Battery Life (and Death)

For product designers, an understanding of the factors affecting battery life is

vitally important for managing both product performance and warranty
liabilities particularly with high cost, high power batteries. Offer too low a
warranty period and you won't sell any batteries/products. Overestimate the
battery lifetime and you could lose a fortune.

That batteries have a finite life is due to occurrence of the unwanted chemical or physical
changes to, or the loss of, the active materials of which they are made. Otherwise they
would last indefinitely. These changes are usually irreversible and they affect the
electrical performance of the cell. This page describes the factors influencing battery life.

Battery life can usually only be extended by preventing or reducing the cause of the
unwanted parasitic chemical effects which occur in the cells. Ways of improving battery
life and hence reliability are also considered below.

Calendar Life and Cycle Life

Battery performance deteriorates over time whether the battery is used or not. This is
known as "calendar fade". Performance also deteriorates with usage and this is known
as "cycle fade"

 Battery Calendar Life is the elapsed time before a battery becomes unusable
whether it is in active use or inactive. There are two key factors influencing calendar
life, namely temperature and time, and empirical evidence shows that these effects
can be represented by two relatively simple mathematical dependencies. A rule of
thumb derived from the Arrhenius Law describes how the rate at which a chemical
reaction proceeds, doubles for every 10 degrees rise in temperature, in this case it
applies to the rate at which the slow deterioration of the active chemicals increases.
Similarly the t1/2 (or √t ) relationship represents how the battery internal resistance
also increases with time t. The graph below illustrates these effects.
 Battery Shelf Life like calendar life is the time an inactive battery can be stored before
it becomes unusable, usually considered as having only 80% of its initial capacity.
See also Battery Storage

 Battery Cycle Life is defined as the number of complete charge - discharge cycles a
battery can perform before its nominal capacity falls below 80% of its initial rated
capacity. Key factors affecting cycle life are time t and the number N of charge-
discharge cycles completed. An obvious example is the Depth of Discharge (see
below) which is a simple reciprocal mathematical relationship, but there are many
more complex factors which can also influence performance.

Lifetimes of 500 to 1200 cycles are typical. The actual ageing process results in a gradual
reduction in capacity over time. When a cell reaches its specified lifetime it does not stop
working suddenly. The ageing process continues at the same rate as before so that a cell
whose capacity had fallen to 80% after 1000 cycles will probably continue working to
perhaps 2000 cycles when its effective capacity will have fallen to 60% of its original
capacity. There is therefore no need to fear a sudden death when a cell reaches the end
of its specified life. See also Performance Characteristics.

An alternative measure of cycle life is based on the internal resistance of the cell. In this
case the cycle life is defined as the number of cycles the battery can perform before its
internal resistance increases by an agreed amount., usually 1.3 times or double its initial
value when new.

In both cases the cycle life depends on the depth of discharge and assumes that the
battery is fully charged and discharged each cycle. If the battery is only partially
discharged each cycle then the cycle life will be much greater. See Depth of
Discharge below. It is therefore important that the Depth of Discharge should be stated
when specifying the cycle life.

When battery systems are specified it is usual to dimension the battery in terms of its end
of life capacity rather than its capacity when new.

See also The Meaning of Life

Beware of Inappropriate Test Conditions

The graph below shows the results of a manufacturer's cycle tests of batteries used in
electric vehicles sold in the USA. The obvious conclusion would be that, if the batteries
were fully discharged and recharged on most days, they would be good for at least 500
cycles which would be equivalent to between one and two years of driving and even
longer if the batteries were only partially discharged each day.
BUT vehicle owners in Arizona and California experienced battery lifetimes of only a few
months before the capacity dropped to below 80% of its"new" value with typical capacity
reductions of 27.5% in only 300 cycles even though the ambient temperature was well
below 60°C leading to complaints, lawsuits and embarrassment for the EV manufacturer.

The explanation was that cycle testing was conducted with typical repetitive cycling at the
specified charge and discharge rates of 1.5C and 2.5C with very short rest periods
between cycles so that the battery was charged in 40 minutes and discharged in 24
minutes taking just over an hour per cycle. At this rate 500 cycles would be completed in
about three weeks, but in actual use it would take nearly two years to complete 500
cycles. The conclusion was that the "test cycles"lasting an hour were much shorter than
the typical "usage cycles" which may last for a day or more and that typical "accelerated"
cycle testing did not take into account the affect of cell ageing with calendar life and we
know from the graph above that calendar life is highly dependant on the ambient
temperature.
This has been confirmed by tests which paradoxically show that, despite the expected
benign effect of lower operating C rates, by decreasing the charge and discharge rates
to C/100 or C/200, that is 200 hours or more per complete cycle, the battery lifetime is
actually reduced, particularly at high temperatures. This is simply because the calendar
life losses become more significant the longer the cycle time.
The expected lifetime must therefore be calculated from a combination of the cycle life
and the calendar life. This is however a long and expensive process requiring many
samples cycled to the end of their useful life and others tested at different temperatures
under varying environmental operating conditions. See an Unconventional Alternative
to Cycle Testing (below) for determining battery lifetime which could solve this problem.
The most significant cause of calendar life losses is the build up of a passivation layer of
unwanted chemicals on the surface of the cell's anode which increases its impedance
while reducing the volume of active chemicals in the cell. See more about the passivation
layer below.

It should be noted that the model involved did not have an active thermal management
system which could have reduced this problem by keeping the battery cool, at least some
of the time.

Chemical Changes
Batteries are electrochemical devices which convert chemical energy into electrical
energy or vice versa by means of controlled chemical reactions between a set of active
chemicals. Unfortunately the desired chemical reactions on which the battery depends
are usually accompanied by unwanted, parasitic chemical reactions which consume
some of the active chemicals or impede their reactions. Even if the cell's active chemicals
remain unaffected over time, cells can fail because unwanted chemical or physical
changes to the seals keeping the electrolyte in place.

Depletion of the active chemicals

Under different conditions of pressure, temperature, electric field and duration of the
reaction, the active chemicals in a cell may break down or combine in many different
ways. According to Guoxian Liang, of the materials company Phostech Lithium, the
following combinations of the elements used in the cathodes of Lithium Iron Phosphate
cells have been found in some impure products in addition to the desired active compound
LiFePO4:
Fe3(PO4)2, Li3Fe2(PO4)3, Fe2PO5, Fe2P2O7, FePO4, Fe(PO3)3, Fe7(PO4)6, Fe2P4O12,
Fe3(PO4)2, Fe3(P2O7)2, FePLi2O, LiPO3, Li2O, Li3PO4, Li4P2O7, Fe2O3, Fe3O4, FeO, Fe,
FeP, LiFeO2, Li5FeO4, LiFeP2O7, Li2FeP2O7, Li9Fe3(P2O7)3(PO4)2, P2O5, and others.
These compounds arise just from the cathode material, but there are many other
elements present in the anodes, electrolytes, binders and other additives which are used
in the cell, making many more combinations possible. The result is a reduction in the
quantity of active chemicals in the cell and a consequent reduction in cell capacity.
Contamination of the active chemicals also creates seed points from which further
unwanted chemical reactions may be initiated.
Subjecting the battery to excessive currents also brings on these problems resulting in a
reduction in the battery cycle life. See Charging Times in the section on Chargers and the
notes on Passivation and Charging Rate below.
It is the task of cell designers and battery applications engineers to create the
electrochemical recipe and the stable operating conditions to ensure that the desired
reactions are optimised and the undesirable side effects are suppressed.

Temperature effects
Chemical reactions internal to the battery are driven either by voltage or temperature. The
hotter the battery, the faster chemical reactions will occur. High temperatures can thus
provide increased performance, but at the same time the rate of the unwanted chemical
reactions will increase resulting in a corresponding loss of battery life. The shelf life and
charge retention depend on the self discharge rate and self discharge is the result of an
unwanted chemical reaction in the cell. Similarly adverse chemical reactions such as
passivation of the electrodes, corrosion and gassing are common causes of reduced
cycle life. Temperature therefore affects both the shelf life and the cycle life as well as
charge retention since they are all due to chemical reactions. Even batteries which are
specifically designed around high temperature chemical reactions, (such as Zebra
batteries) are not immune to heat induced failures which are the result of parasitic
reactions within the cells.

The Arrhenius equation defines the relationship between temperature and the rate at
which a chemical action proceeds. It shows that the rate increases exponentially as
temperature rises. It is given by:
- EA / RT
k=Ae
Where
k is the rate at which the chemical reaction proceeds
A is a frequency factor related to the frequency of collisions between molecules, usually
taken as a constant over small temperature ranges.
e is the mathematical constant = 2.71828
EA is the activation energy. A constant representing the minimum energy needed for the
reaction to occur.
R is the Universal Gas Constant
T is the temperature in degrees Kelvin
RT is the average kinetic energy of the reaction

As a more convenient rule of thumb, an approximation which is true for temperatures

around room temperature - for every 10 °C increase in temperature the reaction rate
doubles. Thus, an hour at 35 °C is equivalent in battery life to two hours at 25 °C. Heat
is the enemy of the battery and as Arrhenius shows, even small increases in temperature
will have a major influence on battery performance affecting both the desired and
undesired chemical reactions.

The graph below shows how the life of high capacity tubular Ironclad Lead Acid batteries
used in standby applications over may years varies with the operating temperature. Note
that running at 35 °C, the batteries will deliver more than their rated capacity but their life
is relatively short, whereas an extended life is possible if the batteries are maintained at
15 °C.

As an example of the importance of storage temperature conditions - Nickel-metal hydride

(NiMH) chemistry in particular is very sensitive to high temperatures. Testing has shown
that continuous exposure to 45°C will reduce the cycle life of a I-MH battery by 60 percent
and as with all batteries, the self discharge rate doubles with each 10°C increase in
temperature.

Apart from the gradual deterioration of the cell over time, under conditions of abuse,
temperature effects can lead to premature failure of the cell. This can happen even under
normal operating conditions if the rate of heat generated in the battery exceeds the rate
of heat loss to the environment. In this situation the battery temperature will continue to
rise leading to a condition known as thermal runaway which ultimately results in
disastrous consequences.

The conclusion is that elevated temperatures during storage or use seriously affect the
battery life.

See further information in the sections on Lithium Battery Failures and Thermal
Management section.

Pressure effects
These problems relate to sealed cells only.
Increased internal pressure within a cell is usually the consequence of increased
temperature. Several factors can play a part in causing the temperature and pressure
rise. Excessive currents or a high ambient temperature will cause the cell temperature to
rise and the resulting expansion of the active chemicals will in turn cause the internal
pressure in the cell to rise. Overcharging also causes a rise in temperature, but more
seriously, overcharging can also cause the release of gases resulting in an even greater
build up in the internal pressure.
Unfortunately increased pressure tends to magnify the effects of high temperature by
increasing the rate of the chemical actions in the cell, not just the desired Galvanic
reaction but also other factors such as the self discharge rate or in extreme cases
contributing to thermal runaway. Excessive pressures can also cause mechanical failures
within the cells such as short circuits between parts, interruptions in the current path,
distortion or swelling of the cell case or in the worst case actual rupture of the cell casing.
All of these factors tend to reduce the potential battery life.

We should normally expect such problems to occur only in situations of abuse. However
manufacturers have no control over how the user treats the cells once they have left the
factory and for safety reasons, pressure release vents are built into the cells to provide a
controlled release of pressure if there is the possibility that it could reach dangerous
levels.

External pressure, or lack of it, could also be problem when batteries are transported by
air. Th low pressure in the hold could possibly cause venting and loss of electrolyte.

See also Protection / Venting and Loss of Electrolyte

Depth Of Discharge (DOD)

At a given temperature and discharge rate, the amount of active chemicals transformed
with each charge - discharge cycle will be proportional to the depth of discharge.
The relation between the cycle life and the depth of discharge appears to be logarithmic
as shown in the graph below. In other words, the number of cycles yielded by a battery
goes up exponentially the shallower the DOD. This holds for most cell chemistries.
(The curve just looks like a logarithmic curve however. It is actually a reciprocal curve
drawn on logarithmic paper).

Depth of Discharge vs Cycle Life

The above graph was constructed for a Lead acid battery, but with different scaling
factors, it is typical for all cell chemistries including Lithium-ion. This is because battery
life depends on the total energy throughput that the active chemicals can tolerate.
Ignoring other ageing effects, the total energy throughput is fixed so that one cycle of
100% DOD is roughly equivalent to 2 cycles at 50% DOD and 10 cycles at 10% DOD and
100 cycles at 1% DOD. See also Cycle Life which shows how cell performance
diminishes due to deterioration of the active chemicals as the battery ages.

There are important lessons here both for designers and users. By restricting the possible
DOD in the application, the designer can dramatically improve the cycle life of the product.
Similarly the user can get a much longer life out of the battery by using cells with a
capacity slightly more than required or by topping the battery up before it becomes
completely discharged. For cells used for "microcycle" applications (small current
discharge and charging pulses) a cycle life of 300,000 to 500,000 cycles is common.

Mobile phone users typically recharge their batteries when the DOD is only about 25 to
30 percent. At this low DOD a lithium-ion battery can be expected to achieve between 5
and 6 times the specified cycle life of the battery which assumes complete discharge
every cycle. Thus the cycle life improves dramatically if the DOD is reduced.
Nickel Cadmium batteries are somewhat of an exception to this. Subjecting the battery to
only partial discharges gives rise to the so called memory effect (see below) which can
only be reversed by deep discharging.

Some applications such as electric vehicles or marine use may require the maximum
capacity to be extracted from the battery which means discharging the battery to a very
high DOD. Special "deep cycle" battery constructions must be used for such applications
since deep discharging may damage general purpose batteries. In particular, typical
automotive SLI batteries are only designed to work down to 50% DOD, whereas traction
batteries may work down to 80% to 100% DOD.

See also how battery cycle life can be increased through Cyclic Redundancy of the cells.

Charging Level
The cycle life of Lithium batteries can be increased by reducing the charging cut off
voltage. This essentially gives the battery a partial charge instead of fully charging it,
similar to working at a lower DOD as in the example above. The graph below shows the
typical cycle life improvements possible.

Cycle Life and Charge Cut Off Voltage

Source: Choi & Lim - Journal of Power Sources,September 2002

Reducing the charging voltage cut off voltage avoids the battery reaching its maximum
stress point. See also Charging Lithium Batteries and Lithium Battery Failures.

Charging Rate
Battery life is also influenced by the charging rate.The capacity reduction at high
discharge rates occurs because the transformation of the active chemicals cannot keep
pace with the current drawn. The result is incomplete or unwanted chemical reactions
and an associated reduction in capacity as noted in the paragraph on Chemical
Changes above. This may be accompanied by changes in the morphology of the
electrode crystals such as cracking or crystal growth which adversely affect the internal
impedance of the cell. Similar problems occur during charging. There is a limitation as to
how quickly the Lithium ions can enter into the intercalation layers of the anode. Trying to
force too much current through the battery during the charging process results in surplus
ions being deposited on the anode in the form of Lithium metal. Known as Lithium plating,
this results in an irreversible capacity loss. At the same time, maintaining the higher
voltages needed for fast charging can lead to breakdown of the electrolyte which also
results in capacity loss. From the above we can expect that with each charge/discharge
cycle the accumulated irreversible capacity loss will increase. Although this may be
imperceptible, ultimately the capacity reduction will result in the cell being unable to store
the energy required by the specification. In other words it reaches the end of its useful life
and since the capacity loss is brought on by high current operation, we can expect that
battery cycle life will be shorter, the higher the current it carries. The graph below
demonstrates that this is the case in practice.

Source: Choi & Lim - Journal of Power Sources,September 2002

See below how this deterioration may be countered by providing rest periods during
battery operation.

Voltage effects
Rechargeable batteries each have a characteristic working voltage range associated with
the particular cell chemistry employed. The practical voltage limits are a consequence of
the onset of undesirable chemical reactions which take place beyond the safe working
range. Once all the active chemicals have been transformed into the composition
associated with a fully charged cell, forcing more electrical energy into the cell will cause
it to heat up and to initiate further unwanted reactions between the chemical components
breaking them down into forms which can not be recombined. Thus attempting to charge
a cell above its upper voltage limit can produce irreversible chemical reactions which can
damage the cell. The increase in temperature and pressure which accompanies these
events if uncontrolled could lead to rupture or explosion of the cell and the release of
dangerous chemicals or fire. Similarly, discharging a cell below its recommended lower
voltage limit can also result in permanent, though less dangerous, damage due to adverse
chemical reactions between the active chemicals. Protection circuits are designed to keep
the cell well within its recommended working range with limits set to include a safety
margin. This is discussed in more detail in the section on Protection . Cycle life
estimations normally assume that the cells will only be used within their specified
operating limits, however this is not always the case in practice and while straying over
the limits for short periods or by a minor margin will not generally cause the immediate
destruction of the cell, its cycle life will most likely be affected.

For example continuously over-discharging NiMH cells by 0.2 V can result in a 40 percent
loss of cycle life; and 0.3 V over-discharge of lithium-ion chemistry can result in 66 percent
loss of capacity. Testing has shown that overcharging lithium cells by 0.1 V or 0.25 volts
will not result in safety issues but can reduce cycle life by up to 80 percent.

Charge and discharge control are essential for preserving the life of the battery.

Cell Ageing

Charge conditioning or Formation

Cell formation is the process of transforming the active materials of a new cell into their
usable form. The initial crystal structure of the electrolyte or the electrodes is determined
by the manufacturing process by which these components were made and the process
of coating the electrodes. This may not be the optimum structure for minimising the
internal impedance of the cell and it may not give optimum contact between the electrolyte
and the electrodes. The passage of current through the cell and the heating and cooling
the cell is subjected to will cause small changes in the microstructure or morphology of
the active chemicals.
Formation is essentially the first charge carried out at the cell manufacturer's plant under
very carefully controlled conditions of current, temperature and duration to create the
desired microstructure of the components and the contact between them.
With some chemical formulations it may take ten charge-discharge cycles or more before
the battery is able to deliver its full power or capacity.

Growing old
Once in use however the usage profile of the cell is determined by the user. During the
lifetime of the cell, even if there is no undesirable change in the chemical composition of
the materials, the morphology of the active components will continue to change, usually
for the worse. The result is that the performance of the cell gradually deteriorates until
eventually the cell becomes unserviceable.

As the cell ages, both the chemical composition and the crystalline structure of the
materials changes, larger crystals tend to form and metallic dendrites may be formed on
the electrodes.
There are several consequences of these changes:-
 As the smaller crystals created during formation of the cell grow to a larger size the
internal impedance of the cell increases and the cell capacity is reduced.
 The crystal and dendritic growth cause a swelling of the electrodes which in turn exerts
pressure on the electrolyte and the separator. As the electrodes press closer to each
other the self discharge of the cell tends to increase.
 In extreme cases, the separator may be penetrated by dendritic or crystal growth
resulting in even higher self discharge or a short circuit.
Once a battery exhibits high self discharge, no remedy is available to reverse its effect.

Cyclic Mechanical Stresses

In Lithium ion cells the insertion or ejection of the Lithium ions into and out of the
intercalation spaces during charging and discharging causes the electrode materials to
swell or contract. Repetitive cycling can weaken the electrode structure reducing its
adhesion to the current collector causing the cell to swell. This can lead to reduction in
charge capacity and ultimately failure of the cell.

The degree of expansion or contraction of the electrode structure depends on the

materials used. The volume change in of each of the electrodes in Lithium Cobalt cells
tends to reinforce each other causing the cell to swell whereas volume changes of the
electrodes in Lithium Phosphate cells tends to compensate for eachother keeping
swelling to a minimum.
Using Silicon as the anode material instead of Carbon offers the possibility of very high
charge capacities ten times better than Carbon. Unfortunately Silicon anodes are subject
to a 400% volume change during charging which leads to physical breakdown of anode
coating. This is still an unsolved problem and various possible solutions are currently
being investigated.

Memory Effect
The so called "Memory Effect" is another manifestation of the changing morphology of
the cell components with age. It appears that some Nickel based cells particularly NiCads
could "remember" how much discharge was required on previous discharges and would
only accept that amount of charge in subsequent charges. Nickel metal hydride cells
suffer from the same problem but to a lesser extent. What happens in fact is that repeated
shallow charges cause the crystalline structure of the electrodes to change as noted
above and this causes the internal impedance of the cell to increase and its capacity to
be reduced. Long slow charges such as trickle charging tend to promote this undesirable
crystal growth, as does high temperatures and so should be avoided.

Reconditioning or Restoration
It is often possible to restore a NiCad cell to, or near to, its full capacity essentially by
repeating the formation process to break down the larger crystals into their previous
smaller size. One or more deep discharges below 1.0 V/cell with a very low controlled
current is enough to cause a change to the molecular structure of the cell to rebuild of its
original chemical composition. Thus giving the cell electric shock treatment can make it
lose its memory. This cure doesn't necessarily work with older cells, set in their ways,
whose crystal structure has become ingrained and could actually make them worse by
increasing the self discharge rate. These older cells nearing the end of their useful life
should be retired.

Passivation
Passivation is another secondary chemical action which occurs particularly in Lithium ion
cells. A resistive layer, known as the Solid Electrolyte Interface or SEI layer forms on
the electrodes in some cells due to cycling, or after prolonged storage. This may be in the
form of a chemical deposit or simply a change in the crystalline structure of the electrode
surface. This layer impedes the chemical reactions of the cell and its ability to deliver
current as well as increasing the cell's internal resistance.
This barrier must normally be removed to enable proper operation of the cell, however in
some cases passivation can bring a benefit by reducing the cell's self discharge. As with
reconditioning above, applying controlled charge/discharge cycles often helps in
recovering the battery for use. It may be possible to reverse changes to the crystalline
structure of the electrodes, but chemical changes are usually irreversible.

In Lithium ion cells the creation of the SEI layer during the formation process is essential
for moderating the chemical reaction between the electrolyte and the carbon anode but
its continued build up after formation during the life of the cell is responsible for the cell's
ageing. These unavoidable parasitic chemical reactions gradually consume the cell's
active chemicals and it is this loss of active chemicals which causes the gradual reduction
of the cell's capacity, in other words, its ageing.
See more about the chemical changes and parasitic reactions (above) causing
passivation and the SEI layer.

Cells tend to grow old gracefully due to the gradual build up of the SEI layer. The graph
of calendar life (above) shows that the time dependent build up of the SEI layer tends to
slow as the layer becomes thicker and empirical evidence suggests that the increase in
the cell's internal impedance due to the SEI build up is not linear but is proportional to the
square root of the time. There eventually comes a point where the passivation layer is so
thick that it blocks the pores in the porous surface of the anode preventing ion transfer
and intercalation into the anode's carbon crystal lattice leading to Lithium plating, which
makes the situation even worse and rapid deterioration of the cell's charge capacity
resulting in complete failure of the cell.
Two factors are at work here, the rate of growth of the SEI layer which determines how
quickly the cell ages, and the porosity of the anode surface which determines how much
ageing the cell can tolerate before its pores are totally blocked, in other words its critical
"End of Life" or "Death". Electrolytes and additives are selected to minimise the parasitic
chemical reactions and the blocking of the anode's porous surface to reduce ageing and
the particle structure of the anode surface is designed for optimum porosity to delay the
onset of critical failure.
High cell voltages and high ambient temperatures both accelerate the parasitic chemical
reactions and thus the rate of ageing of the cells and both have a major affect on cell life.
See Charging level, Voltage effects and Temperature effects above.
.
The end of life of a battery or cell is normally specified as the point at which its capacity
is reduced to 80% of its value when new, that is when it has lost 20% of its charge
capacity. The critical end of life is the point at which a cell fails completely. This is normally
much later than the specified "nameplate" end of life so that cells normally fade away
rather than suffer sudden death.

 Passivation, Coulombic Efficiency and Battery Life

An Alternative (Unconventional) Approach to Battery Lifetime Estimation

In some circumstances it may be possible to use a short cut method to determine the
battery lifetime. This involves measuring the capacity loss over a smaller number of
longer cycles, more representative of the cell's actual usage cycles, and extrapolating
from the result to obtain capacity loss over multiple cycles. The usage cycle includes
both Cycle loss and Calendar loss. The validity of the extrapolation depends on there
being a linear ageing process over the useful lifetime of the battery.
Recent studies at Canada's Dalhousie University have shown how the effect or extent
of the passivation process and its effect on a cell's charge capacity can be estimated
by measuring the Coulombic efficiency of the cell and used to characterise its lifetime
performance.
This method is not the conventional or recommended way of determining battery life
and may not be suitable for many applications. It is included here as a useful
alternative to conventional cycle testing for consideration.

The Method

Define Coulombic Efficiency CE = Qd/Qc

Where
Qc = Charge capacity at the beginning of the charge cycle
Qd = Charge capacity at the end of the discharge cycle with the cell fully recharged
Note: This is not the standard definition of Coulombic Efficiency which is based on
the cell's I2R and other losses per cycle. Instead it is simply based on the cell's
capacity loss per cycle due to the ageing process. It does however include both the
cycle losses and the calendar losses of the cell.
The difference between the charge going into the cell and the charge coming out,
(Qc - Qd), corresponds to the absolute reduction in the cell's active chemicals and the
concomitant increase in unwanted chemical products resulting from the parasitic,
irreversible chemical changes noted above which in turn cause a corresponding
increase in the thickness of the SEI layer.
A cell with a specified life of 1,000 cycles will be expected to lose 20% of its capacity
by the end of its life or 0.02% of its capacity every cycle so that its Coulombic efficiency
will be 99.98% or a factor of 0.9998
Coulombic Inefficiency CI = Capacity Loss Factor per Cycle = (1 - CE)
This loss of charge capacity represents the loss of active chemicals per cycle, or the
creation of unwanted chemical products and the consequent increase in the thickness
of the SEI layer per cycle and can be considered as the degradation factor of the cell
The capacity loss factor per cycle for the above 1000 cycle cell will be (1 - 0.9998) =
0.0002

Running cycle tests at different C rates can cause large apparent differences in the
capacity loss per cycle. This is because the relative contribution of the calendar life to
the overall cycle life depends on the duration of the charge discharge cycle.
See Inappropriate Test Conditions above.
Experiments at Dalhousie during test periods of around 1000 hours, have shown that,
for a given cell chemistry and cell construction, the actual capacity loss per cycle is
proportional to the duration t of the corresponding charge discharge cycle so that the
capacity loss rate for any given C rate is given by:
Rate of Capacity Loss = (1- CE) / t
Thus dividing the cycle loss by the cycle time we get a normalised composite loss rate
for cycle life and calendar life.
Further life tests on control groups of cells at Dalhousie have demonstrated that, under
controlled temperature conditions, there is a good correspondence between lifetime
predictions using this method compared with the actual results of conventional cycle
testing which cycles the cells until the end of their specified life (when the cell capacity
has fallen by 20%).

Benefits
 The method takes into account both the cycle life losses and the calendar life
losses.
 It shows that by means of precision measurements of the Coulombic efficiency,
cell performance can be characterised by only a few, long duration cycles, with
cycle times matching the period of the proposed usage. These tests can be
completed in a total of about 1000 hours avoiding prolonged and expensive long
term cycle testing to the death of multiple samples.
For example testing with charge-discharge rates of C / 25 over a period of 1000
hours or 3 weeks would produce 20 data points representing 20 days usage from
which the cell lifetime could be extrapolated.
 Divide the specified "End of Life" capacity loss (say 20%) by the measured
percentage capacity loss rate per cycle to obtain the cycle life.
 Multiply the cycle life by the test cycle time t to get the calendar life.
 Test cells are used for only a few cycles and have a long remaining life.
 The method is particularly important for manufacturers of large, long life batteries
for automotive and distributed network power storage uses since it enables them
to assess the viability of new designs without waiting eight years or more for the
results before they can launch a product.
 Using this method of determining the rate of capacity loss also provides a useful
tool for cell designers who can very quickly compare the effect of various
 alternative additives used to improve cell performance with a limited number of
tests without cycling each cell to destruction.
 Similarly this procedure enables pack makers to evaluate the performance of
competing cells from different manufacturers.

Caveats, Assumptions and Risks (Some potentially fatal)

The method ignores, or assumes to be negligible, several ageing mechanisms which
are known to affect the lifetime of the cell, making several tacit assumptions which are
not necessarily justified However in tests carried out under tightly controlled
conditions, experimental evidence has validated the conclusions. Some
considerations are outlined here.
 The main assumption is that capacity loss is entirely due to parasitic chemical
reactions giving rise to the build up of the SEI layer, and the consequent reduction
in the quantity of active chemicals. Structural degradation and changes to the
morphology of the particles making up the electrodes, such as cracking and
dendrite growth are discounted as are random cell failures which are not
associated with the ageing process. See also Ageing Mechanisms summary
which identifies other ageing effects.
 Extrapolating from a few cycles always gives rise to he potential for accumulating
errors. The bulk of what we need to know can be derived from measurements of
Coulombic efficiency but for long term projections it is essential to carry out a full
lifetime reality check on smaller sample to confirm validity of using the short term
results as an indicator of long term performance and the applicability of the
method.
 The cycle life losses may increase fairly linearly with time but calendar life losses
do not. As noted above, the rate of calendar life loss is not linear as implied by this
test procedure. The magnitude of this calendar loss however tends to be small
compared with the cycle loss and, since its effect gets progressively smaller with
time, it appears to have only a minor influence on the results. Since this is not
quantified it could possibly have a significant affect on the results and in any case
it would call into question the validity of any conclusions extrapolated from the
measurements.
 Temperature dependent losses are much more significant increasing
exponentially with temperature according to Arrhenius Law and can be quite large,
having a major affect on the calendar life. Such losses are not time dependent
however and should have a constant affect on ageing or capacity loss during the
life of the battery so long as the temperature remains constant. allowing
reasonable extrapolations to be made. Depending on the application, it may be
necessary to carry out tests a different ambient temperatures as would be the case
with conventional test methods. This does not detract from the method or its
usefulness.
 At some point the gradual SEI build up begins to block the ion transfer completely
and the cell suddenly fails. We know that with modern manufacturing process
controls that the anode surface porosity and the rate SEI build up are reasonably
consistent from cell to cell and also, from the above reasoning, that the rate of SEI
build up per cycle is constant and equal to (1 - CE) per cycle. From this we can
 conclude that, for a given Coulombic efficiency, number of cycles completed up to
the point of complete failure is constant.
All this is very nice to know, but we don't know what that constant is. Nor does not
tell us the most important point, which is "how many cycles occur before the onset
of critical failure". This depends on the actual thickness of the SEI layer, the
porosity of the electrode surface and the effect of electrolyte additives none of
which can not easily be quantified. The only way of determining the actual failure
point is by conventional cycling of a representative sample of cells to their death.
At least we can make the obvious conclusion that improving Coulombic efficiency
will increase the lifetime of the cells. We can be reassured however that cells are
normally designed so that this failure point is well beyond the conventional
specified cycle life which is when the accumulated capacity loss is 20% of the
nameplate (new) capacity.
 In the attempt to make the test profile represent the actual usage profile of the cell,
the C rates used in the tests are reduced so that the test cycle time is increased
to match the typical usage time between charges. This is still not truly
representative of the actual usage profile because, within each actual usage
period, the C rate can vary considerably from short periods at very high C rates to
long periods of zero use as would be the case with typical automotive applications.
We know that very high charge-discharge rates have a damaging affect on battery
life, so that for accurate results, the test profile should be based on the actual load
profile of the battery, such as a standard simulated driving cycle, not on constant
C rates. See Charging rate above.
 The very small changes in the charge levels per cycle are difficult to measure
accurately and suitable test equipment is not readily available off the shelf. For
reliable results, tests have up to now used custom built, very high precision current
supplies and test instruments.

Determining the Coulombic efficiency is not as simple as it sounds. The capacity

loss (Qc-Qd) during a single cycle is very small amounting to 0.002% of the capacity
of a battery with a specified cycle life of 1000 cycles and 0.0002% for a 10,000 cycle
battery.
For a 60 kWh, 300 Volt automotive battery with a specified life of 1000 cycles, the
capacity loss at the specified end of life will be 12 kWh (20%) or 12 Watthours. Using
conventional Amphour units, this corresponds to 0.04 Amphours or 144 Ampseconds
For individual 18650 Lithium ion cells with a cycle life of 1000 cycles and a charge
capacity of 3000 mAh, the magnitude of the charge loss per cycle will be 0.6 mAh

Conclusions
Using precision measurements of Coulombic efficiency provides an excellent method
of characterising many aspects cell and battery performance providing very quick
answers with reasonably small samples. It enables technologies to be ranked by their
Coulombic efficiency and is particularly useful as a lab tool for comparing the affects
of alternative materials on cell performance. Battery pack designers will also find it
useful as a quick for comparing the performance of competing batteries from different
manufacturers.
 Significant risk arises however in using the method to determine the lifetime
performance of the cells since the accuracy of extrapolated results is questionable.
The method is useful for comparing the ageing rates of various technologies, but it
can not currently provide absolute answers to life cycle or calendar life expectations
without resorting to testing at least some of the cells over their full lifetime until they
actually fail.

Proceed with Caution

Loss of Electrolyte
Any reduction in the volume of the cell's active chemicals will of course directly reduce
the cell's electrical capacity. At the same time the cell's potential cycle life will
automatically be reduced since the cell's useful life is defined to be over when its capacity
is reduced by 20%.

Electrolyte may be lost from leakage due to the deterioration over time of the seals closing
the cells. Even with good seals the solvents in the electrolyte may eventually permeate
through the seal over a prolonged period causing the electrolyte to dry out particularly if
the cells are stored in a dry atmosphere or if the cell contents are under pressure due to
high temperatures.
However the loss of electrolyte is not just due to the physical leakage of the electrolyte
from the cell, the electrolyte may be effectively lost to the electrochemical system because
it has been transformed or decomposed into another inactive compound which may or
may not remain inside the cell casing. Corrosion is an example of this as are other
compounds which may have been caused by overheating or abuse. Gassing and
evaporation are two other mechanisms by which electrolyte may be lost thus causing an
irreversible loss in the capacity of the cell.

Recombinant Systems
In order to prevent the loss of electrolyte from secondary cells in which the
electrochemical charging cycle produces gaseous products the cells must be sealed.
Closed cycle systems in which the gases are made to recombine to recover the active
chemicals are called recombinant systems. NiCads and SLA batteries use recombinant
designs. This gassing process tends to limit overcharging and also serves to balance the
voltages or charge levels of the cells in a series string.
Lithium ion cells do not produce gases during the normal charging or discharge processes
so recombination does not apply to this cell chemistry. If gassing does occur in Lithium
cells, it is usually the result of irreversible breakdown of the electrolyte and possibly the
first stage in thermal runaway of the cell.

Venting
Although most modern cells have a sealed construction to prevent loss of electrolyte, they
usually have a vent to relieve pressure if there is a danger of the cell rupturing due to
excessive pressure. Whenever a vent operates, it releases or expels some of the active
chemicals to the atmosphere and hence reduces the cell's capacity.
To determine whether electrolyte loss through venting has occurred, the suspect cell can
be weighed and its weight compared with the weight of a known good cell of the same
make and capacity.

Leakage
Leakage used to be a major problem with Zinc Carbon cells. This was because the zinc
casing took part in the electrochemical discharge reaction. During the lifetime of the cell,
the cell walls become progressively thinner as the zinc is consumed until they become
perforated allowing the electrolyte to escape. The escaping chemicals also create
corrosion on the battery terminals compounding the problem. New cell constructions and
modern materials have significantly diminished this problem. Nevertheless some cells
may still leak due to poor sealing or corrosion problems.

See also Weibull Analysis and Methods of Estimating Battery Lifetimes.

Manufacturing Tolerances
Battery life is also affected by variations in the materials and components used in
manufacturing the cells and although manufacturers try to keep these variations to a
minimum there will always be a spread in the properties of the materials used within the
tolerances allowed. Ultimately the consequences of these tolerance spreads will be
reflected in the lifetime of the cells. These factors also explain the wide disparity in
performance of similar cells from different manufacturers.

Chemical Composition
The quality of the active chemicals may vary, particularly if more than one source of
supply is used. This may affect the concentration of the chemicals or the level of impurities
present and these factors in turn affect the cell voltage, the internal impedance and the
self discharge rates.

Dimensional Accuracy
Variations in the dimensions of the components or in the placement of the parts making
up the cell can also affect the cell performance and life expectancy. Burrs and slight
misalignments can cause short circuits, maybe not immediately, but after repeated
temperature cycling. The filling of the electrolyte may be incomplete resulting in a
corresponding reduction in cell capacity. The granularity of the chemicals and the surface
finish on the electrodes both affect the current carrying capacity of the cells.

Interactions Between Cells

This can occur in multi-cell batteries and is a consequence of the spread of operating
characteristics of the individual cells in the pack. This may be due to manufacturing
tolerances as noted above or uneven temperature conditions across the pack or non
uniform ageing patterns which cause some cells to accept less charge than others. The
result is that in a series chain, a weak cell with reduced capacity will reach its full charge
before the rest of the cells in the chain and become overcharged as the charger attempts
to charge the overall cell chain to its nominal voltage. As already noted, overcharging
causes the cell to overheat resulting in expansion of the active chemicals as well as the
possible gassing of the electrolyte. These factors in turn cause the internal pressure to
rise, resulting in overstress and possible damage to the cell. This will be repeated with
every charge-discharge cycle causing the cell to become more stressed and hence even
weaker until it eventually fails. On the other hand, if for some reason the weak cell can
not reach full charge, perhaps due to a very high self discharge, or in an extreme case, a
short circuited cell, then the good cells, rather than the weaker cell, could possibly become
overcharged.
Damage to weaker cells can also continue during the discharge cycle. When discharged
in a series configuration the capacity of the weakest cell in the chain will be depleted
before the others. If the discharge is continued (to discharge the remaining good cells),
the voltage on the low capacity cell will reach zero then reverse due to the IR voltage drop
across the cell. Subsequent heat and pressure build up within the cell due to "cell
reversal" can then cause catastrophic failure.

The initial tolerance spread which caused these interactions may be very low but it can
build up over time as the damage increases with every charge-discharge cycle until the
weak cells eventually fail.

Improving Battery Life

The simplest and most obvious way of getting the maximum life out of a battery is to
ensure that it always works well within its designed operating limits. There are however
some further actions which can be taken to increase the battery life. These are
summarised below and in depth explanations and examples are available by following
the links.

Manufacturers' Options
 Additives
Cell manufacturers often use chemical means to improve battery life by adding
proprietary additives to the active chemicals. Additives can target improvements in
specific cell properties to increase lifetime without changing the basic active
chemicals. Examples of improvement targets include:
 Reduced oxidation of electrolyte resulting in fewer parasitic reactions and reduced
thickening of the SEI layer.
 Improvement in high and low temperature performance
 Impedance reduction
 Wetting agent to improve cell filling with electrolyte during manufacturing
 Reduction in gassing
 Suppression of dendrites
The user or pack designer has no influence over changes to the cell chemistry which
often take years to perfect

Pack Designers' and Users' Options

The pack designer however has many options to improve performance. These include
the following:

 Charging
 As noted in the section on Charging most battery failures are due to inappropriate
charging. The use of intelligent chargers and safety systems which prevent the
connection of unapproved chargers to the battery may not extend battery life but at
least they can prevent it from being cut short.
 Rest Periods During Charging and Discharging
Providing regular rest periods during operation of the battery allows the chemical
transformations in the battery to keep pace with demand for current.
See how this is implemented in a Software Configurable Battery without interrupting
the power delivery.
 Battery Management
Battery management is essentially the method of keeping the cells within their desired
operating limits during both charging and discharging either by controlling the load on
the battery or by isolating the battery from the load if the load can not be controlled.
See Battery Management
 Thermal Management
Extremes of temperature are battery killers. Both heating and cooling may be needed
to keep the battery within its recommended operating limits. Effective thermal
management is key to long battery life. See Temperature Controls
 Cell Balancing
As noted above, in multi-cell batteries problems could arise from interactions between
the cells caused by small differences in the characteristics of the individual cells
making up the battery. Cell balancing is designed to equalise the charge on every cell
in the pack and prevent individual cells from becoming over stressed thus prolonging
the life of the battery. See Cell Balancing
 Redundancy
Battery lifetime, though not cell lifetime, can be improved by adding extra back-up
cells to the battery to replace automatically any cells which have failed. The trade off
is larger, more complex and slightly more expensive systems. See Reliability
Improvement Through Redundancy
 Load Sharing
For pulsed applications the peak load on the battery can be reduced by placing a large
value capacitor in parallel with the battery. Energy for large instantaneous loads is
supplied by the capacitor effectively reducing the duty cycle and stress on the battery.
The capacitor recharges during the quiescent periods. Claims of a sixty percent
increase in cycle life are made for this technique.
Another benefit of this arrangement is that since the battery supplies less of the
instantaneous peak load current, the voltage drop across the battery will be lower. For
high power pulses this voltage drop can be very significant.
See Capacitors and Supercapacitors.
 Reformation/Reconditioning
As noted above some cells suffering capacity loss can be restored by repeating the
formation process thus extending their life. See Reformation/Reconditioning
 Demand Management
The "effective" life of a battery in a particular application can also be extended by
controlling the load which the application places on the battery. This does not actually
 improve the battery performance, instead it reduces the load that the battery has to
supply. See Demand Management
 Don't Keep the Battery Unnecessarily in a Fully Charged Condition
The higher the cell voltage the higher the chemical stress on the battery and the longer
the battery remains at high voltage the greater the deterioration.
 Don't Let the Cell Voltage Fall Below 2 Volts
At cell voltages below 2 Volts the copper anode current collector dissolves in the
electrolyte. See Lithium Battery Failures

Premature Death (Murder)

The most likely cause of premature failure of a battery is abuse, subjecting a battery to
conditions for which it was never designed.
Apart from obvious physical abuse, the following examples should also be considered
abuse, whether deliberate, inadvertent or through poor maintenance disciplines.
 Drawing more current than the battery was designed for or short circuiting the battery.
 Using undersized batteries for the application.
 Circuit or system designs which subject the battery to repeated "coup de fouet"
(whiplash) effects. This effect is a temporary, severe voltage drop which occurs when
a heavy load is suddenly placed on the battery and is caused by the inability of the
rate of the chemical action in the battery to accommodate the instantaneous demand
for current.
 Operating or storing the battery in too high or too low ambient temperatures.
 Using chargers designed for charging batteries with a different cell chemistry.
 Overcharging - either to too high a voltage or for too long a period.
 Over-discharging - allowing the battery to become completely discharged.
 In aqueous batteries - allowing electrolyte level to fall below the recommended
minimum.
 In aqueous batteries - topping up with tap water instead of distilled water (or
inappropriate electrolyte).
 Subjecting the battery to excessive vibration or shock.

Battery designers try to design out the possibility of abuse wherever possible but
ultimately the life of the battery is in the user's hands.

BU-501: Basics about Discharging

Learn how certain discharge loads will shorten battery life.

The purpose of a battery is to store energy and release it at a desired time. This section examines
discharging under different C-rates and evaluates the depth of discharge to which a battery can safely go.
The document also observes different discharge signatures and explores battery life under diverse loading
patterns.

The electrochemical battery has the advantage over other energy storage devices in that the energy stays
high during most of the charge and then drops rapidly as the charge depletes. The supercapacitor has a
linear discharge, and compressed air and a flywheel storage device is the inverse of the battery by
delivering the highest power at the beginning. Figures 1, 2 and 3 illustrate the simulated discharge
characteristics of stored energy.
Most rechargeable batteries can be overloaded briefly, but this must be kept short. Battery longevity is directly related
to the level and duration of the stress inflicted, which includes charge, discharge and temperature.
Remote control (RC) hobbyists are a special breed of battery users who stretch tolerance of “frail” high-performance
batteries to the maximum by discharging them at a C-rate of 30C, 30 times the rated capacity. As thrilling as an RC
helicopter, race car and fast boat can be; the life expectancy of the packs will be short. RC buffs are well aware of the
compromise and are willing to both pay the price and to encounter added safety risks.

To get maximum energy per weight, drone manufacturers gravitate to cells with a high capacity and choose the Energy
Cell. This is in contrast to industries requiring heavy loads and long service life. These applications go for the more
robust Power Cell at a reduced capacity.

Depth of Discharge
Lead acid discharges to 1.75V/cell; nickel-based system to 1.0V/cell; and most Li-ion to
3.0V/cell. At this level, roughly 95 percent of the energy is spent, and the voltage would
drop rapidly if the discharge were to continue. To protect the battery from over-
discharging, most devices prevent operation beyond the specified end-of-discharge
voltage.

When removing the load after discharge, the voltage of a healthy battery gradually
recovers and rises towards the nominal voltage. Differences in the affinity of metals in the
electrodes produce this voltage potential even when the battery is empty. A parasitic load
or high self-discharge prevents voltage recovery.

A high load current, as would be the case when drilling through concrete with a power
tool, lowers the battery voltage and the end-of-discharge voltage threshold is often set
lower to prevent premature cutoff. The cutoff voltage should also be lowered when
discharging at very cold temperatures, as the battery voltage drops and the internal
battery resistance rises. Table 4 shows typical end-of-discharge voltages of various
battery chemistries.

End-of-discharge Li-manganese Li-phosphate Lead acid NiCd/NiMH

Nominal 3.60V/cell 3.20V/cell 2.00V/cell 1.20V/cell

Normal load 3.0–3.3V/cell 2.70V/cell 1.75V/cell 1.00V/cell
Heavy load or 2.70V/cell 2.45V/cell 1.40V/cell 0.90V/cell
low temperature
Table 4: Nominal and recommended end-of-discharge voltages under normal and heavy load. The
lower end-of-discharge voltage on a high load compensates for the greater losses.

Over-charging a lead acid battery can produce hydrogen sulfide, a colorless, poisonous and flammable gas
that smells like rotten eggs. Hydrogen sulfide also occurs during the breakdown of organic matter in
swamps and sewers and is present in volcanic gases and natural gas. The gas is heavier than air and
accumulates at the bottom of poorly ventilated spaces. Strong at first, the sense of smell deadens with time,
and the victims are unaware of the presence of the gas. (See BU-703: Health Concerns with Batteries.)

What Constitutes a Discharge Cycle?

A discharge/charge cycle is commonly understood as the full discharge of a charged
battery with subsequent recharge, but this is not always the case. Batteries are seldom
fully discharged, and manufacturers often use the 80 percent depth-of-discharge (DoD)
formula to rate a battery. This means that only 80 percent of the available energy is
delivered and 20 percent remains in reserve. Cycling a battery at less than full discharge
increases service life, and manufacturers argue that this is closer to a field representation
than a full cycle because batteries are commonly recharged with some spare capacity
left.
There is no standard definition as to what constitutes a discharge cycle. Some cycle counters add a full
count when a battery is charged. A smart battery may require a 15 percent discharge after charge to qualify
for a discharge cycle; anything less is not counted as a cycle. A battery in a satellite has a typical DoD of
30–40 percent before the batteries are recharged during the satellite day. A new EV battery may only
charge to 80 percent and discharge to 30 percent. This bandwidth gradually widens as the battery fades to
provide identical driving distances. Avoiding full charges and discharges reduces battery stress. (See
also BU-1003: Electric Vehicle.)

A hybrid car only uses a fraction of the capacity during acceleration before the battery is recharged.
Cranking the motor of a vehicle draws less than 5 percent energy from the starter battery, and this is also
called a cycle in the automotive industry. Reference to cycle count must be done in context with the
respective duty.
Reference to discharge cycle or cycle count does not relate equally well to all battery applications. One example where
counting discharge cycles does not reflect state-of-life accurately is in a storage device (ESS). These batteries
supplement renewable energies from wind power and photovoltaic by delivering short-term energy when needed and
storing if in excess. The time duration between charge and discharged can be in milliseconds; a typical battery state-
of-charge is 40–60%. Rather than cycle count, coulomb counting may be used as a means of measuring wear and
tear.

LEAD ACID CYCLE LIFE OR

PERFORMANCE EXPLAINED
Cycle life is a specification that attempts to define how many charge and discharge cycles a battery
can undergo before it needs to be replaced.

A single cycle occurs when the battery is charged and then discharged.

A key point to understand when interpreting a cycle life specifications is that it valid for a specific
level of discharge.
Generally speaking, the lower the depth of discharge, the greater the cycle life. Consider the
following specifications for a typical deep cycle lead acid battery.

If we were to use the battery in a manner that caused us to discharge it completely (100% Depth
of Discharge), we may get 200 cycles of life out of it.

On the other hand, if the application dictated that we only needed to 30 percent of the batteries
stored energy before charging again, we could get more than 1000 cycles.

Clearly there is a benefit to managing batteries to a lower depth of discharge. Assume the deep
cycle battery being discussed stores 1 kilowatt of energy.

When used to a 100 percent depth of discharge, it will store and release 200 kilowatts of energy
throughout its life. (1000 watts x 200 cycles).

On the other hand, the same battery will store and release 300 kilowatts if managed to a 30 percent
depth of discharge. (300 watts x 1000 cycles).

In other words, the battery performance improves by 50 percent by simply managing limiting the
depth of discharge. Put another way, the money spent on batteries is reduced by 33 percent by
simply managing the depth of discharge.

Obviously there are cases where a full 1 kilowatt of energy between charges is required. Rather
than simply surrendering to that need and living with a higher battery cost, it may make sense to
evaluate the design of the battery installation. For example, it may be possible to lower the energy
costs simply by increasing battery size or putting three batteries in parallel.

o About Rechargeable Batteries

o Industrial Standard Cylindrical Battery Sizes
o What is the cycle life of rechargeable battery?
o What is rechargeable battery self discharge?
o What is battery inner impedance?
o What is the memory effect?
o What does the ambient temperature affect the battery performance?
o What does the "Over-charge" affect the battery performance?
o What does the "Over-discharge" affect the battery performance?
o What does the short circuit affect the battery performance?
o What is the performance of Nickel Cadmium battery?
o What is the performance of Nickel Metal Hydride battery?
o What is the performance of Lithium ion battery?
o What is the performance of Polymer Lithium ion battery?
o What is the performance of Lithium MnO2 and Li-SOCL2 battery?
o Why do batteries packs with zero voltage or low voltage?
o Safety Precautions
o Why Li-ion battery pack has 0 voltage?
o How to test Li-Ion battery's safety
o How to revive NiMH cell & NiMH pack by shocking method?
o How to take care of your Powerizer Nicd/Nimh rechargeable battery?
 o How to take care of your Powerizer Lithium rechargeable battery?
o What is the best battery?
o How to replace new fuel gauge for Li-Ion pack?

About Rechargeable Battery

There are five types of rechargeable batteries commercially available. The following table compares their performance and application. Currently the most popular
rechargeable batteries are Ni-Cd, Ni-MH and Li-Ion in consumer electronic industry, which are among our major products.
Using rechargeable battery can save Environmental and save your money. For example, one AA size NiMH battery can be used at least 500 times and equal to
500pcsAA alkaline battery, it cost you less than $0.002 for each time.

Performance Comparison of various Rechargeable Batteries

Parameters Lead acid Ni-Cd Ni-M-H Liquid Polymer

Li-Ion Li-ion

Voltage (V) 2 1.2 1.2 3.6 3.6

Weight energy 35 50 80 125 170

density (Wh/Kg)

Volume energy 80 150 200 320 400

Density (Wh/l)

Cycle life (times) 300 500 500 800 1000

Self discharge 0 25-30 30-35 6-9 2-5

(%/ month)

Electrolyte state Liquid Liquid Liquid Liquid Polymer Gel

Min. thickness > 10 mm >3mm >3mm >3mm <1mm

Memory effect no yes no No No

Pollution yes yes No No No

Production cost lowest Low middle High Middle

Advantages High drain Middle drain current and low Middle drain current higher capacity and Highest capacity, lighter
current and low cost, smaller volume and cost, higher lighter weight weight and flexible shape
cost capacity

Disadvantages Too heavy Environmental not friendly Higher self-discharge Low drain current Low drain current and very
and weight and higher cost high cost

Applications Car and lighting Power tool, cordless phone Toy, PDA,, MP3 and Cellular phone and Laptop computers
and emergency lighting etc. digital camera etc laptop computer

Industrial Standard Cylindrical Battery Sizes

Cell Size Diameter (mm) Length (mm) NiCad Weight(grams) NiMH Weight(grams)
A Size Batteries
AAAA 8.4 40.2 10 10

4/3 AAAA 8.4 67 12-13 13

1/4 AAA 10.5 14 2.5-3.5 2.5-4
1/3 AAA 10.5 16 5.5 5.5
1/2 AAA 10.5 22 7
2/3 AAA 10.5 30 6-8 8-9
AAA36 10.5 36 11
4/5 AAA 10.5 37 11
AAA38 10.5 38 11
3/4 AAA 10.5 39.5 12 12
AAA42 10.5 42 12
AAA 10.5 44.5 10 13
5/4 AAA 10.5 50 14 15
L-AAA 10.5 50 13 14
4/3 AAA 10.5 67 17 18
5/3 AAA 10.5 67 19 19
LL-AAA 10.5 67 17 18
3/2 AAA 10.5 67 19 20
6/4 AAA 10.5 67 20 20
7/5 AAA 10.5 66.5 15 15
7/4 AAA 10.5 76 19 20-21
7/3 AAA 10.5 80 23
SL AAA 10.5 80 23
1/3 AA 14.2 17.5 6.5 7
1/2 AA 14.2 30 12 15
2/3 AA 14.2 28.7 13-15 13-16
4/5 AA 14.2 43 20 22
AA 14.2 50 21 27
AA flat top 14.2 48 21 27
5/4 AA 14.2 64.5 29
L-AA 14.2 65 29 30
4/3 AA 14.2 65.2 30 30
7/5 AA 14.2 70 29 39
1/3 A 17 21
1/2 A 17 25 17 21
2/3 A 17 28.5 18-20 20-23
4/5 A 17 43 26-31 32-35
A 17 50 32 40
4/3 A 17 67 50 55
L-A 17 67 48 53
7/5 A 17 70 44.8 56
Fat A 18 50 38 42
4/3 Fat A 18 67 56 60
L-Fat A 18 67 55 60
Sub C Size Batteries
1/2 SC 23 26 30
2/3 SC 23 28 25 28
4/5 SC 23 34 38 42
SC (sub C) 23 43 52 55
5/4 Sub C 23 49.5 65-67 70
4/3 SC 23 50 60 66
L-SC 23 50 57 63
C Size Batteries
1/2 C 26 24 31 34
3/5 C 26 30 40 44
2/3 C 26 31 45 50
C 26 46 72 80
5/4 C 26 58 90 100
D Size Batteries
1/2 D 33 37 81-84 81
2/3 D 33 43.4 98-105 115
D 33 58 105-145 105-160
4/3 D 33 89 140-190 175
3/2 D 33 90.3 195-236 240
F Size Batteries
F 33 91.2 231 255
SF (super F) 41.4 89.1 393 425
 Diameter & Length can vary as much as 0.1mm~1 mm between different manufacturers
 Weight of a cell depends on manufacturer. The purpose of the weight column is to give a feel of how heavy a cell will be. Your
results may vary.

What is the cycle life of rechargeable battery?

When a battery experiences a charge and discharge, we call a cycle or a period. In the stated charge and discharge
principles and the capacity decline before a stated standard, the total cycles it can undergo called rechargeable
battery cycle life.

What is rechargeable battery self discharge?

Primary battery or full charged secondary battery, when put aside for a period, it is capacity will decline or lose, this
phenomenon calls self discharge that is electricity flee away. It is decided by the inner electro chemistry system,
similar to water leakage from pond or reservoir.

What is battery inner impedance?

Battery impedance is the resistance when the current flow through an operating cell, in general the internal resistance
is included both d.c. and a.c. resistance. For the rechargeable cell resistance is small and electrode is easy to be
polarized along with producing a polarization resistance while measure d.c. resistance, the accurate value can't be
measured.

What is the memory effect?

Memory effect only happens on Ni-Cd batteries. As in traditional technology a Ni-Cd battery's negative is
agglomeration with thick Ni crystal, if Ni-Cd batteries are recharged before they have been fully discharged, Ni crystal
easily gathers to form agglomeration, which makes the primary discharge platform come into being. The battery
stores the platform, which will be considered as the end of discharge for the next cycle even though the capacity
decides that the battery can be discharged to a lower platform. The battery will store this process in its memory so
during the next discharge, the battery only remembers this reduced capacity. Similarly any further incomplete
discharge in each use will aggravate the effect makes lower capacity. The effect there are two methods to remove
the effect: firstly deep discharge at trickle current (i.e. 0.1C to 0V), secondly several cycles at high currents (e.g.
1C).

What does the ambient temperature affect the battery performance?

Low temperatures (e.g. -15?) will obviously reduce Ni-Cd and Ni-MH battery discharge rate. At -20? electrolyte is at
its freezing point, charge speed will greatly slow down. At low temperature (under -15?) charge will raise the internal
gas pressure and probably unseal the safety vent. Ambient temperature of 5?to 30? is the best range to get effective
charge. Generally with temperature rising charge efficiency will become higher. But when the temperature rises to
45? or higher, the materials performance in the battery will be degenerated and battery service life will be shorten
greatly.

What does the "Over-charge" affect the battery performance?

"Over-charge" is described as a continuous charge action after the battery has been fully charged by a certain charge
method. Since the capacity level from positive polarity is higher than the negative polarity, the positive polarity will
generate Oxygen, which can be composed with the Cadmium generated from negative polarity via separator. In
general condition, the internal pressure will not increase significantly, however, if the charging-current applied for
battery is too much, the charging-time is extremely long and finally the Oxygen could not be used up in time, the
battery will be defected by a pressure risen, battery distortion, leakage and so on. Definitely the battery's
performance will decline as well

What does the "Over-discharge" affect the battery performance?

If a cell's voltage reaches a designed value, that means the battery has discharge the stored capacity, but still the
discharge action is continual, over-discharge will cause. Commonly the end voltage can be identified through
discharge current, for example the end voltage is set at 1.0V/cell as discharged at 0.2C-2C, and 0.8V/cell at 3C or
more, e.g. 5C or 10C. Over discharge may cause disaster, especially at heavy current or repeated over discharge.
Commonly over discharge can make cell inner pressure raise, and the reversibility of activity materials both in positive
and negative will be damaged. Even by charge only part can recover and the capacity is reduced obviously.

What does the short circuit affect the battery performance?

Any kinds of conductive material being bridged with the external terminals of a battery will result in short circuit.
Based on the battery system, a short circuit may have serious consequences, e.g. rising electrolyte temperature or
building up internal gas pressure. If the internal gas pressure value exceeds the limitation of cell cap endurance, the
electrolyte will leak, which will damage battery greatly. If safe vent fails to respond, even explosion will occur.
Therefore don't short circuit.

What is the performance of Nickel Cadmium battery?

 Low cost;
 Excellent overcharge endurance;
 Excellent quick charge performance;
 Long cycle life;
 Extensive temperature range;
 Mid-degree self-discharge;
 Good safety performance.

What is the performance of Nickel Metal Hydride battery?

 Low cost;
 Good quick charge performance;
 Long cycle life;
 No memory accumulation;
 Green energy sources, no pollution;
 Extensive temperature range;
 Good safety performance.

What is the performance of Lithium ion battery?

  High energy density;
 High operation voltage;
 No memory accumulation;
 Long cycle life;
 No pollution;
 Light weight;
 Very low self-discharge rate.

What is the performance of Polymer Lithium ion battery?

 No liquid electrolyte, so never leak;

 Can be made into various shape;
 Can be made into thin battery, such as 3.6V, 400mAh, the thickness can decrease to
0.5mm;
 High voltage in an battery: several battery with liquid electrolyte can be connected in
series to get a high voltage only; the Li-polymer battery can get high voltage in an cell
through multiplayer combination;
 Same volume Li-polymer batteries` capacity is two times of Li-ion battery.

What is the performance of Lithium MnO2 and Li-SOCL2 battery?

 High energy density;

 Long shelf life;
 Wide operating temperature;
 Good sealing feature;
 Steady discharge voltage

Why do batteries packs with zero voltage or low voltage?

(1) One of the cells voltages is 0V;
(2) Plugs are short or open circuit, or ill touched;
(3) Lead wires are broken from the soldering or weakly soldered;
(4) Wrong battery connection or the connection tabs are miss or weak weld or broken off.

Safety Precautions:
1. Read specification carefully or consult how to use correctly.
2. According to electric appliance indication, please build in the battery positive pole and negative pole correctly.
3. Do not put new and old battery or different kind and model battery into use together.
4. Do not charge for the primary battery.
5. Do not heat or disassemble the battery, even put it into fire or water.
6. Do not short-circuit, in case of battery exploding, leakage or other casualty.
7. If finding exceptional conditions, such as terrible odor, leakage, cracks and deformation on the battery crust,
please stop using the battery immediately.
8. Put the battery where children can not reach.
9. If leaked liquid gets into eyes, flush eyes thoroughly with clean water at least 15 minutes, lifting upper and lower
lids until no evidence of the chemical remains. Seek medical attention.
10. If the electric appliance do not use for long-term, please take the battery out and store in a cool, well ventilated
area.

Why Li-ion battery pack has 0 voltage?

For safety consideration, our li-ion battery pack has PCB protection which will protect the battery packs from over
charging and discharge. When the li-ion battery is over charging or discharged, the PCB will cut off automatically.
Then you may find the battery pack is 0 voltage. This doesn't mean the battery pack is dead. You can just use our
charger to charge it, everything will back to normal. Please make sure to use batteryspace's recommended chargers.
We are not responsible for other brand chargers. However, this is not applied to battery which hadn't been charged
for more than two months. You should charge battery every 2 months to keep it fresh if you don't use it.

How to recover low voltage 7.2v-9.6v NMh battery pack (0.5v/ cell level)by shocking method?
If the voltage of NiMH battery is less than 1.0V/cell, It does not mean either the pack is a defective unit or the
charger could not recognize the pack. Please shock the cell or the pack by12v DC 0.5 Amp Ac adaptor for 1 minute.
Then your charger will recognize the cell or the pack and could charge by nominal charging current. Further

information, Please download instruction manual how to revive NiMH cell/NiMH pack.

How to take care of your Powerizer Nimh/Nicd rechargeable battery:

All NiCd/ NiMh rechargeable battery (pack) that we send out is not fully charge. This is due to safety reason during
shipping. To ensure the battery (pack) will last a long time for your enjoyment, you need to perform the following
steps when you receive our battery (pack).
For NiCd or NiMh battery (pack):
1. Charge the battery (pack) fully before using.
2. Discharge the battery (pack) fully (down to 1.0V per cell) before charging it again
or till it won't operate your device.
3. Repeat steps 1&2 four (4) times to condition the battery so it can reach its full
capacity
4. We recommend recharge the battery (pack) at least once every 2 months to maintain the
battery's capacity.

How to take care of your Powerizer Lithium rechargeable battery?

Please download Take Care Li-ion battery.pdf

What is the best battery?

Below is a summary of the strength and limitations of today's popular battery systems. Although energy density is
paramount, other important attributes are service life, load characteristics, maintenance requirements, self-discharge
costs and safety. Nickel-cadmium is the first rechargeable battery in small format and forms a standard against which
other chemistry are commonly compared. The trend is towards lithium-based systems.

Nickel-cadmium- mature but has moderate energy density. Nickel-cadmium is used where long life, high discharge
rate and extended temperature range is important. Main applications are two-way radios, biomedical equipment and
power tools. Nickel-cadmium contains toxic metals.

Nickel-metal-hydride- has a higher energy density compared to nickel-cadmium at the expense of reduced cycle
life. There are no toxic metals. Applications include mobile phones and laptop computers. NiMH is viewed as
steppingstone to lithium-based systems.

Lead-acid- most economical for larger power applications where weight is of little concern. Lead-acid is the preferred
choice for hospital equipment, wheelchairs, emergency lighting and UPS systems. Lead acid is inexpensive and
rugged. It serves a unique niche that would be hard to replace with other systems.

Lithium-ion- fastest growing battery system; offers high-energy density and low weight. Protection circuit are
needed to limit voltage and current for safety reasons. Applications include notebook computers and cell phones.
High current versions are available for power tools and medical devices.
Table 1 summarizes the characteristics of the common batteries. The figures are based on average ratings at time
of publication. Lithium-ion is divided into three versions: The traditional cobalt that is commonly used in cell phones,
cameras and laptops; the manganese (spinel) that power high-end power tools and the new phosphate that competes
head-on with spinel. Lithium-ion polymer is not listed as a separate system. Its unique construction performs in a
same way to cobalt-based lithium-ion.

Table 1:Characteristics of commonly used rechargeable batteries.

1) Internal resistance of a battery pack varies with mAh rating, wiring and number of cells. Protection circuit of
lithium-ion adds about 100mW.
2) Based on 18650 cell size. Cell size and design determines internal resistance. Larger cells can have an impedance
of <15mOhms,
3) Cycle life is based on battery receiving regular maintenance. Failing to apply periodic full discharge cycles may
reduce the cycle life by a factor of three.
4) Cycle life is based on the depth of discharge. Shallow discharges provide more cycles than deep discharges.
5) The self-discharge is highest immediately after charge, and then tapers off. The capacity loss of nickel-cadmium
is 10% in the first 24h, then declines to about 10% every 30 days thereafter. High temperature increases self-
discharge.
6) Internal protection circuits typically consume 3% of the stored energy per month.
7) The traditional nominal voltage is 1.25V; 1.2V is more commonly used to harmonize with lithium-ion (3 in series
= 3.6V).
8) Lithium-ion is often rated higher than the nominal 3.6V. Based on average voltage under load.
9) Capable of high current pulses; needs time to recuperate.
10) Applies to discharge only; charge temperature range is more confined. Delivers lower capacity at lower
temperatures.
11) Maintenance may be in the form of 'equalizing' or 'topping' charge to prevent sulphation.