Anchor bolt

Column-to-foundation connection[1]

Anchor bolts are used to connect

structural and non-structural elements to
the concrete.[2] The connection is made
by an assembling of different
components such as: anchor bolts (also
named fasteners), steel plates , stiffners.
Anchor bolts transfer different types of
load: tension forces and shear forces.[3]
A connection between structural
elements can be represented by steel
column attacched to reinforced concrete
foundation.[4] Whereas, a common case
of non-structural element attached to a
structural one is represented by the
connection between a facade system
and a reinforced concrete wall.[5]

Types
Type of anchors[1]

Cast-in-place

A cast-in-place anchor bolt

The simplest – and strongest – form of

anchor bolt is cast-in-place, with its
embedded end consisting of a standard
hexagonal head bolt and washer, 90-
bend, or some sort of forged or welded
flange (see also Stud welding). The last
are used in concrete-steel composite
structures as shear connectors.[6] Other
uses include anchoring machines to
poured concrete floors[7] and buildings to
their concrete foundations. Various
typically disposable aids, mainly of
plastic, are produced to secure and align
cast-in-place anchors prior to concrete
placement. Moreover their position must
also be coordinated with the
reinforcement layout.[3] Different types of
cast-in-place anchors might be
distinguished:[3]
Lifting inserts: used for lifting
operations of plain or prestressed RC
beams. The insert can be a threaded
rod. See also Bolt (climbing).
Anchor channels: used in precast
concrete connections.[8] The channel
can be a hot-rolled or a cold-formed
steel shape in which a T-shape screw
is placed in order to transfer the load
to the base material.
Headed Stud: consist of a steel plate
with headed studs welded on (see also
Threaded rod).
Threaded sleeves: consist of a tube
with an internal thread which is
anchored back into the concrete.
For all the type of the cast-in-place
anchors, the load-transfer mechanisms is
the mechanical interlock[3], i.e. the
embedded part of the anchors in
concrete transfers an the applied load
(axial or shear) via bearing pressure at
the contact zone. At failure conditions,
the level of bearing pressure can be
higher than 10 times the concrete
compressive strength, if a pure tension
force is transferred.[3] Cast-in-place type
anchors are also utilized in masonry
applications, placed in wet mortar joints
during the laying of brick and cast blocks
(CMUs).

Post-installed
Post-installed anchors can be installed in
any position of hardened concrete after a
drilling operation.[3] A distinction is made
according to their principle of operation.

Mechanical Expansion anchors

A wedge anchor

The force-transfer mechanism is based

on friction mechanical interlock
guaranteed by expansion forces. They
can be furtherly divided into two
categories:[3]

torque controlled: the anchor is

inserted into the hole and secured by
applying a specified torque to the bolt
head or nut with a torque wrench. A
particular sub-category of this anchor
is called wedge type. As shown in the
figure, tightening the bolt results in a
wedge being driven up against a
sleeve, which expands it and causes it
to compress against the material it is
being fastened to.
displacement controlled: usually
consist of an expansion sleeve and a
 conical expansion plug, whereby the
sleeve is internally threaded to accept
a threaded element.

Undercut anchors

The force-transfer mechanism is based

on mechanical interlock. A special
drilling operation allows to create a
contact surface between the anchor
head and the hole's wall where bearing
stresses are exchanged.

Bonded anchors

The force-transfer mechanism is based

on bond stresses provided by binding
organic materials. Both Ribbed bars and
threaded rods can be used and a change
of the local bond mechanism can be
appreciated experimentally. In ribbed
bars the resistance is prevalently due to
shear behavior of concrete between the
ribs whereas for threaded rods friction
prevails.(see also Anchorage in
reinforced concrete).[9] Bonded anchors
are also referred as adhesive anchors. [10]
The anchoring material is an adhesive
(also called mortar[3]) usually consisting
of epoxy, polyester, or vinylester resins.
[1] The performance of this anchor's
types in terms of 'load-bearing capacity',
especially under tension loads, is strictly
related to the cleaning condition of the
hole. Experimental results[3] showed that
the reduction of the capacity is up to
60%. The same applies also for moisture
condition of concrete, for wet concrete
the reduction is of 20% using polyester
resin. Other issues are represented by
high temperature behavior [11] and creep
response.[12]

Screw anchors

The force-transfer mechanism is based

on concentrated bearing pressure
exchange between the screw and
concrete through the pitches.

Plastic anchors
Their force-transfer mechanism is similar
to mechanical expansion anchors. A
torque moment is applied to a screw
which is inserted in a plastic sleeve. As
the torque is applied the plastic expands
the sleeve against the sides of the hole
acting as expansion force.

Powder-Actuated anchors

They act transferring the forces via

mechanical interlock. This fastening
technology is used in steel-to-steel
connection, for instance to connect cold-
formed profiles. A screw is inserted into
the base material via a gas actuated gas
gun. The driving energy is usually
provided by firing a combustible
propellant in powder form.[13] The
fastener's insertion provokes the plastic
deformation of the base material which
accommodates the fastener's head
where the force transfer takes place.

Mechanical Behavior
Modes of Failure in tension

Anchors can fail in different way when

loaded in tension:[3]

Steel failure: the weak part of the

connection is represented by the rod.
The failure corresponds to the tensile
break-out of steel as in case of tensile
testing.In this case, concrete base
material might be un-damaged.
Pull-out: the anchor is pulled out from
the drilled hole partially damaging the
surrounding concrete. When the
concrete results un-damaged the
failure is also indicated ad pull-through.
Concrete cone: after reaching the load-
bearing capacity a cone shape is
formed. The failure is governed by
crack growth in concrete. [14] This kind
of failure is typical in pull-out test. [15]
[16]

Splitting failure: failure is characterized

by a splitting crack which divides the
base material in two part. This kind of
 failure occurs when the dimensions of
the concrete component are limited or
the anchor is installed close to an
edge.
Blow-out failure: failure is
characterized by the lateral spalling of
concrete in the proximity of the
anchor's head. This kind of failure
occurs for anchors (prevalently cast-in-
place) installed near the edge of the
concrete element.

In design verification under ultimate limit

state, codes prescribe to verify all the
possible failure mechanisms.[17]
Steel Failure [1]

Concrete Cone Failure[1]

Pull-Out Failure[1]

Pull-Through Failure[1]
 Blow-Out Failure[1]

Splitting Failure

Modes of Failure in shear

Anchors can fail in different way when

loaded in shear:[3]
Steel failure: the rod reaches the
yielding capacity then rupture occurs
after development of large
deformations.
Concrete edge: a semi-conical fracture
surface develops originating from the
point of bearing up to the free surface.
This type of failure occurs, for an
anchor in the proximity of the edge of
the concrete member.
Pry-out: a semi-conical fracture
surface develops characterize the
failure. The pryout mechanism for
cast-in anchors usually occurswith
very short, stocky studs.[18]The studs
are typically so short and stiff that
 under a direct shear load, they bend
causing contemporarily crushing in
front of the stud and a crater of
concrete behind.

In design verification under ultimate limit

state, codes prescribe to verify all the
possible failure mechanisms.[17]
 Concrete Edge failure[1]

Pry-Out failure[1]

Combined tension/shear

When contemporarily tension and shear

load are applied to an anchor the failure
occurs earlier (at a less load-bearing
capacity) with respect the un-coupled
case. In current design codes a linear
interaction domain is assumed. [19]

Group of anchors

Group of two bonded anchors with overlapping

concrete cones[20]

In order to increase the load-carrying

capacity anchors are assembled in
group, moreover this allow also to
arrange a bending moment resisting
connection. For tension and shear load,
the mechanical behavior is markedly
influenced by (i) the spacing between the
anchors and (ii) the possible difference in
the applied forces.[21]

Service load behavior

Under service loads (tension and shear)

anchor's displacement must be limited.
The anchor performance (load-carrying
capacity and characteristic
displacements) under different loading
condition is assessed experimentally,
then an official document is produced by
technical assessment body. [22] In design
phase, the displacement occurring under
the characteristic actions should be not
larger than the admissible displacement
reported in the technical document.

Seismic load behavior

Under seismic loads and there would be

the possibility that an anchor is
contemporarily (i) installed in a crack and
(ii) subjected to inertia loads proportional
both to the mass and the acceleration of
the attached element (secondary
structure) to the base material (primary
structure). [2]The load conditions in this
case can be summarized as follow:
Pulsating Axial load: force aligned with
the anchor’s axis, positive in case of
pullout condition and zero in case of
pushing-in.
Reverse Shear load (also named
“alternate shear”): force perpendicular
to the anchor’s axis, positive and
negative depending on an arbitrary
sign convention.
Cyclic Crack (also named “crack
movement”): RC primary structure
undergoes in severe damage condition
[23] (i.e. cracking) and the most un-
favorable case for anchor performance
is when the crack plane contains the
anchor’s axis and the anchor is loaded
 by a positive axial force (constant
during crack cycles).[3]

Exceptional loads behavior

Exceptional loads differ from ordinary

static loads for their rise time. High
displacement rates are involved in
impact loading. Regarding steel to
concrete connections, some examples
consist in collision of vehicle on barriers
connected to concrete base and
explosions. Apart from these
extraordinary loads, structural
connections are subjected to seismic
actions, which rigorously have to be
treated via dynamic approach. For
instance, seismic pull-out action on
anchor can have 0.03 seconds of rise
time. On the contrary, in a quasi-static
test,100 second may be assumed as
time interval to reach the peak load.
Regarding the concrete base failure
mode: Concrete cone failure loads
increase with elevated loading rates with
respect the static one.[24]

Gallery
Wedge type - 1

Undercut type
 Sleeve type

Wedge type - 2
 Bonded Anchor

Concrete Screw

References
1. Cook, Ronald; Doerr, G T; Klingner, R.E.
(2010). Design Guide For Steel To
Concrete Connections. University Of
Texas Austin.
2. Hoehler, Matthew S.; Eligehausen, Rolf
(2008). "Behavior and testing of anchors
in simulated seismic cracks". ACI
Structural Journal. 105 (3): 348–357.
ISSN 0889-3241 ..
3. Mallèe, Rainer; Eligehausen, Rolf; Silva,
John F (2006). Anchors In Concrete
Structures. Ernst&Shon. ISBN 978-
3433011430.
4. Fisher, James M. (2006). Base Plate
and Anchor Rod Design.
5. IStructE (1988). Aspects of Cladding.
London.
6. Standard Handbook Of Engeenering
Calculations. McGraw-Hill. 2004.
7. Bhantia, K.G. (2008). Foundations for
Industrial Machines - Handbook for
practising engineering. New Delhi: D-CAD.
ISBN 978-81-906032-0-1.
8. Bachmann, Hubert; Steinle, Alfred
(2012). Precast Concrete Structures.
Berlin: Ernst&Shon. ISBN 0-7506-5084-2.
9. Reinhardt, Hans-Wolf (1982). Concrete
under impact loading tensile strength and
bond. Delft: Delft University.
10. Sasse, H.R. (1986). Adhesion between
polymers and concrete. Springer.
ISBN 978-0-412-29050-3.
11. Raouffard, Mohammad Mahdi;
Nishiyama, Minehiro (2018). "Idealization
of bond stress-slip relationship at
elevated temperatures based on pullout
tests". ACI Structural Journal (115).
doi:10.14359/51701120 . ISSN 0889-
3241 .
12. Nilforoush, Rasoul; Nilsson, Martin;
Söderlind, Gunnar; Elfgren, Lennart
(2016). "Long-Term Performance of
Adhesive Bonded Anchors". ACI Structural
Journal (113): 251–262.
doi:10.14359/51688060 ..
13. Beck, Hermann; Siemers, Michael;
Reuter, Martin (2011). Powder-actuared
fasteners and fastening screws in steel
construction. Ernst&Shon. ISBN 978-3-
433-02955-8.
14. Eligehausen, Rolf; Sawade, G. (1989).
"A fracture mechanics based description
of the pull-out behavior of headed studs
embedded in concrete". Fracture
mechanics of concrete structures: 281–
299. doi:10.18419/opus-7930 .
15. Bungey, J.H.; Millard, S.G. (1996).
Testing of Concrete in Structures. London:
Blackie Academic & Professional. ISBN 0-
203-48783-4.
16. Stone, William C.; Carino, Nicholas J
(1984). "Deformation and Failure in Large-
Scale Pullout Tests". ACI Structural
Journal (80).
17. ACI (2014). ACI 318-14 Building code
requirements for structural concrete. 22.
ISBN 978-0-87031-930-3.
JSTOR 3466335 .
18. Anderson, Neal S; Meinheit, Donald F
(2005). "Pryout Capacity of Cast-In
Headed Stud Anchors". PCI Journal: 90–
112. ISSN 0887-9672 .
19. ACI (2004). "ACI 349.2 Guide to the
Concrete Capacity Design ( CCD ) Method
— Embedment Design Examples".
Concrete (Ccd): 1–77.
20. Doerr, G T; Klingner, R.E. (1989).
Adhesive Anchors Behaviour And Spacing
Requirements. University Of Texas Austin.
21. Mahrenholtz, Philipp; Eligehausen,
Rolf (2010). "Behavior of anchor groups
installed in cracked concrete under
simulated seismic actions base Under".
22. "How to find a TAB" . EOTA.
23. Fardis, Michael N. (2009). Seismic
Design, Assessment and Retrofitting of
Concrete Buildings. London: Springer.
ISBN 978-1-4020-9841-3.
24. Solomos, George. Testing of
Anchorages in Concrete under Dynamic
Loading. Ispra: Joint research Centre.
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