction Motor

Advantages of Slip Ring Induction Motor

 It has high starting torque and low starting current.
 Possibility of adding additional resistance to control speed.
Application of Slip Ring Induction Motor
Slip ring Induction motor are used where high starting torque is required i.e in hoists, cranes,
elevator etc.

2.4 WORKING PRINCIPLE:

The principle of operation of three phase induction motor is the relative speed between the
rotating magnetic field and the rotor conductors. When a three phase set of voltage is applied to
stator winding, it produces rotating magnetic field in counter clockwise direction.Three phase
AC supply given to IM produces a constant amplitude Rotating Magnetic Field-RMF (To know
how this occurs, Google "Production of rotating magnetic field using 3 phase supply") which
rotates at synchronous speed with respect to stator. This field cuts the rotor conductors (which
are stationary initially) and induces an EMF (as per Faraday's law of electromagnetic
induction). EMF drives current in rotor conductors as they are short circuited. So now we see
that current carrying conductors of rotor are placed in a magnetic field, hence force acts on
each of these conductors (refer Lorentz's law ). The resultant of forces on all the conductors
produces a rotating effect on the rotor. Now the million dollar question is "In which direction

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does the rotor rotate?"This can be easily answered if you understand Lenz's law correctly. It
says "effect opposes the cause" .In IM, cause is 'rotating magnetic field cutting rotor conductors
or the flux cutting action' & end effect is the 'torque'. So, for effect (torque) to oppose the cause
(flux cutting action), torque produced makes the rotor rotate in the same direction as that of the
RMF.

NOTE: Rotor rotates close to synchronous speed but not at synchronous speed.( Now use your
grey matter to reason it . You can get the answer from the above explanation itself).

2.5 METHODS OF SPEED CONTROL OF THREE PHASE

INDUCTION MOTOR:
 Speed of a 3 Phase Induction motor can be controlled by these methods:
 Stator Voltage Control.
 Rotor resistance Control.
 By changing Pole.

2.6 STARTING TECHNIQUES OF A THREE PHASE

INDUCTION MOTOR:
The most basic feature of an Induction motor is its self starting mechanism. Due to the
Rotating magnetic field, an EMF is induced in the rotor, because of which current starts
flowing in the rotor. As per the Lenz law, the rotor will start rotating in a direction so as to
oppose the flow of electric current and this gives a torque to the motor. Thus the motor gets
self started. During this self starting period, as torque increases, a large amount of current flows
in the Rotor .To achieve this the stator draws a large amount of current and by the time the
motor reaches its full speed, a large amount of current is drawn and coils get heated up,
damaging the motor. Hence there is a need to control the motor starting. One way is to reduce
the applied voltage, which in turn reduces the torque. Thus we use star delta starter for starting
three phase induction motor.
 Objectives of Star-Delta Technique Motor Starter are
 Reduce high starting current and along these lines forestall motor from overheating
 Provide over-burden and no-voltage assurance

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  Star Delta Starter

Fig. 2.6 Star Delta Starter

In star delta starting, the motor is connected in STAR mode throughout the starting period.
When the motor reached the required speed, the motor is connected in DELTA mode.
 Components of a Star-Delta Starter
 Contactors: The Star- Delta starter circuit comprises of three contactors: Main, star and
delta contactors. The three contactors are solicited to unite the motor windings first in
star and afterward in delta.
 Interlock switches: Interlock switches are connected between star and delta contactors
of the control circuit as a safety measure so one can’t activate delta contactor without
deactivating star contactor. By any chance if star and delta contactors are actuated at
the same time, the motor will be damaged. Thermal overload relay: A thermal over-
load relay is likewise consolidated into star-delta control circuit to ensure the motor
from intemperate heat which might expedite motor finding fire or wearing out. In the
event that the temperature goes past a preset quality, the contact is open and power
supply is cut in this manner ensuring the motor.
 Working of Star-Delta Starter

At first the primary contactor and the star contactors are shut. After a time interval the timer
signs to the star contactor to head off to the open position and the primary, delta contactors to
head off to the shut position, accordingly structuring delta circuit. At the time of starting when
the stator windings are star associated, every stator stage gets voltage VL/√3, where VL is the
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line voltage. Hence, the line current drawn by the motor at starting is decreased to one-third as
contrasted with starting current with the windings associated in delta. Likewise, since the
torque advanced by an induction motor is corresponding to the square of the applied voltage;
star- delta starter decreases the starting torque to one- third of that possible by immediate delta
starting. The timer controls conversion from star connection to delta connection. A timer in star
delta starter for a 3-phase motor is intended to do the move from star mode, utilizing which the
motor runs on a decreased voltage and current and produces less torque – to the delta mode
indispensible for running the motor at its full power, utilizing high voltage and current to
transform a high torque. Terminal Connections in Star and Delta Configurations:L1, L2 and L3
are the 3-phase line voltages, which are given to primary contactor. The main motor coils are
U, V and W is shown in figure. In star mode of motor windings, the primary contactor associate
the mains to essential winding terminals U1, V1 and W1.the star contactor shorts the auxiliary
winding terminals U2, V2 and W2 as indicated in figure. Notwithstanding when the primary
contactor is shut supply arrives at terminals A1, B1, C1 and consequently the motor windings
are energized in star-mode.The timer is initiated in the meantime moment when star contactor
is energized. After the timer achieves the specified time period, the star contactor is de-
energized and delta contactor is energized.

Fig. 2.7 Star–Delta Connections of Three Phase Induction Motor

The point when delta contactor closes, the motor winding terminals U2, V2 and W2 get
associated with V1, W1 and U1 individually through the shut contacts of primary contactor.
That is for delta association, fulfilling end of one winding is to be joined with beginning end of
the other winding. The motor windings are reconfigured in delta by supplying line voltage L1
to winding terminals W2 and U1, line voltage L2 to winding terminals U2 and V1; and line
voltage L3 to winding terminals V2 and W1, as indicated in figure.

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  Merits: Open transition starter is very easy to implement in terms of cost and circuitry,
it does not require additional voltage educing equipment.
 Demerits: Open transition makes a surge of current and torque at change over which
stuns the system both electrically and mechanically. Electrically, the outcome of the
momentary peaks in current could cause force vacillations or misfortunes.
Mechanically, the expanded torque coming about because of the current spike could be
sufficient to harm system components i.e. snap a drive shaft.

2.7 ADVANTAGES OF THREE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR:

 A Squirrel cage induction motor does not contain Brushes, Slip rings and Commutators.
Due to this reason, the cost of the motor is quite low.
 However, Slip Rings are used in Wound type induction motor to add external resistance
to the rotor winding.
 Due to the absence of Brushes, there are no sparks in the motor. It can also be operated
in hazardous conditions.
 Unlike synchronous motors, a 3 phase induction motor has a high starting torque, good
speed regulation and reasonable overload capacity.
 An induction motor is a highly efficient machine with full load efficiency varying from
85 to 97 percent.

2.8 DISADVANTAGES OF THREE PHASE INDUCTION

MOTOR:
 3 phase induction motors have poor starting torque and high have in rush currents.
Therefore these motors are not widely used for applications which require high starting
torques like traction systems.. Other important disadvantage of Induction motor is that it
draws high inrush currents causing large momentary voltage dip during starting of the
machine. High inrush currents can be reduced by employing some starting methods in
induction motor
 Induction motors always operate under lagging power factor and during light load
conditions they operate at very worst power factor (0.2 to 0.4 lagging). Some of
the disadvantages of poor power are increase in I2R losses in the system, reduction in
the efficiency of the system. Hence some power factor correction equipments such as
static capacitor banks should be placed near to these motors to deliver the reactive
power to them.

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 One of the main disadvantages of induction motors is that speed control
of Induction motors are difficult. Hence for fine speed control applications dc motors
are used in place of induction motors. Due to advance in power electronics, variable
frequency drives using induction motors are used in industries for speed control now a
days.

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 Chapter 3: Synchronous Motor
3.1 INTRODUCTION:
Electrical motor in general is an electro-mechanical device that converts energy from electrical
domain to mechanical domain. Based on the type of input we have classified it into single
phase and 3 phase motors. Among 3 phase motors, we mostly sue induction motors and
synchronous motors. When three-phase electric conductors are placed in certain geometrical
positions (In certain angle from one another), then an electrical field is generated. Now the
rotating magnetic field rotates at a certain speed, that speed is called synchronous speed. Now
if an electromagnet is present in this rotating magnetic field, the electromagnet is magnetically
locked with this rotating magnetic field and rotates with the same speed of rotating field.
Synchronous motor is called so because the speed of the rotor of this motor is the same as the
rotating magnetic field. It is a fixed speed motor because it has only one speed, which is
synchronous speed, or in other words, it is in synchronism with the supply frequency.
Synchronous speed is given by Ns= 120f/p Where, f = supply frequency and p = no. of poles.

Fig. 3.1 a model of Synchronous Motor

3.2 CONSTRUCTION OF SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR:

Usually, its construction is almost similar to that of a 3 phase induction motor, except the fact
that here we supply DC to the rotor, the reason of which we shall explain later. Now, let us first
go through the basic construction of this type of motor. From the picture below, it is clear that
how do we designs this type of machine. We apply three phase supply to the stator and DC
supply to the rotor.

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 Fig. 3.2 General Representation of a Synchronous Motor
3.2.1 Stator of Synchronous Motor
The main stationary part of the machine is stator. The stator consists of the following parts.
 Stator Frame
The stator frame is the outer part of the machine and is made up of cast iron. It protects the
enter inner parts of the machine.

Fig. 3.3 Stator of a Synchronous Motor

 Stator Core
The stator core is made up of thin silicon laminations. It is insulated by a surface coating to
minimize hysteresis and eddy current losses. Its main purpose is to provide a path of low
reluctance for the magnetic lines of force and accommodate the stator windings.

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 Fig. 3.4 Stator Core of Synchronous Motor

 Stator Winding
The stator core has cuts on the inner periphery to accommodate the stator windings. The stator
windings could be either three-phase windings or single phase windings.

Fig. 3.5 Stator Winding

Enamelled copper is used as the winding material. In the case of 3 phase windings, the
windings are distributed over several slots. This is done to produce a sinusoidal distribution of
EMF.
3.2.2 Rotor of Synchronous Motor
 The rotor is the moving part of the machine. Rotors are available in two types:
 Salient Pole Type
 Cylindrical Rotor Type
 The salient pole type rotor consists of poles projecting out from the rotor surface. It is
made up of steel laminations to reduce eddy current losses.

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 Fig. 3.5 Salient pole type rotor
A salient pole machine has a non-uniform air gap. The gap is maximum between the poles and
is minimum at the pole centers. They are generally used for medium and low-speed operations
as they have a large number of poles. They contain damper windings which are used for
starting the motor.
A cylindrical rotor is made from solid forgings of high-grade nickel chrome molybdenum steel
forgings of high-grade nickel chrome molybdenum steel. The poles are created by the current
flowing through the windings. They are used for high-speed applications as they have less
number of poles. They also produce less noise and wind losses as they have a uniform air gap.
DC supply is given to the rotor windings via slip-rings. Once the rotor windings are excited,
they act like poles.

Fig. 3.6 cylidrical type rotor

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3.3 WORKING PRINCIPLE:
A synchronous motor works on the principle of magnetic interlocking. First it is started as an
induction motor initially by applying a 3 phase Ac supply to the stator or armature.
The working principle of a synchronous motor is based on the principle of magnetic locking
between stator and rotor. When three phase supply is fed to the 3 phase stator winding, a
resultant magnetic field of constant magnitude rotating at synchronous speed, Ns is produced in
the stator. Let the stator have a two pole N1 and S1 rotating clockwise in synchronous speed
.Consider an instant when two stator pole at position A and B .The arbitrarily position of the
rotor poles NE and S2 is as shown .This continuous and rapid rotation of stator poles ,the rotor
get subjected to quickly reversing torques. Due to inertia of the rotor, it will not respond to such
torque and it will remain stationary. Therefore synchronous motor is not self starting motor.

Fig. 3.7 Block Diagram of a Synchronous Motor

3.4 TYPES OF SYNCHRONOUS MOTORS:

There are different types of synchronous motors based on the way they are excited
 Non Excited Synchronous Motors
 Current Excited Synchronous Motors
Non Excited Synchronous Motor
The rotor is made up of steel. The external magnetic field magnetises the rotor, and it rotates in
synchronism with it. The rotor is generally made of high retentivity steel such as cobalt and
steel.

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Non-excited motors are available in three designs:
 Hysteresis Motor
Hysteresis motors are single phase motors in which the rotor is made up of ferromagnetic
material. The rotors are cylindrical in shape and have high hysteresis loss property. They are
generally made up of chrome, cobalt steel or alnico. The stator is fed by single phase AC
supply.

Fig. 3.8 Hysteresis Motor

The stator has two windings:

 Main windings and
 Auxiliary windings.
The combination of the two produces a revolving magnetic field from a single phase supply.
They are self-starting and do not need additional windings. When single phase AC supply is
given, a rotating magnetic field is produced. This rotating magnetic field induces eddy currents
in the rotor. The rotor starts to move initially with a slip. When the rotor reaches synchronous
speed, the stator pulls the rotor into synchronism. So initially the motor starts as an induction
motor and later runs as a synchronous motor.

 Reluctance Motor
The reluctance motor is based on the principle that an unrestrained piece of iron will move to
complete a magnetic flux path where the reluctance is minimum. The stator has the main
winding and the auxiliary windings just like the hysteresis motor. These help to create a
rotating magnetic field. The rotor of a reluctance motor is a squirrel cage with some teeth
removed to provide the desired number of salient poles. The reluctance becomes Minimum
when the rotor is aligned with the magnetic field of the stator.

When single phase AC supply is given, the motor starts as an induction motor. The rotor tries
to align itself with the magnetic field of the stator and experiences reluctance torque.

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 Fig. 3.9 Reluctance Motor

In this manner, it starts to rotate. Once it reaches 75% of synchronous speed, the auxiliary
windings are cut off. When the speed reaches synchronous speed, the reluctance torque pulls it
into synchronism. The motor remains in synchronism due to synchronous reluctance torque.

 Permanent Magnet Synchronous Motors

The rotor is made up of permanent magnets. They create a constant magnetic flux. The rotor
locks in synchronism when the speed is near synchronous speed. They are not self-starting and
need electronically controlled variable frequency stator drive.

Fig. 3.10 Permanent Magnet Synchronous Motor

 Direct Current Excited Motor

Direct current excited synchronous motors need a DC supply to the rotor to generate rotor
magnetic field. A direct current excited motor has both stator windings as well as rotor
windings. They can either have cylindrical rotors or salient pole rotors. They are not self-
starting and need damper windings to start. Initially, they start as an induction motor and later
attain synchronous speed.
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 Fig. 3.11 Direct Current Excited Motor

3.5 APPLICATIONS OF SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR:

 Speed and position control(by giving DC supply to both stator and rotor position can be
fixed)
 In positioning machines and robot actuators.
 As Synchronous condenser: by varying excitation it can made to operate on
lagging leading power factor. So can be used for power factor improvement at load
side.
 Constant speed applications

3.6 ADVANTAGES OF SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR:

 One of the major advantages of using synchronous motor is the ability to control the
power factor. An over excited synchronous motor can have leading power factor and
can be operated in parallel to induction motors and other lagging power factor loads
thereby improving the system power factor.
 In synchronous motor the speed remains constant irrespective of the loads. This
characteristic helps in industrial drives where constant speed is required irrespective of
the load it is driving. It also useful when the motor is required to drive another
alternator to supply at a different frequency as in frequency changes
 Synchronous motors can be constructed with wider air gaps than induction motors
which makes these motors mechanically more stable
 In synchronous motors electro-magnetic power varies linearly with the voltage It
usually operate with higher efficiencies ( more than 90%) especially in low speed and
unity power factor applications compared to induction motors.

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3.7 DISADVANTAGES OF SYNCHRONOUS MOTORS:
 Synchronous motors require dc excitation which must be supplied from external
sources.
 Synchronous motors are inherently not self starting motors and needs some arrangement
for its starting and synchronizing
 The cost per kW output is generally higher than that of induction motors.
 These motors cannot be used for variable speed applications as there is no possibility of
speed adjustment unless the incoming supply frequency is adjusted (Variable Frequency
Drives).
 Synchronous motors cannot be started on load. Its starting torque is zero
 These motors have tendency to hunt.
 When loading on the synchronous motor increases beyond its capability, the
synchronism between rotor and stator rotating magnetic field is lost and motor comes to
halt.
 Collector rings and brushes are required resulting in increase in maintenance.

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 Chapter 4: Electrical Panel
4.1 INTRODUCTION:
An electric panel is a component of an electricity supply system that divides an electrical power
feed into subsidiary circuits, while providing a protective fuse or circuit breaker for each circuit
in a common enclosure. Normally, a main switch, and in recent boards, one or more residual-
current devices (RCD) or residual current breakers with over current protection (RCBO), are
also incorporated.

Fig. 4.1 A model of an Electrical Panel

4.2 BASIC COMPONENTS OF AN ELECTRICAL PANEL:

 Cables
Cables are used for the interconnection. Two types of cables are used. Power cable and
control cable.

Fig. 4.2 Cables

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1. Power cables (which is used to connect the motor to panel component and panel to main
supply)
2. Control cables (which is used to connect the control circuits)
 Bus bar:
Incoming supply is connected to bus bar and distributed from bus bar. It is normally made by
Aluminum.

Fig. 4.3 Bus Bar

 MCB (Miniature Circuit Breakers):

MCB is a protecting device. It is used before the feeder. This should be selected
according to the capacity of the feeder.

Fig. 4.4 MCB

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 ELCB (Earth Leakage Circuit Breaker) :
The ELCB is also known as RCCB. The device used for the protection against the earth
leakage current and residual current. It should be fixed before the incomer.

Fig. 4.5

 MCCB (Mould Case Circuit Breaker)

In most of the cases the MCCB used as an Incomer for higher capacity feeders for better
protection.

Fig. 4.6 ELCB

 Incomer:
Basic supply will be connected to this incomer. It also called as SFU (Switch Fuse
Unit). It contains one handle with fuse unit. Once it is turned ON the supply will pass to

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 the next stage through fuse if any major fault occurs in side panel board, it will trip and
it isolate supply.

Fig. 4.7 Incomer

 Selector switch:
Selector is switch is used for ON/OFF purpose and for selecting the mode of operation
like auto/manual.

Fig. 4.8 Selector Switch

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  Starters:
Starters are used for starting the motors safely. Mainly two types of starters are there.
DOL starters and Start to delta. Dual starter is enough for the motors with power less
than 10 hp.

Fig. 4.9 Starter

4.3 DESIGNING OF AN ELECTRICAL PANNEL:

Step 1-Understanding Components
Electric panels can be customized and configured to meet the power requirement of the
household. This is why there are different dimensions. Before designing an electrical panel
board, it is good to know its components. The main panel distributes electricity to the
household through branch circuits. These then go to the switches, appliances and other
receptacles throughout your home.
Step 2-Understanding the Circuits
Two copper aluminum strips under the circuit breakers and the wiring panel are the power
buses or hot buses that are connected to the incoming cable. Both the neutral and the wires for
grounding are connected to their respective buses. These are present on either side of the power
buses. The main breaker which controls all the power in the house is located on the upper part
of the electric panel.
Step 3-Considering Power Requirements
An electric panel in a house provides 100 or 150 or 200 amps. The individual circuits are then
distributed from the main breaker by individual breakers which branches the power throughout
the home. These individual breakers are designed depending upon the requirement of power. A
light outlet circuit would need 15 amps and other appliances that need more power would
usually be 60 to 100 amps.

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Step 4-Designing the Panel
When we are creating the design for our electric panel the following details should be
incorporated into it.
 Location and dimension of the panel.
 Load description, Amperage, Voltage required.
 Phase and NEMA type.
 Horsepower, cable size and conduit size.
 Indication of the home run circuitry with a designated number.
 Number of wires a conduit carries.
 Type of insulation.
Step 5- Combining Location and Design
If the panel is to be placed in an environment that you consider could be polluted, design it to
keep contaminants out by applying positive air pressure. If it is to be placed in a dark area,
design it to have an internal panel light mounted on it. On the other hand, design the panel to
have a drain hose at the bottom of its enclosure if it is going to be installed in a place where
water or other liquids may enter its enclosure.
While it is wise to take into account all the power needs of the house, it would be wiser to
future proof your home when designing an electric panel. With advances being made in
technology and electric power being the source that runs many appliances, you must design the
panel to take care of the future power needs of your home.

4.4 APPLICATIONS:
 Machine tools
 Power generation
 Material handling
 Automotive industries
 Oil and gas equipment
 Metal forming machinery
 Aerospace
 Process industries
 Food and beverage
 Plastics machinery
 Steel industries
 Pharmaceutical
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 Chapter 5: PLC, SCADA

5.1 INTRODUCTION:
Programmable Logic Controller or PLC is a computing system used to control
electromechanical processes. SCADA stands for Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition. It
is a type of industrial control system that is used to monitor and control facilities and
infrastructure in industries.

Fig. 5.1 Basic Model of a Scada Program

5.2 COMPONENTS OF SCADA:

 Human Machine Interface (HMI). It is an interface which presents process data to a
human operator, and through this, the human operator monitors and controls the
process.
 Supervisory (computer) system.
 Remote Terminal Units (RTUs).
 Programmable Logic Controller (PLCs).
 Communication infrastructure.

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5.3 WORKING OF PLC:
A programmable logic controller is a specialized computer used to control machines and
processes. It therefore shares common terms with typical PCs like central processing unit,
memory, software and communications. Unlike a personal computer though the PLC is
designed to survive in a rugged industrial atmosphere and to be very flexible in how it
interfaces with inputs and outputs to the real world.
 The components that make a PLC work can be divided into three core areas.
 The power supply and rack
 The central processing unit (CPU)
 The input/output (I/O) section
PLCs come in many shapes and sizes. They can be so small as to fit in your shirt pocket while
more involved controls systems require large PLC racks. Smaller PLCs (a.k.a. “bricks”) are
typically designed with fixed I/O points. For our consideration, we’ll look at the more modular
rack based systems. It’s called “modular” because the rack can accept many different types of
I/O modules that simply slide into the rack and plug in.
RACK: The rack is the component that holds everything together. Depending on the needs of
the control system it can be ordered in different sizes to hold more modules.

Fig. 5.2 Rack

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Backplane:

Fig. 5.3 Backplane

The CPU:
The brain of the whole PLC is the CPU module. This module typically lives in the slot beside
the power supply. Manufacturers offer different types of CPUs based on the complexity
needed for the system.
The CPU consists of a microprocessor, memory chip and other integrated circuits to control
logic, monitoring and communications. The CPU has different operating modes.
In programming mode it accepts the downloaded logic from a PC. The CPU is then placed
in run mode so that it can execute the program and operate the process.

Fig. 5.4 CPU

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I/O System:
The I/O system provides the physical connection between the equipment and the PLC.
Opening the doors on an I/O card reveals a terminal strip where the devices connect.

Fig. 5.5 I/O System

There are many different kinds of I/O cards which serve to condition the type of input or output
so the CPU can use it for its logic. It's simply a matter of determining what inputs and outputs
are needed, filling the rack with the appropriate cards and then addressing them correctly in the
CPUs program.

Fig. 5.6 I/O Cards

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5.4 APPLICATIONS OF SCADA:
Both large and small systems can be built using the SCADA concept. These systems can range
from just tens to thousands of control loops, depending on the application. Example processes
include industrial, infrastructure, and facility-based processes, as described below:

 Industrial processes including manufacturing, process control, power generation,

fabrication and refining, batch repetitive or discrete modes.
 Infrastructure processes may be public or private, and include water treatment and
distribution, wastewater collection and treatment, oil and gas pipelines, electric power
transmission and distribution and wind farms.
 Facility processes, including buildings, airports, ships, and space stations. They monitor
and control heating, ventilation, and air conditioning systems (HVAC), access,
and energy consumption.

 However, SCADA systems may have security vulnerabilities, so the systems should be
evaluated to identify risks and solutions implemented to mitigate those risks.

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 CONCLUSION

After completing my industrial training, I had been exposed to Electrical Machines Designing
and Panel working life. Throughout my internship, I could understand more about the Electric
Machines and Panels and their working and prepare myself to become a responsible and
innovative technician in future. Along my training period, I realize that observation is a main
element to find out the root cause of a problem. Not only for my project but daily activities too.
During my project, I cooperate with Engineers & Jr. Engineer to determine the problems.
Moreover, the project indirectly helps me to learn independently, discipline myself, be
considerate/patient, self-trust, to take initiative and the ability to solve problems. During my
training period, I have received criticism and advice from engineers and technician when
mistakes were made. However, those advices are useful guidance for me to change myself and
avoid myself making the same mistakes again. In sum, the activities that I had learned during
industrial training really are useful for me in future to face challenges in a working
environment. Throughout the industrial training, I found that several things are important:

 Critical and Analytical Thinking - To organize our tasks and assignment, we need to
analyze our problems to formulate a good solution to the problem. We would have to
set proper plan for the solution, so that we are well prepared for the unforeseeable
situations.
 Time Management - As overall technician & engineers are always racing against tight
timeline and packed schedule, a proper time management will minimize facing overdue
deadlines.
 Goal Management - Opposing to a Herculean goal seemed to be reachable at first
sight, it is better to sub-divide the goals to a few achievable tasks, so that we will be
gaining more confidence by accomplishing those tasks

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