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REVIEW 100

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Antibiotic and oral

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contraceptive drug interactions:

Is there a need for concern?
George G Zhanel PharmD PhD1,2,3, Shannon Siemens BSc Pharm2, Kathryn Slayter Pharm D4, Lionell Mandell MD5

GG Zhanel, S Siemens, K Slayter, L Mandell. Antibiotic and oral contraceptive drug interactions: Is there a need
for concern? Can J Infect Dis 1999;10(6):429-433.

OBJECTIVE: To assess the clinical significant of antibiotic and oral contraceptive drug interactions.
DATA SELECTION: MEDLINE search from 1975 to 1998 (September) inclusive. Search terms ‘antitiobic’, ‘oral contra-
ceptive’ and ‘pregnancy’ were included. Published papers as well as references from these papers were reviewed. Papers
documenting mechanistic interactions between antibiotics and oral contraceptives were included.
DATA EXTRACTION: Studies reporting oral contraceptive pharmacokinetics, mechanisms, incidence, implicated antibi-
otics and clinical consequences of antibiotic/oral contraceptive drug interactions.
DATA SYNTHESIS: Reports of oral contraceptive failure seem to be most numerous in women using preparations con-
taining 30 m g of ethinylestradiol and 150 m g of levonorgestrel. Rifampin is the only antibiotic that has been reported to
reduce plasma estrogen concentrations. When taking rifampin, oral contraceptives cannot be relied upon and a second
method of contraception is mandatory. Amoxicillin, ampicillin, griseofulvin, metronidazole and tetracycline have been
associated with contraceptive failure in three or more clinical cases. When these agents are used, the clinician should
discuss the available data with the patient and suggest a second form of birth control. Other antibiotics are most likely
safe to use concomitantly with oral contraceptives.
CONCLUSIONS: Rifampin is the only antibiotic to date that has been reported to reduce plasma estrogen concentrations.
Oral contraceptives cannot be relied upon for birth control while taking rifampin.

Key Words: Antibiotics; Drug interactions; Oral contraceptives; Pregnancy

Interactions des contraceptifs oraux avec les antibiotiques : Doit-on s’inquiéter ?

OBJECTIF : Évaluer la portée clinique des interactions des contraceptifs oraux avec les antibiotiques.
SÉLECTION DES DONNÉES : Recherche dans Medline des articles publiés entre 1975 et septembre 1998 inclusivement.
Il s’agissait de rechercher notamment les mots-clés « antibiotic », « oral contraceptive » et « pregnancy ». Les articles
publiés, de même que les références accompagnant ces articles, ont été passés en revue. Les articles faisant état des
mécanismes de l’interaction entre les antibiotiques et les contraceptifs oraux ont été inclus dans l’étude.
EXTRACTION DES DONNÉES : Études rapportant la pharmacocinétique des contraceptifs oraux, les mécanismes,
l’incidence, les antibiotiques impliqués et les conséquences cliniques des interactions des contraceptifs oraux avec les
antibiotiques.
SYNTHÈSE DES DONNÉES : Les cas rapportés d’échec des contraceptifs oraux semblent plus nombreux chez les
femmes utilisant des préparations contenant 30 g d’éthinylœstradiol et 150 g de lévonorgestrel. La rifampine est le seul
100 100
antibiotique qui a été signalé comme agent réducteur des concentrations plasmatiques d’œstrogènes. En cas de prise
concomitante de rifampine et de contraceptifs oraux, une deuxième méthode de contraception est indispensable.
95 95

voir page suivante

75 75
1
Department of Medical Microbiology, Faculty of Medicine and 2Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Manitoba; 3Health Sciences Centre,
Winnipeg, Manitoba; 4Departments of Pharmacy and Medicine, Queen Elizabeth II Health Sciences Centre, and Faculties of Pharmacy and
Medicine, Dalhousie University, Halifax, Nova Scotia; 5Division of Infectious Diseases, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario
25 Correspondence: Dr GG Zhanel, Health Sciences Centre, MS673 Microbiology, 820 Sherbrook Street, Winnipeg, Manitoba R3A 1R9. 25

Telephone 204-787-4902, fax 204-787-4699, e-mail ggzhanel@pcs.mb.ca

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L’amoxicilline, l’ampicilline, la griséofulvine, le métronidazole et la tétracycline ont été associés à un échec de la

95 95
contraception dans trois cas cliniques et plus. Lorsque ces agents sont prescrits, le clinicien devrait informer les
patientes à l’aide des données disponibles et proposer une deuxième méthode de contraception. Les autres antibiotiques
75 75
peuvent probablement en toute sécurité être administrés en concomitance avec des contraceptifs oraux.
CONCLUSIONS : La rifampine est actuellement le seul antibiotique que l’on a signalé comme agent réducteur des
concentrations plasmatiques d’œstrogènes. Pendant un traitement avec de la rifampine, les contraceptifs oraux ne sont
pas fiables pour garantir la contraception.
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0
A controversial issue in infectious diseases and obstetrics
is whether there is an interaction between antibiotics and
oral contraceptives that results in reduced efficacy of the birth
thought to undergo extensive enterohepatic cycling and are,
thus, less likely to be involved in drug interactions with anti-
biotics than ethinylestradiol (5).
0

control agents. This issue remains an important question in the

minds of clinicians because the majority of reports to date are MECHANISMS OF INTERACTION
anecdotal and studies performed have been inconclusive. Antibiotics are suspected to diminish oral contraceptive ef-
In North America, oral contraceptives are used by millions ficacy by two main mechanisms: induction of the cytochrome
of women on a routine basis. This represents nearly 20% of all P450 group of hepatic microsomal enzymes and interference
women between the ages of 15 and 44 years (1). Thus, even if with enterohepatic cycling of ethinylestradiol (6) (Table 1).
the antibiotic interaction with oral contraceptives is relatively The former mechanism is thought to be most clinically signifi-
rare, the absolute number of women affected may be substan- cant and the most well studied. Rifampin induces cytochrome
tial. P450 enzymes in the liver, which results in increased hepatic
hydroxylation of estrogens. In fact, the metabolism of estro-
ORAL CONTRACEPTIVE STEROID gens is increased fourfold, resulting in both reductions in area
PHARMACOKINETICS under the curve and increased clearance (4,7,8) (Table 1).
The estrogens most commonly found in oral contraceptive However, the data remain incomplete with respect to these
preparations are ethinylestradiol and mestranol, a prodrug pathways and other antibiotic and oral contraceptive interac-
which is metabolized to ethinylestradiol. After metabolism via tions.
the first pass effect, ethinylestradiol has an oral bioavailabil- Antibiotics can interrupt the enterohepatic cycling of estro-
ity of 40% to 50% (2). Hydroxylation is the main metabolic gens by reducing the bacterial population of the small intes-
pathway for ethinylestradiol, whereas conjugation is consid- tine, which is responsible for hydrolysis of the glucuronide
ered to be a minor pathway in most women, resulting in sul- moiety (estrogen metabolite found in bile) to free drug (6).
phation or glucuronidation of the original estrogenic steroid. When the gut flora are altered, enterohepatic circulation is re-
Glucuronide and sulphate conjugates reach the small intes- duced, the metabolite is excreted, resulting in lower circulat-
tine by way of the bile duct. Hydrolytic enzymes of intestinal ing concentrations of ethinylestradiol. Many antibiotics are
bacteria break the conjugates down, resulting in the release of believed to decrease oral contraceptive efficacy in this man-
free, active estrogenic hormone. The active hormone is then ner, including penicillins, cephalosporins, tetracyclines, mac-
available for reabsorption and undergoes enterohepatic cy- rolides, antifungals, metronidazole, sulphonamides and anti-
cling, which is responsible for plasma estrogen levels neces- tuberculosis agents (9) (Table 1).
sary for contraception.
The enzyme responsible for hydroxylation of the estrogen CONSEQUENCES AND INCIDENCE
molecule is cytochrome P450 IIIA4 (CYP3A4) and is under Broad spectrum antibiotics can lead to lower levels of circu-
polymorphic genetic control (3). As a result, women are able to lating oral contraceptive hormone levels and have, thus, been
hydroxylate ethinylestradiol to varying degrees. Therefore, implicated in causing failures in women taking oral contra-
when trying to evaluate which women are at risk for the oral ceptives (10). Failure of oral contraceptive steroids can lead to
contraceptive and antibiotic drug interaction, the extent to several outcomes, including breakthrough bleeding, preg-
which women can hydroxylate ethinylestradiol is of prime im- nancy and menstrual abnormalities such as amenorrhea and
portance because it is only that estrogen which has not been spotting (11). Intermenstrual bleeding is often considered a
hydroxylated that is available for subsequent conjugation (4). clinical sign of oral contraceptive failure if it has not been ex-
This is significant because only the conjugated hormone can perienced by the patient before with a particular medication
100 100
be hydroxylated in the intestine and then enterohepatically re- (11).
95 cycled to maintain plasma estrogen levels. Unfortunately, at 95

the present time, there is no method to determine which IMPLICATED ANTIBIOTICS

75 women are at risk. Rifampin, an antituberculosis, antistaphylococcal agent, 75

The progestins present in oral contraceptive pills (eg, was first reported to decrease oral contraceptive efficacy
levonorgestrel, norethisterone, desogestrel, gestodene, norg- through the induction of hepatic enzymes (12). Since then,
25 estimate) also undergo conjugation. Hydrolysis of conjugates numerous case reports have been reported implicating ri- 25

leads to the formation of inactive metabolites because the par- fampin as the cause of oral contraceptive failure resulting in
5 ent molecule cannot be directly conjugated. Progestins are not pregnancy, spotting, intermenstrual bleeding or amenorrhea 5

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TABLE 1 95
Review of reported antibiotic/oral contraceptive drug interactions
75 75
Antibiotic class Specific antibiotic Oral contraceptive component Mechanism of interaction Comment
Penicillins Ampicillin Ethinylestradiol/levonorgestrel Interruption of the enterohepatic No effect on plasma estrogen
(Min-Ovral [Wyeth-Ayerst cycling of ethinylestradiol by concentration in controlled
25 Canada Inc, St Laurent, means of reducing the bacterial studies 25
Quebec], Triphasil, population of the small
5 [Wyeth-Ayerst]) intestine, which is responsible 5

Cephalosporins for the hydrolysis of the

0 conjugated hormone. The 0
Tetracyclines Doxycycline Ethinylestradiol/norethindrone inhibition of hydrolysis can lead Study showed decreased
(Ortho-Novum 1/35 to an increased fecal loss of the ethinylestradiol levels but not
[Janssen-Ortho Inc, Toronto, hormone, resulting in lower statistically significant. No
Ontario]) circulating levels of ovulation noted
Minocycline Ethinylestradiol/levonorgestrel & ethinylestradiol
ethinylestradiol and ethynodiol
diacetate (Demulen 1/35 [Serle
Inc, Toronto, Ontario])
Tetracycline Ethinylestradiol/norethindrone
(Ortho-Novum 1/35)
Sulphonamides Co-trimoxazole Actually shown to increase
(sulfamethoxaxole ethinylestradiol levels. Possibly
and trimethoprim) by inhibiting hepatic
metabolism. May not require
same precautions
Macrolides Erythromycin
Antiprotozoal agents Metronidazole
Antituberculosis Rifampin Ethinylestradiol/norethindrone Induction of cytochrome P450 Increases metabolism of both
agents (Ortho-Novum 1/35) group of hepatic microsomal estrogen and progesterone
enzymes component. Only antibiotic and
oral contraceptive interaction
that has been proven
Isoniazid Unknown Implicated in 14 pregnancies, but
rifampin co-administered in all
cases
Antifungal agents Griseofulvin Induction of cytochrome P450 Decreases progesterone and
group of hepatic microsomal estrogen concentrations
enzymes
Fluconazole Ethinylestradiol/norgestrel Unknown mechanism of No pharmacokinetic interaction
(Ovral [Wyeth-Ayerst]) interaction. Unlikely related to detected in study
metabolism because these
agents inhibit hepatic oxidase
enzymes
Ketoconazole Believed to interact in same
manner as fluconazole and
itraconazole. Potent inhibitor of
cytochrome P450 system,
therefore, inhibits metabolism of
oral contraceptives
Intraconazole Ethinylestradiol/levonorgestrel
(Min-Ovral, Triphasil)
Adapted from references 2,4,6-11,13,16-23
100 100

95 (11). Isoniazid, another antituberculosis agent, has been re- other antibiotics. Prospective studies are lacking or inconclu- 95

ported as the cause of 14 pregnancies; however, rifampin was sive for these antibiotics (2,4,6,10). With a recognized failure
75 coadministered in all these cases (10) (Table 1). For other anti- rate of 1% or less/year in women taking oral contraceptives as 75

microbial agents, the data are not nearly as convincing. Never- directed and 3%/year in typical populations, thousands of
theless, individual case reports and small, retrospective studies pregnancies occur each year in the millions of women taking
25 have led to the inclusion of warnings in the Compendium of oral contraceptives. It is not surprising that many of these 25

Pharmaceuticals and Specialties (13) and other references women are concomitantly being treated with antibiotics
5 about possible interactions between oral contraceptives and (14-16). 5

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A correlation exists between griseofulvin and oral contra- TABLE 2 95
ceptive failure because four women experienced recurrence Categories of antibiotics
75 of original symptoms (intermenstrual bleeding, amenor- Category Drugs
75

rhea) upon re-exposure to the antifungal agent (17) (Table

A: Antibiotic that likely reduces Rifampin
1). It appears that with terbinafine (Lamisil, Novartis Phar-
birth control pill effectiveness
25
maceuticals Canada Inc, Dorval, Quebec), a newer oral anti- 25
B: Antibiotics associated with oral Ampicillin
fungal agent, the significance of this interaction is lessened
contraceptive failure in three or Amoxicillin
5 (4). more cases reports Griseofulvin 5

Numerous antibiotics have been implicated in causing oral Metronidazole

0
contraceptive failure by means of interfering with the entero- Tetracycline 0

hepatic recirculation of ethinylestradiol (Table 1). The two C: Antibiotics associated with oral Cephalexin
groups of antibiotics most commonly involved in the contra- contraceptive failure in at least Clindamycin
one case report Dapsone
ceptive failures are tetracyclines and penicillins, namely
Erythromycin
ampicillin. Both ampicillin and tetracycline have been Isoniazid
shown to affect plasma and urinary concentrations of estro- Phenoxymethylpenicillin
gen in both pregnant and nonpregnant women, while pro- Trimethoprim/sulphamethoxazole
gesterone levels remain constant (18-20). Later studies in Adapted from reference 29
women did not show this, and serum concentrations of
ampicillin in humans have not been shown to change sig- content of the pill carries an increased risk of thromboembolic
nificantly the enterohepatic circulation of estrogen (21-23). disorders, this solution seems somewhat impractical and po-
In a recent study of tetracycline 500 mg every 6 h, in conjunc- tentially harmful. Because antibiotics are generally prescribed
tion with ethinylestradiol and norethindrone, the plasma levels on a short term basis, another approach to deal with this inter-
of both steroids were not significantly changed within the first action is to discuss the use of alternative methods of contra-
24 h or after five to 10 days (24). ception with women who are prescribed antibiotics and are
It has been reported that co-trimoxazole (trimethoprim/sul- concurrently taking oral contraceptives.
phamethoxazole) actually significantly increases the plasma A practical approach suggested by Miller et al (29) is to di-
concentrations of ethinylestradiol (2). The mechanism in- vide the antibiotics into three groups (Table 2).
volved is thought to be an inhibition of hydroxylation of Rifampin (Table 2, category A) is the only antibiotic to date
ethinylestradiol by the sulphonamide component of co- that has been shown to reduce plasma estrogen levels. Oral
trimoxazole. This mechanism would actually decrease the contraceptives should not be relied upon for birth control
likelihood that co-trimoxazole may lead to oral contraceptive while taking rifampin. A second method of contraception is
failure. Co-trimoxazole may be the antibiotic of choice in necessary, and it is crucial to inform the patient of the chance
women on oral contraceptives based on this information; for an interaction.
however, it must not be forgotten that it has been implicated Antibiotics in category B (Table 2) have infrequently been
in 17 pregnancies (4). The evidence implicating neomycin and linked with reduced oral contraceptive effectiveness. Retro-
erythromycin is even more scarce (25). spective case studies have contributed a large portion of infor-
Studies performed in humans to demonstrate decreased mation regarding these antibiotics, and a definite interaction
oral contraceptive efficacy as a result of antibiotics have been is, as yet, unproven. The clinician should discuss the available
unable to show an interaction exists, with the exception of data with the patient and offer a second form of birth control
CYP3A4 induction by rifampin. Because many of the data are to patients who request it.
conflicting and inconclusive, it has been difficult to categorize The antibiotics in category C (Table 2) have only rarely
appropriately and discuss the risks with patients. This issue is been associated with reduced oral contraceptive efficacy and
further complicated because there are also scattered case re- are most likely safe to use concomitantly with oral contracep-
ports associating multivitamins, anticonvulsants, antihista- tives.
mines and anti-inflammatory drugs, as well as antibiotics, There is no way to determine which women are at risk, and,
with reduced oral contraceptive efficacy (10,26,27). thus, some believe all women should be counselled regarding
this interaction and the precautions they can take to avoid any
RECOMMENDATIONS unwanted pregnancy (30). The patient should decide on the
100 100
Reports of oral contraceptive failure seem to be most nu- alternative method of contraception because she must be com-
95 merous in women using preparations containing 30 m g of eth- fortable with the method chosen (30). 95

inylestradiol and 150 m g of levonorgestrel (27). Oral contra- Clearly, this controversial issue affects millions of North
75 ceptive drug interactions are thought by some to be more American women annually, yet poor data are available with 75

significant in women taking low dose preparations, although which to base recommendations. We should ensure that all ef-
much controversy exists (28). Thus, one potential solution forts are made to collect reliable information on failure rates
25 may be to increase the amount of ethinylestradiol in the with and without antibiotics. Until then, a practical approach 25

preparation. However, because the majority of women will not to antibiotic treatment in women taking oral contraceptives is
5 be on antibiotics for the long term and increasing the estrogen encouraged. 5

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REFERENCES
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75 1990;80:1132-3. Clin Chim Acta 1973;45:9-18. 75

2. Shenfield GM. Oral contraceptives. Are drug interactions of 19. Boehm FH, DiPietro DL, Goss DA. The effect of ampicillin
clinical significance? Drug Saf 1993;9:21-37. administration on urinary estriol and serum estradiol in the
3. Guengerich FP. Inhibition of oral contraceptive normal pregnant patient. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1974;119:98-103.
25 steroid-metabolizing enzymes by steroids and drugs. 20. William K, Pulkkinen MO. Reduced maternal plasma and urinary 25
Am J Obstet Gynecol 1990;163:2159-63. estriol during ampicillin treatment. Am J Obstet Gynecol
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4. Cornish P. Antibiotics and oral contraceptives: when 1971;109:893-6. 5
administered concurrently, which antibiotics can impair the 21. Friedman CI, Huneke AL, Kim MH, Powell J. The effect of
efficacy of oral contraceptives? Can Pharm J 1995;128:21-2. ampicillin on oral contraceptive effectiveness. Obstet Gynecol
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5. Bringer J. Norgestimate: a clinical overview of a new progestin. 1980;55:33-7.
Am J Obstet Gynecol 1992;166:1969-77. 22. Back DJ, Breckenridge AM, MacIver M, et al. The effects of
6. Fazio A. Oral contraceptive drug interactions: important ampicillin on oral contraceptive steroids in women. Br J Clin
considerations. South Med J 1991;84:997-1002. Pharmacol 1982;14:43-8.
7. Back DJ, Breckenridge AM, Crawford F, et al. The effect of 23. Back DJ, Breckenridge AM, MacIver M, et al. The interaction
rifampin on norethisterone pharmacokinetics. Eur J Clin between ampicillin and oral contraceptive steroids in women.
Pharmcol 1979;15:193-7. Br J Clin Pharmacol 1982;13:280-1.
8. Back DJ, Breckenridge AM, Crawford F, et al. The effect of 24. Murphy AA, Zacur HA, Charache P, Burkman RT. The effect of
rifampin on the pharmacokinetics of ethynylestradiol in women. tetracycline on levels of oral contraceptives. Am J Obstet Gynecol
Contraception 1980;21:135-43. 1991;164:28-33.
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contraceptive medication. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol biliary excretion and enterohepatic circulation of mestranol and
1986;61:453-5. 17-oestradiol. Biochem Pharmacol 1977;26:943-6.
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Med 1984;144:1667-71. 27. Back DJ, Grimmer SFM, Orme ML, Proudlove C, Mann RD,
12. Skolnick JL, Stoler BS, Katz DB, Anderson WH. Rifampin, Breckenridge AM. Evaluation of committee on safety of
oral contraceptives, and pregnancy. JAMA 1976;236:1382. medicines yellow card reports on oral contraceptive drug
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Ottawa: Canadian Pharmacists Association, 1999. Pharmacol 1988;25:527-32.
14. Stockley I. Interactions with oral contraceptives. Pharm J 28. Fleischer AB Jr, Resnick SD. The effect of antibiotics on the
1976;216:140-3. efficacy of oral contraceptives. A controversy revisited.
15. Sparrow MJ. Pill method failures. NZ Med 1987;100:102-5. Arch Dermatol 1989;125:1562-4.
16. Letterie GS, Chow GE. Effect of “missed” pills on oral 29. Miller DM, Helms SE, Brodell RT. A practical approach to
contraceptive effectiveness. Obstet Gynecol antibiotic treatment in women taking oral contraceptives.
1992;79:979-82. J Am Acad Dermatol 1994;30:1008-11.
17. van Dijke CP, Weber JC. Interaction between oral contraceptives 30. Canadian consensus statement on hormonal contraception.
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