Contractions

from English Grammar Today

We use contractions (I’m, we’re) in everyday speech and informal writing. Contractions,
which are sometimes called ‘short forms’, commonly combine a pronoun or noun and a
verb, or a verb and not, in a shorter form. Contractions are usually not appropriate in
formal writing.

We make contractions with auxiliary verbs, and also with be and have when they are
not auxiliary verbs. When we make a contraction, we commonly put an apostrophe in
place of a missing letter.

The following are the most common contractions.

Contractions with I, you, he, she, it, we, and they

’m = am (I’m)

’re = are (you’re, we’re, they’re)

’s = is and has (he’s, she’s, it’s)

’ve = have (’ve, you’ve, we’ve, they’ve)

’ll = will (I’ll, you’ll, he’ll, she’ll, it’ll, we’ll, they’ll)

’d = had and would (I’d, you’d, he’d, she’d, it’d, we’d, they’d)

Contractions with auxiliary verb and not

The contraction for not is n’t:

aren’t = are not (we aren’t, you aren’t)

can’t = cannot

couldn’t = could not

didn’t = did not (I didn’t, they didn’t)

hasn’t = has not

haven’t = have not

isn’t = is not (she isn’t, it isn’t)

mustn’t = must not

shan’t = shall not

shouldn’t = should not

wasn’t = was not

weren’t = were not

won’t = will not

wouldn’t = would not

We use contractions with be + negative in two ways:

She is not is contracted to she isn’t or she’s not. I am not is only contracted to I’m not.
Not: I’m n’t or I am n’t. They are not is contracted to they aren’t or they’re not.
The isn’t / aren’t contractions are more common after nouns. The ’s / ’re not
contractions are more common after pronouns: The cakes aren’tready yet. She’s not a
friend of mine.

Other contractions
Contractions can occur after nouns, names, here, there and now and question words.
These contractions are not considered appropriate in formal writing:

My sister’s got married. = My sister has got married.

John’ll be very happy. = John will be very happy.

Here’s the coffee. = Here is the coffee.

There’s your watch. = There is your watch.

Now’s your chance. = Now is your chance.

Where’s the milk? = Where is the milk?

What’s happened? = What has happened?

We don’t use more than one contraction:

He’s not free.

Not: he’sn’t free.

We don’t use affirmative contractions at the end of clauses:

A:
I think we’re lost.

B:
Yes, I think we are.

Not: I think we’re

However, we do use negative contractions at the end of clauses and we do commonly

use contractions in tag questions:

A:
You’ve contacted Jan, haven’t you?

B:
No, I haven’t.

In question forms, am not is contracted to aren’t:

I’m getting a pay rise, aren’t I?

Not: amn’t I?

About Contractions
Since the word contract means to squeeze together, it seems only logical that a contraction is two
words made shorter by placing an apostrophe where letters have been omitted.
Examples of common contractions in the English language include:
 I'm: I am
 Can't: can not
 We've: we have
 Should've: should have
 Could've: could have
 She'll: she will
 He's: he is
 They'd: they would
 Won't: will not
 Weren't: were not
 Wasn't: was not
 Wouldn't: would not
 Shouldn't: should not
 Isn't: is not
Technically speaking, contractions aren't necessary in written English. Using the full version
of a word is always grammatically correct. However, there are a number of reasons why
contractions do serve a valuable stylistic purpose. For example:
 Contractions make your writing seem friendly and accessible. They give the
appearance that you are actually "talking" to your reader.
 When writing dialogue in a novel or play, contractions help reflect how a character
actually speaks.
 Contractions help to save space when preparing advertisements, slogans, and other
written works that must be short and to the point.

It's and Its

It's and its are two of the most commonly confused words in the English language.
However, understanding the difference between these two words is crucial for successful
communication.
It's is a contraction for it is or it has. For example:
 I think it's going to snow on Monday.
 It's been a long time since I last saw Ben.
 It's a small world after all.
Its is a possessive pronoun. Its modifies a noun and is used to show ownership. For
example:
 The bear carried its cub in its mouth.
 Nothing can take its place.
 The cat licked with its tongue.
To determine if you should use it's or its in your sentence, simply try replacing the word
with it is or it has. If the sentence makes sense, it's is appropriate. If not, use its. For
example:
 "Nothing can take it is place" makes no sense. Therefore, the correct word to use is its.
 "It is raining outside" is a perfectly acceptable sentence. Therefore, you may use it's if
you wish.

They're, Their and There

They're, their and there are also quite commonly confused words among students who are
learning about contractions.
They're is a contraction for they are. For example:
 They're happy to see me.
 I think they're very nice boys.
 In my opinion, they're a fine group of athletes.
Their is a possessive pronoun. It is used when you want to show that something belongs to
someone. For example:
 Their new home is in San Diego.
 Their address is 517 West Maple.
 What is their phone number?
There is used to mean that something is at or in a particular place. For example:
 There is a present on the table.
 There are green beans on my plate, but I asked for broccoli.
 Look over there to see the ocean.
Deciding which word to use is easy if you remember a few simple tips:
 If you can replace the questionable word with they are, they're is correct.
 If you can replace the questionable word with his or her, their is correct.
 If you can replace the questionable word with here, there is correct.

Using Contractions in Formal Writing

While contractions can be very useful in written English, many experts caution against the
use of contractions in formal communication. Since contractions tend to add a light and
informal tone to your writing, they are often inappropriate for academic research papers,
business presentations, and other types of official correspondence. However, this rule does
have some flexibility.
In general, it's best to use your own judgment when deciding if contractions are appropriate
for a particular piece.

End of Sentence Contractions

Contractions can be used in any position in a sentence; however, homophone contractions
such as "it's" and "they're" sound better when followed by another word or phrase. The
reason is that the sounds of "its" and "it's" and "they're" and "they are" are so similar that
they can be confusing unless they are used with the context of an additional word. For
example:
 Incorrect: "It is what it's."
 Correct: "It is what it is looking like."
 Correct: "It is what it is."
 Incorrect: "You said they didn't want to go, well, they're."
 Correct: ""You said they didn't want to go, well, they're going."
 Correct: "You said they didn't want to go, well, they are."
 Common Contractions in the English Language
 Following is a list of commonly used contractions, their full form, and an example sentence
showing their use:
 Contraction——–Full form————-Example
 Aren’t—- ———-Are not————– They aren’t coming with us to the store.
 Can’t—————Cannot—————They can’t come with us to the store.
 Didn’t————–Did not—————She didn’t want to come with us.
 Don’t—————Do not————— Don’t you want to come with us?
 Doesn’t————Does not————- He doesn’t have time to come along.
 Hadn’t————-Had not————– They hadn’t been to this store before today.
 Hasn’t————-Has not—————She hasn’t made up her mind yet.
 Haven’t————Have not————-I haven’t decided whether I will go or not.
 Isn’t—————-Is not—————- He isn’t planning to come along.
 Mustn’t————-Must not————-You mustn’t stay up past your bedtime.
 Needn’t————-Need not————-You needn’t worry about your friend.
 Shouldn’t———–Should not———–Children shouldn’t walk to the store alone.
 Wasn’t————– Was not————-Tom wasn’t planning to go with us.
 Weren’t————-Were not————You weren’t at the store when we got there.
 Won’t————— Will not————- Barbara won’t miss us while we are gone.
 Wouldn’t————Would not———-Grandpa wouldn’t let us walk to the store alone.
 Let’s—————–Let us————– Let’s go to the store.
 I’m—————— I am—————- I’m ready to go now.
 I’ll—————— I will—————-I’ll go to the store tomorrow.
 I’ve—————– I have————– I’ve been to the store already.
 I’d—————— I had or I would—-I’d already been by the time she came or I’d like to go.
 She’ll/He’ll———-She/He will——— She’ll go, too.
 She’s/He’s———- She/He is or has— He’s going to come or She’s been gone for a while.
  She’d/He’d———-She/He had or would————-She’d like to come or He’d been gone for a
long time.
 You’re————– You are————- You’re welcome to come along.
 You’ll————— You will————- You’ll see her when we go to the store.
 You’d————— You had or would– You’d been there before, right? or You’d better leave.
 You’ve————– You have————You’ve been a blessing throughout this situation.
 We’re————— We are————- We’re leaving now.
 We’ll—————- We will————- We’ll go to the store later.
 We’d—————- We had or would— We’d been down that road before or We’d love to
come!
 We’ve————— We have————We’ve enjoyed your company.
 They’ll————– They will————They’ll enjoy going along.
 They’re————- They are————They’re planning to make the trip.
 They’d————– They had or would—They’d been there before or They’d enjoy seeing it
again.
 They’ve————- They have———- They’ve enjoyed the trip so far.
 It’s—————— It is—————– It’s a joy to travel with my kids.
 It’ll—————— It will————— It’ll be a nice experience for them.
 It’d——————It had or would—–It’d been the fastest trip yet or It’d be nice to go along.
 There’ll————–There will———- There’ll be great joy when it is over.
 There’s————- There is or has—– There’s my mom or There’s been a feeling of joy with
this trip.
 There’ve————There have———-There’ve been a few problems along the way.
 That’s————— That is————– That’s my son!
 That’d—————That had or would–That’d been the focus of the trip or That’d be my
answer, too.
 That’ll—————That will————-That’ll be the day!

Conditional Sentences—Rules You Need

to Know
GRAMMAR

 There are four types of conditional sentences.

 It’s important to use the correct structure for each of these different conditional
sentences because they express varying meanings.

 Pay attention to verb tense when using different conditional modes.

 Use a comma after the if-clause when the if-clause precedes the main clause.

Conditional sentences are statements discussing known factors or hypothetical

situations and their consequences. Complete conditional sentences contain a
conditional clause (often referred to as the if-clause) and the consequence. Consider
the following sentences:

If a certain condition is true, then a particular result happens.

I would travel around the world if I won the lottery.

When water reaches 100 degrees, it boils.

What Are the Different Types of Conditional Sentences? There are four different
types of conditional sentences in English. Each expresses a different degree of
probability that a situation will occur or would have occurred under certain
circumstances.

 Zero Conditional Sentences

 First Conditional Sentences

 Second Conditional Sentences

 Third Conditional Sentences

Let’s look at each of these different types of conditional sentences in more detail.

How to Use Zero Conditional Sentences

Zero conditional sentences express general truths—situations in which one

thing always causes another. When you use a zero conditional, you’re talking about a
general truth rather than a specific instance of something. Consider the following
examples:

If you don’t brush your teeth, you get cavities.

When people smoke cigarettes, their health suffers.

There are a couple of things to take note of in the above sentences in which the zero
conditional is used. First, when using the zero conditional, the correct tense to use in
both clauses is the simple present tense. A common mistake is to use the simple future
tense.

When people smoke cigarettes, their health will suffer .

Secondly, notice that the words if and when can be used interchangeably in these zero
conditional sentences. This is because the outcome will always be the same, so it
doesn’t matter “if” or “when” it happens.

How to Use First Conditional Sentences

First conditional sentences are used to express situations in which the outcome is
likely (but not guaranteed) to happen in the future. Look at the examples below:

If you rest, you will feel better.

If you set your mind to a goal, you’ll eventually achieve it.

Note that we use the simple present tense in the if-clause and simple future tense in
the main clause—that is, the clause that expresses the likely outcome. This is how we
indicate that under a certain condition (as expressed in the if-clause), a specific
result will likely happen in the future. Examine some of the common mistakes people
make using the first conditional structure:
If you will rest , you will feel better.

If you rest , you will feel better.

Explanation: Use the simple present tense in the if-clause.

If you set your mind to a goal, you eventually achieve it.

If you set your mind to a goal, you’ll eventually achieve it.

Explanation: Use the zero conditional (i.e., simple present + simple present) only
when a certain result is guaranteed. If the result is likely, use the first conditional (i.e.,
simple present + simple future).

How to Use Second Conditional Sentences

Second conditional sentences are useful for expressing outcomes that are completely
unrealistic or will not likely happen in the future. Consider the examples below:

If I inherited a billion dollars, I would travel to the moon.

If I owned a zoo, I might let people interact with the animals more.

Notice the correct way to structure second conditional sentences is to use the simple
past tense in the if-clause and an auxiliary modal verb (e.g., could, should, would,
might) in the main clause (the one that expresses the unrealistic or unlikely outcome).
The following sentences illustrate a couple of the common mistakes people make
when using the second conditional:

If I inherit a billion dollars, I would travel to the moon.

If I inherited a billion dollars, I would travel to the moon.

Explanation: When applying the second conditional, use the simple past tense in the
if-clause.

If I owned a zoo, I will let people interact with the animals more.

If I owned a zoo, I might let people interact with the animals more.

Explanation: Use a modal auxiliary verb in the main clause when using the second
conditional mood to express the unlikelihood that the result will actually happen.

How to Use Third Conditional Sentences

Third conditional sentences are used to explain that present circumstances would be
different if something different had happened in the past. Look at the following
examples:

If you had told me you needed a ride, I would have left earlier.

If I had cleaned the house, I could have gone to the movies.

These sentences express a condition that was likely enough, but did not actually
happen in the past. The speaker in the first sentence was capable of leaving early, but
did not. Along these same lines, the speaker in the second sentence was capable of
cleaning the house, but did not. These are all conditions that were likely, but
regrettably did not happen.

Note that when using the third conditional, we use the past perfect (i.e., had + past
participle) in the if-clause. The modal auxiliary (would, could, shoud, etc.) + have +
past participle in the main clause expresses the theoretical situation that could have
happened.
Consider these common mistakes when applying the third conditional:

If you would have told me you needed a ride, I would have left earlier.

If you had told me you needed a ride, I would have left earlier.

Explanation: With third conditional sentences, do not use a modal auxiliary verb in
the if-clause.

If I had cleaned the house, I could go to the movies.

If I had cleaned the house, I could have gone to the movies.

Explanation: The third conditional mood expresses a situation that could have only
happened in the past if a certain condition had been met. That’s why we use the modal
auxiliary verb + have + the past participle.

Exceptions and Special Cases When Using Conditional

Sentences

As with most topics in the English language, conditional sentences often present
special cases in which unique rules must be applied.

Use of the Simple Future in the If-Clause

Generally speaking, the simple future should be used only in the main clause. One
exception is when the action in the if-clause will take place after the action in the
main clause. For example, consider the following sentence:

If aspirin will ease my headache, I will take a couple tonight.

The action in the if-clause is the aspirin easing the headache, which will take place
only after the speaker takes them later that night.

“Were to” in the If-Clause

The verb phrase were to is sometimes used in conditional sentences when the likely or
unlikely result is particularly awful or unthinkable. In this case, were to is used to
place emphasis on this potential outcome. Consider these sentences:

If I were to be sick, I would miss another day of work.

If she were to be late again, she would have to have a conference with the manager.

If the rent were to have been a penny more, they would not have been able to pay it.

Note that the emphatic “were to” can be used to describe hypothetical scenarios in the
present, future, and past.

Punctuating Conditional Sentences

Despite the complex nature of conditional sentences, punctuating them properly is

really simple!

Here’s the skinny:

Use a comma after the if-clause when the if-clause precedes the main clause.

If I’d had time, I would have cleaned the house.

If the main clause precedes the if-clause, no punctuation is necessary.

I would have cleaned the house if I’d had time.

Conditional Clause and Main Clause

If I have enough money, I will go to Japan.

conditional clause main clause

I will go to Japan, if I have enough money

main clause conditional clause

First, Second, and Third Conditional

1. First conditional: If I have enough money, I will go to Japan.

2. Second conditional: If I had enough money, I would go to Japan.

3. Third conditional: If I had had enough money, I would have gone to Japan.

Conditional clause Main clause

1. If + Present Tense will + inf / present tense / imperative

a. If you help me with the dishes (if + pres),

I will help you with your homework. (will + inf)

b. If the sum of the digits of a number is divisible by three,

the number is divisible by three (Pres. tense)

c. If you see Mr Fox tonight, tell him I am ill. (imperative).

2. If + Past Tense would + inf

3. If + Past Perfect Tense would have + past participle

We do not normally use will or would in the conditional clause,

only in the main clause.

Uses of the Conditional

1. First conditional

a. Nature: Open condition, what is said in the condition is possible.

 b. Time: This condition refers either to present or to future time.
e.g. If he is late, we will have to go without him.
If my mother knows about this, we are in serious trouble.

2. Second conditional

a. Nature: unreal (impossible) or improbable situations.

b. Time: present; the TENSE is past, but we are talking about the present, now.
e.g. If I knew her name, I would tell you.
If I were you, I would tell my father.
Compare: If I become president, I will change the social security system. (Said by a
presidential candidate)
If I became president, I would change the social security system. (Said by a schoolboy:
improbable)
If we win this match, we are qualified for the semifinals.
If I won a million pounds, I would stop teaching. (improbable)

3. Third conditional

a. Nature: unreal

b. Time: Past (so we are talking about a situation that was not so in the past.)
e.g. If you had warned me, I would not have told your father about that party.(But you
didn't, and I have).

Remember!

1. The conditional construction does not normally use will or would in if-
clauses. EXCEPTION: If will or would express willingness, as in requests, they can be used in if-clauses.

e.g. If you will come this way, the manager will see you now.
I would be grateful if you would give me a little help.
(= ± please, come this way; please, give me...)

2. For the second conditional, were replaces was:

If I were a rich man...

3. After if, we can either use "some(-one, -where...)" or "any(-one, -where...).

If I have some spare time next weekend....or :

If I have any spare time...
 4. Instead of if not, we can use unless.

e.g. I'll be back tomorrow unless there is a plane strike.

He'll accept the job unless the salary is too low.

5.There is a "mixed type" as well, for the present results of an unreal condition in the past:

If + Past Perfect - would + inf.

If you had warned me [then], I would not be in prison [now].

CONDITIONAL
Conditional tenses are used to speculate about what could happen, what might have happened, and
what we wish would happen. In English, most sentences using the conditional contain the word if. Many
conditional forms in English are used in sentences that include verbs in one of the past tenses. This
usage is referred to as "the unreal past" because we use a past tense but we are not actually referring to
something that happened in the past. There are five main ways of constructing conditional sentences in
English. In all cases, these sentences are made up of an if clause and a main clause. In many negative
conditional sentences, there is an equivalent sentence construction using "unless" instead of "if".

Conditional sentence Usage If clause verb Main clause verb tense

type tense

Zero General truths Simple present Simple present

Type 1 A possible condition and its probable result Simple present Simple future

Type 2 A hypothetical condition and its probable result Simple past Present conditional or Present cont
conditional

Type 3 An unreal past condition and its probable result in Past perfect Perfect conditional
the past

Mixed type An unreal past condition and its probable result in Past perfect Present contditional
the present

THE ZERO CONDITIONAL

 The zero conditional is used for when the time being referred to is now or always and the situation
is real and possible. The zero conditional is often used to refer to general truths. The tense in both parts
of the sentence is the simple present. In zero conditional sentences, the word "if" can usually be
replaced by the word "when" without changing the meaning.

If clause Main clause

If + simple present simple present

If this thing happens that thing happens.

If you heat ice it melts.

If it rains the grass gets wet.

TYPE 1 CONDITIONAL

The type 1 conditional is used to refer to the present or future where the situation is real. The type 1
conditional refers to a possible condition and its probable result. In these sentences the if clause is in the

If clause Main clause

If + simple present simple future

If this thing happens that thing will happen.

If you don't hurry you will miss the train.

If it rains today you will get wet.

simple present, and the main clause is in the simple future.

TYPE 2 CONDITIONAL

The type 2 conditional is used to refer to a time that is now or any time, and a situation that is unreal.
These sentences are not based on fact. The type 2 conditional is used to refer to a hypothetical
condition and its probable result. In type 2 conditional sentences, the if clause uses the simple past, and
the main clause uses the present conditional.
If clause Main clause

If + simple past present conditional or present continuous conditional

If this thing happened that thing would happen. (but I'm not sure this thing will happen) OR
that thing would be happening.

If you went to bed earlier you would not be so tired.

If it rained you would get wet.

If I spoke Italian I would be working in Italy.

TYPE 3 CONDITIONAL

The type 3 conditional is used to refer to a time that is in the past, and a situation that is contrary to
reality. The facts they are based on are the opposite of what is expressed. The type 3 conditional is used
to refer to an unreal past condition and its probable past result. In type 3 conditional sentences, the if

If clause Main clause

If + past perfect perfect conditional or perfect continuous conditional

If this thing had happened that thing would have happened. (but neither of those things really happened) OR
that thing would have been happening.

If you had studied harder you would have passed the exam.

If it had rained you would have gotten wet.

If I had accepted that promotion I would have been working in Milan.

clause uses the past perfect, and the main clause uses the perfect conditional.

Read more about how to use the type 3 conditional with the perfect conditional tense, and how to use
the perfect continuous conditional in type 3 conditional sentences.
 MIXED TYPE CONDITIONAL

The mixed type conditional is used to refer to a time that is in the past, and a situation that is ongoing
into the present. The facts they are based on are the opposite of what is expressed. The mixed type
conditional is used to refer to an unreal past condition and its probable result in the present. In mixed
type conditional sentences, the if clause uses the past perfect, and the main clause uses the present

If clause Main clause

If + past perfect or simple past present conditional or perfect conditional

If this thing had happened that thing would happen. (but this thing didn't happen so that thing isn't happening)

If I had worked harder at school I would have a better job now.

If we had looked at the map we wouldn't be lost.

If you weren't afraid of spiders you would have picked it up and put it outside.

conditional.

The Ellipsis

Those three little dots are called an ellipsis (plural: ellipses). The term ellipsis comes
from the Greek word meaning “omission,” and that’s just what an ellipsis does—it
shows that something has been left out. When you’re quoting someone, you can use
an ellipsis to show that you’ve omitted some of their words. For example:

Hamlet asked whether it was “nobler . . . to suffer the slings and arrows of outrageous fortune or
to take arms against a sea of troubles.”

In the sentence above, the words “in the mind” have been omitted from the quote.
Occasionally, you might need to leave out part of a quote because it’s irrelevant or
makes the quote hard to understand in the context of the sentence. The ellipsis shows
that you have left something out.

You can also use an ellipsis to show a pause in speech or that a sentence trails off.
This technique doesn’t belong in formal or academic writing, though. You should
only use the ellipsis this way in fiction and informal writing. For example:

Andrew, can you, um . . . never mind, I forgot what I was saying. So, do you think we should . . .
?

How Many Dots?

How many dots are in an ellipsis? The answer is three. But, if the ellipsis comes
immediately after a grammatically complete sentence, that sentence still needs its own
period. So you would end up with a period, plus an ellipsis, which looks like four
periods in a row. For instance:

“Call me Jonah. My parents did, or nearly did. They called me John.”

might be shortened to:

“Call me Jonah. . . . They called me John.”

Spacing

Whether you put spaces between the dots or not is a matter of style. The Chicago
Manual of Style calls for spaces between each ellipsis point. The AP Stylebook says to
treat the ellipsis as a three-letter word, with spaces on either side of the ellipsis but no
spaces between the dots. You can use either style; just be consistent throughout your
document.

Ellipsis
from English Grammar Today
Ellipsis happens when we leave out (in other words, when we don’t use) items which we
would normally expect to use in a sentence if we followed the grammatical rules. The
following examples show ellipsis. The items left out are in brackets [ ]:

I am absolutely sure [that] I have met her somewhere before.

A:
[Have you] Seen my gloves anywhere?

B:
They’re in the kitchen.

She sang and [she] played the violin at the same time.

A:
[Are] You ready yet?

B:
Yes. [I’m] Ready now. [I’m] Sorry to keep you waiting.

In fact, when we use ellipsis appropriately, no one thinks we have ‘left out’ anything, and
ellipsis is normal and very common, especially in informal conversation.

Textual ellipsis

When we can easily understand everything in the sentence because of the surrounding
text, we use textual ellipsis. For example, we know that certain verbs and adjectives can
be followed by a that-clause, so if we see a clause without that after such verbs and
adjectives, we assume that the writer or speaker wants us to understand the same
meaning as a that-clause:

I knew [that] something terrible had happened.

Maureen was glad [that] we had called in to see her.

Are you afraid [that] you won’t get a job when you leave college?

The same happens when we do not repeat words in clauses connected

with and, but and or(coordinated clauses). We understand what the ‘missing’ items are:

We went for a walk and [we] took some lovely photographs.

He wrote to [everyone he could think of who might help] and [he] phoned everyone he
could think of who might help.

I can remember his face but [I] can’t remember his name.

Do you want to stay in or [do you want to] go out tonight?

We can also leave out the complement of a verb when it is obvious what the
complement is:

A:
Why don’t they move to a bigger place?

B:
They don’t want to [move to a bigger place]. They’re happy where they are.

A:
Have more coffee.

B:
I’d better not [have more coffee]. I won’t be able to sleep later.

See also:
 Clauses: coordinated

Situational ellipsis
Subject pronouns

When we do not need to mention someone or something because it is obvious from the
immediate situation, we use situational ellipsis. Situational ellipsis often means we do
not need to use the subject pronoun I, especially at the beginning of a clause. This is
quite informal:
[I] Wonder where Joe Healey is these days?

Bye! [I] Hope you have a nice holiday.

We can also omit a third person pronoun (he, she, it, they) at the beginning of a clause
in informal conversation when it is obvious who or what we are referring to:

A:
I saw Janice in town. [She] Said she’s getting married next year.

B:
Really?

A:
Yeah. [She] Met some guy and got engaged to him after only a couple of weeks,
apparently.

There’s something wrong with the car. [It] Started making a funny noise on the way
home.

Subjects and auxiliary verbs

In informal conversation, we can leave out both a subject pronoun such as I or you and
an accompanying auxiliary verb at the beginning of a clause when the meaning is
obvious. This is most common in questions:

[Have you] Finished with the newspaper?

[I’ve] Lost my car keys again. Have you seen them?

A:
[Do you] Want some coffee?

B:
Is there any?

A:
Yeah. [I’ve] Just made some.

Auxiliary verbs

In questions in informal conversation, with the second person pronoun you, we can
leave out the auxiliary verb only:
[Have] You finished your essay yet?

[Are] You going to the match on Saturday?

We can also do the same in informal conversation in questions with third person noun
subjects:

[Is] Richard coming tonight?

[Has] Claire bought a new car yet? She said she was going to.

We don’t normally do this with the first person pronoun I:

Am I making too much noise?

Not: I making too much noise?

Questions with question tags

In questions in informal conversation, we can leave out a subject pronoun, or a subject

pronoun and an accompanying auxiliary verb, when we use a question tag:

[He] Gave up his job, did he? I thought he would.

[You] Wrote to the local newspaper, did you? Good idea.

A:
He was asked to leave the room.

B:
Yes. [He] Didn’t like it, did he?

A:
No. He wasn’t at all happy.

A:
Pat and Cathy certainly had a long break from work.

B:
Yeah. [They] Went away for a month, didn’t they?

Articles
In informal conversation, we can sometimes omit articles (a/an, the) when they are
obvious from the context and when we use them at the beginning of a sentence:

[The] Dog wants to go out. Can you open the door for him?

A:
What are you looking for?

B:
[A] Pen. Can you see one anywhere?

[The] Postman’s just been. There’s a letter for you.

Fixed expressions

We often leave out the first word of a fixed expression in informal conversation because
we know the listener will understand the expression:

I’d love to go with you. [The] Trouble is, I’ve got to work on Saturday this week.

I can’t read that. I’m [as] blind as a bat without my glasses.

Substitution

Substitution is similar to ellipsis in many ways, because both enable the speaker to
reduce what they are saying. Ellipsis is simply leaving something out that is usually
obvious. Substitution involves using words such as do and so and not instead of a
clause.

Compare

ellipsis substitution

A:
She could sleep in the study on the sofa.
The Chairman threatened to resign, and he
B:
finally did so in 2008. (did so = resigned)
Yes, she could [sleep in the study on the
sofa].
ellipsis substitution

A: A:
Will you have another cake? Is Charlie coming too?
B: B:
I’d better not [have another cake]. I’m I hope not. There’s only enough food for three. (not =
supposed to be on a diet. Charlie isn’t coming)

Collocation
from English Grammar Today
Collocation refers to how words go together or form fixed relationships.

typical collocations incorrect/untypical collocations

heavy rain thick rain

high temperature tall temperature

scenic view scenic picture

have an experience do/make an experience

She has blonde hair.

Not: She has beige hair.

She was discharged from hospital.

Not: She was released from hospital.

Collocations may be strong or weak. Strong collocations are where the link between the
two words is quite fixed and restricted. Weak collocations are where a word can
collocate with many other words.

Compare
strong
make Very few words can collocate with the noun wish. This
express + a wish makes wish a strong collocator.
fulfil

weak
apartment, beach, car, camera,
chance,
big + disappointment, fight, gun, big can collocate with hundreds of words, therefore it’s a
lamp, moon, news, weak collocator.
ocean, pain, pity, price, queue, table,
umbrella,
upset, wait, window

Strong collocations

whisk an egg curly hair

winding road blissfully ignorant

Weak collocations

1. big/enormous/large + house/lorry/cup

2. fast/shiny/expensive + car/motorbike/aeroplane

3. very/really/extremely + interesting/hot/generous

4. brown/straight/long + fence/hair/line

Becoming aware of collocations is part of vocabulary learning. All languages have a

large number of collocating words. A good dictionary will help you and dictionaries of
collocations are also available.

Collocations
What is a collocation?
A collocation is two or more words that often go together. These combinations
just sound "right" to native English speakers, who use them all the time. On
the other hand, other combinations may be unnatural and just sound "wrong".
Look at these examples:

natural English... unnatural English...

the fast train the quick train

fast food quick food

a quick shower a fast shower

a quick meal a fast meal

Why learn collocations?

 Your language will be more natural and more easily understood.
 You will have alternative and richer ways of expressing yourself.
 It is easier for our brains to remember and use language in chunks or
blocks rather than as single words.

How to learn collocations

 Be aware of collocations, and try to recognize them when you see or
hear them.
 Treat collocations as single blocks of language. Think of them as
individual blocks or chunks, and learn strongly support, not strongly +
support.
 When you learn a new word, write down other words that collocate with
it (remember rightly, remember distinctly, remember vaguely, remember
vividly).
 Read as much as possible. Reading is an excellent way to learn
vocabulary and collocations in context and naturally.
  Revise what you learn regularly. Practise using new collocations in
context as soon as possible after learning them.
 Learn collocations in groups that work for you. You could learn them
by topic (time, number, weather, money, family) or by a
particular word (take action, take a chance, take an exam).
 You can find information on collocations in any good learner's
dictionary. And you can also find specialized dictionaries of collocations.
Tell me who you go with and I'll tell you who you
areSaying
Types of collocation
There are several different types of collocation made from combinations of
verb, noun, adjective etc. Some of the most common types are:

 adverb + adjective: completely satisfied (NOT downright satisfied)

 adjective + noun: excruciating pain (NOT excruciating joy)
 noun + noun: a surge of anger (NOT a rush of anger)
 noun + verb: lions roar (NOT lions shout)
 verb + noun: commit suicide (NOT undertake suicide)
 verb + expression with preposition: burst into tears (NOT blow up
intears)
 verb + adverb: wave frantically (NOT wave feverishly)

Sample Collocations
There are several different types of collocation. Collocations can be adjective
+ adverb, noun + noun, verb + noun and so on. Below you can see seven
main types of collocation in sample sentences.

1. adverb + adjective

 Invading that country was an utterly stupid thing to do.

 We entered a richly decorated room.
 Are you fully aware of the implications of your action?

2. adjective + noun
  The doctor ordered him to take regular exercise.
 The Titanic sank on its maiden voyage.
 He was writhing on the ground in excruciating pain.

3. noun + noun

 Let's give Mr Jones a round of applause.

 The ceasefire agreement came into effect at 11am.
 I'd like to buy two bars of soap please.

4. noun + verb

 The lion started to roar when it heard the dog barking.

 Snow was falling as our plane took off.
 The bomb went off when he started the car engine.

5. verb + noun

 The prisoner was hanged for committing murder.

 I always try to do my homework in the morning, after making my bed.
 He has been asked to give a presentation about his work.

6. verb + expression with preposition

 We had to return home because we had run out of money.

 At first her eyes filled with horror, and then she burst into tears.
 Their behaviour was enough to drive anybody to crime.

7. verb + adverb

 She placed her keys gently on the table and sat down.
 Mary whispered softly in John's ear.
 I vaguely remember that it was growing dark when we left.
A collocation is made up of two or more words that are commonly used together
in English. Think of collocations as words that usually go together. There are
different kinds of collocations in English. Strong collocations are word pairings
that are expected to come together. Good collocation examples of this type of
word pairing are combinations with 'make' and 'do'. You make a cup of tea, but
you do your homework.

Collocations are very common in business settings when certain nouns are
routinely combined with certain verbs or adjectives. For example, draw up a
contract, set a price, conduct negotiations, etc.

Collocation Examples

Here are a number of common collocations in English:

to make the bed I need to make the bed every day.

to do homework My son does his homework after dinner.
to take a risk Some people don't take enough risks in life.
to give someone advice The teacher gave us some advice on taking tests.

Verb Collocations

Some of the most common collocations involve verb + noun collocations used in
everyday situations. Here are some examples of the types of verb collocations you
will need to learn as you continue learning English.:

to feel free Please feel free to take a seat and enjoy the show.
to come prepared Make sure to come prepared for the test tomorrow.
to save time You'll save time if you turn off your smart phone and
concentrate on the lesson.
to find a We need to find a replacement for Jim as soon as possible.
replacement
to make progress We're making progress on the project at work.
to do the washing I'll do the washing up and you can put Johnny to bed.
up

Business Collocations

Collocations are often used in business and work settings. There are a number of
forms including adjectives, nouns and other verbs that combine with keywords to
form business expressions. Here are some of the collocation examples you will
find on these pages:
 Here are some business collocations.

These collocations are used for specific situations in business.

to open an account Would you like to open an account at our bank?

to forgive a debt Do you think the bank would forgive a debt?
to land a deal We landed a deal worth $3 million.
to key in a PIN Just key in your PIN at the ATM and you can make a
deposit.
to deposit a check I'd like to deposit this check for $100.
hard-earned money Once you get a job, you'll know what hard-earned money
really is.
to close a deal I closed a deal on a new account last week.
to write up a Let's write up your contract.
contract
counterfeit money Be on the lookout for counterfeit money in circulation.

Common Expressions

Collocations are often used as short expressions to describe how someone feels
about a situation. In this case, collocations can be used in the adjective form, or
also as emphatic expressions using an intensifier and a verb. Here are a few
examples using some common collocations:

positively encourage someone to We'd like to positively encourage you to buy

do something this stock.
deeply regret the loss of someone I deeply regret the loss of your loved one.
/ something
to be in an utter fury over Tom's in an utter fury over the
something misunderstanding with his wife.
to go to great lengths to do He went to a great length to explain the
something situation.

ENGLISH COLLOCATIONS WITH THE WORD

BIG
The word big is often used in collocations with a happening or event, for example:
 a big accomplishment
 a big decision
 a big disappointment
 a big failure
 a big improvement
 a big mistake
 a big surprise
(Big is also used when talking about size – click here to learn the difference between big, large,
tall, and long in English.)
ENGLISH COLLOCATIONS WITH THE WORD
GREAT
The word great is often used in collocations with feelings or qualities.
Great + feelings
 great admiration
 great anger
 great enjoyment
 great excitement
 great fun
 great happiness
 great joy
Great + qualities
 in great detail
 great power
 great pride
 great sensitivity
 great skill
 great strength
 great understanding
 great wisdom
 great wealth
ENGLISH COLLOCATIONS WITH THE WORD
LARGE
The word large is often used in collocations involving numbers and measurements.
 a large amount
 a large collection
 a large number (of)
 a large population
 a large proportion
 a large quantity
 a large scale
ENGLISH COLLOCATIONS WITH THE WORD
STRONG
The word strong is often used in collocations with facts and opinions:
Strong + facts/opinions
 strong argument
 strong emphasis
 strong evidence
 a strong contrast
 a strong commitment
 strong criticism
 strong denial
 a strong feeling
 a strong opinion (about something)
 strong resistance
Strong + senses
 a strong smell
 a strong taste
ENGLISH COLLOCATIONS WITH THE WORD
DEEP
The word deep is used for some strong feelings:
 deep depression
 deep devotion
It is also used in these expressions:

 in deep thought
 in deep trouble
 in a deep sleep (when the person won’t wake up easily)
ENGLISH COLLOCATIONS WITH THE WORD
HEAVY
Heavy is used for some weather conditions…
 heavy rain
 heavy snow
 heavy fog
The word heavy is also used for people with bad habits:
 a heavy drinker
 a heavy smoker
 a heavy drug user
There’s also the expression “a heavy sleeper” – that’s not someone who sleeps a lot;
instead, it’s a person who doesn’t wake up easily when sleeping.
The word heavy is also used in collocations with two unpleasant things: TRAFFIC and
TAXES!
 heavy traffic
 heavy taxes
Clause Overview
What Is a Clause?
A clause is a group of words containing a subject and a verb or verb phrase. Every
sentence consists of at least one clause.

The two types of clauses are independent and dependent clauses. An independent
clause (also known as a main clause) expresses a complete thought. It can either stand
on its own as a sentence or be combined with one or more dependent or independent
clauses to form a sentence. Adependent clause (also known as a subordinate clause)
cannot stand on its own as a sentence. It must be combined with one or more
independent clauses to form a sentence. Dependent clauses can function either as
noun clauses, adjective clauses, or adverb clauses in sentences. They begin with words
such as after, although, because, before, if, since, that, until, what, when, where, who,
which , and why .

Independent Clause Examples

( Dad will pick us up is an independent clause. It contains the subject Dad and the verb
phrase will pick. The clause expresses a complete thought and can stand on its own as
a sentence.)

Valentina likes to have picnics in the summer.

( Valentina likes to have picnics in the summer is an independent clause. It contains the
subjectValentina and the verb likes . The clause expresses a complete thought and
stands on its own as a sentence.)

Before we leave on our road trip, we have to check the map .

( We have to check the map is an independent clause. It contains the subject we and
the verb have . The clause expresses a complete thought and can stand on its own as a
sentence.)

Colin will meet you after he finishes studying.

( Colin will meet you is an independent clause. It contains the subject Colin and the verb
phrase will meet . The clause expresses a complete thought and can stand on its own
as a sentence.)

Although I generally prefer cats, I also like dogs .

( I also like dogs is an independent clause. It contains the subject I and the verb like .
The clause expresses a complete thought and can stand on its own as a sentence.)

Daniel is driving into town , and Regina is taking the train .

( Daniel is driving into town is an independent clause. It contains the subject Daniel and
the verb phrase is driving . Regina is taking the train is another independent clause. It
contains the subjectRegina and the verb phrase is taking . Both clauses express a
complete thought and can stand on their own as a sentence.)

Dependent Clause Examples

( Since the rain stopped is a dependent clause. It contains the subject rain and the
verb stopped . The clause does not express a complete thought and cannot stand on its
own as a sentence.)
We have to help with dinner when Mom and Dad come home .

( When Mom and Dad come home is a dependent clause. It contains the subjects Mom
and Dad and the verb come . The clause does not express a complete thought and
cannot stand on its own as a sentence.)

If we go to the movies tonight , do you want to see a scary film?

( If we go to the movies tonight is a dependent clause. It contains the subject we and

the verb go . The clause does not express a complete thought and cannot stand on its
own as a sentence.)

I need to take a nap because I only got four hours of sleep last night .

( Because I only got four hours of sleep last night is a dependent clause. It contains the
subject I and the verb got . The clause does not express a complete thought and cannot
stand on its own as a sentence.)
Until Yolanda buys more bread , we can’t make lunch.

( Until Yolanda buys more bread is a dependent clause. It contains the

subject Yolanda and the verbbuys . The clause does not express a complete thought
and cannot stand on its own as a sentence.)

Remember to pick up the dry cleaning before you get groceries .

( Before you get groceries is a dependent clause. It contains the subject you and the
verb get . The clause does not express a complete thought and cannot stand on its own
as a sentence.)

Noun Clauses
A noun clause is a type of dependent clause that acts as a noun. Noun clauses begin
with words such as how, that, what, whatever, when, where, whether, which, whichever,
who, whoever, whom, whomever , and why . Noun clauses can act as subjects, direct
objects, indirect objects, predicate nominatives, or objects of a preposition.

Noun Clause Examples

Whoever wants to go fishing should come with us.

( Whoever wants to go fishing is a noun clause. It contains the subject whoever and the
verb wants . The clause acts as a subject in the sentence.)

In class, we learned how bats use sonar to locate objects .

( How bats use sonar to locate objects is a noun clause. It contains the subject bats and
the verb use . The clause acts as a direct object in the sentence.)

Samantha’s biggest fear is that she will trip onstage .

( That she will trip onstage is a noun clause. It contains the subject she and the verb
phrase will trip . The clause acts as a predicate nominative in the sentence,
identifying fear .)

I was wondering about what time we should leave .

( What time we should leave is a noun clause. It contains the subject we and the verb
phrase should leave . The clause acts as an object of the preposition about in the
sentence.)

He will give whoever wins the contest a special prize.

( Whoever wins the contest is a noun clause. It contains the subject whoever and the
verb wins . The clause acts as an indirect object in the sentence.)

The real challenge is how we are going to satisfy our client .

( How we are going to satisfy our client is a noun clause. It contains the subject we and
the verb phrase are going . The clause acts as a predicate nominative in the sentence,
identifying challenge .)

Adjective Clauses
An adjective clause , also known as a relative clause , is a type of dependent clause
that modifies a noun or pronoun. It begins with a relative pronoun or relative adverb
such as that, when, where, who, whom, whose, which , and why . These types of
pronouns and adverbs are referred to as relative because they relate the clauses to the
words they modify.

Adjective clauses can be either restrictive (or essential) or nonrestrictive (or

nonessential). Arestrictive adjective clause provides information that is necessary for
identifying the word it modifies. A nonrestrictive adjective clause provides additional
information about the word it modifies, but the word’s meaning is already clear.
Nonessential clauses are always set off with commas.

Adjective Clause Examples

The person who took my order forgot to bring me my drink.

( Who took my order is a restrictive adjective clause. It contains the relative

pronoun who , which also functions as the clause’s subject, and the verb took . The
clause modifies the noun person .)

The clownfish is the type of fish that Sarah wants to get .

( That Sarah wants to get is a restrictive adjective clause. It contains the relative
pronoun that , the subject Sarah , and the verb wants . The clause modifies the
noun fish .)

This is the track where we like to go running .

( Where we like to go running is a restrictive adjective clause. It contains the relative

adverb where , the subject we , and the verb like . The clause modifies the noun track .)

The house, which received fire damage , has had extensive renovations.
( Which received fire damage is a nonrestrictive adjective clause. It contains the relative
pronounwhich , which also functions as the clause’s subject, and the verb received .
The clause modifies the noun house .)

Ben, who called earlier , has decided he can’t make it tonight.

( Who called earlier is a nonrestrictive adjective clause. It contains the relative

pronoun who , which also functions as the clause’s subject, and the verb called . The
clause modifies the noun Ben .)

Liliana, whose mother owns the business, has said she might be able to help me get
an internship there.

( Whose mother owns the business is a nonrestrictive adjective clause. It contains the
relative pronounwhose , the subject mother , and the verb owns . The clause modifies
the noun Liliana .)

Adverb Clauses
An adverb clause is a type of dependent clause modifies an adjective, an adverb, or a
verb or verb phrase. Adverb clauses begin with words such as after, although, because,
before, if, since, than, until, when , and while .

Adverb Clause Examples

I will stay at the house until you arrive .

( Until you arrive is an adverb clause. It contains the subject you and the verb arrive .
The clause modifies the verb phrase will stay .)

When they arrived at the station , they ran to get the train.

( When they arrived at the station is an adverb clause. It contains the subject they and
the verb arrived . The clause modifies the verb ran .)

If Cheryl wants to come along , she can meet us at the theater.

( If Cheryl wants to come along is a dependent clause. It contains the

subject Cheryl and the verb wants. The clause modifies the verb phrase can meet .)

The movie was better than I expected it to be .

( Than I expected it to be is an adverb clause. It contains the subject I and the

verb expected . The clause modifies the adjective better .)
Because we bought the items on sale , we got a really good deal.

( Because we bought the items on sale is an adverb clause. It contains the

subject we and the verbbought . The clause modifies the verb got .)

My cell phone does not work well when the temperature gets too low .

( When the temperature gets too low is an adverb clause. It contains the
subject temperature and the verb gets . The clause modifies the adverb well .)

Elliptical Clauses
An elliptical clause is a type of dependent, or subordinate, clause that is missing a
word or words. Sometimes, the clause is missing a relative pronoun such as that, who ,
or whom or a relative adverb such as when, where , or why . Other times, the missing
part is a subject or a verb or verb phrase. While elliptical clauses are acceptable to use,
they can sometimes confuse readers, such as when the sentence ends with a pronoun.
In the sentences below, the missing parts appear in brackets.

Elliptical Clause Examples

Though [she is] sometimes prone to jealousy, Bella is a generally well-behaved dog.
The reason [why] we didn’t come was that Tommy didn’t feel well.
I didn’t know [that] Maggie had her baby!
Carol is much stronger than I [am].
Neil is a better painter than he [is].

Why Are Clauses Important?

Clauses are what make up sentences. Without dependent clauses, sentences lack
important details. Without independent clauses, sentences don’t exist at all!

Relative clauses
What is a relative clause?
We can use relative clauses to join two English sentences, or to give more information about
something.

I bought a new car. It is very fast.

→ I bought a new car that is very fast.
 She lives in New York. She likes living in New York.
→ She lives in New York, which she likes.

Defining and Non-defining

A defining relative clause tells which noun we are talking about:

 I like the woman who lives next door.

(If I don't say 'who lives next door', then we don't know which woman I mean).

A non-defining relative clause gives us extra information about something. We don't need this
information to understand the sentence.

 I live in London, which has some fantastic parks.

(Everybody knows where London is, so 'which has some fantastic parks' is extra information).

Defining relative clauses:

1: The relative pronoun is the subject:

First, let's consider when the relative pronoun is the subject of a defining relative clause.

We can use 'who', 'which' or 'that'. We use 'who' for people and 'which' for things. We can use
'that' for people or things.

The relative clause can come after the subject or the object of the sentence. We can't drop the
relative pronoun.

For example (clause after the object of the sentence):

 I'm looking for a secretary who / that can use a computer well.
 She has a son who / that is a doctor.
 We bought a house which / that is 200 years old.
 I sent a letter which / that arrived three weeks later.

More examples (clause after the subject of the sentence):

 The people who / that live on the island are very friendly.
 The man who / that phoned is my brother.
 The camera which / that costs £100 is over there.
 The house which / that belongs to Julie is in London.
 Try an exercise where the relative pronoun is the subject here.

2: The relative pronoun is the object:

Next, let's talk about when the relative pronoun is the object of the clause. In this case we can
drop the relative pronoun if we want to. Again, the clause can come after the subject or the object
of the sentence. Here are some examples:

(Clause after the object)

 She loves the chocolate (which / that) I bought.

 We went to the village (which / that) Lucy recommended.
 John met a woman (who / that) I had been to school with.
 The police arrested a man (who / that) Jill worked with.

(Clause after the subject)

 The bike (which / that) I loved was stolen.

 The university (which / that) she likes is famous.
 The woman (who / that) my brother loves is from Mexico.
 The doctor (who / that) my grandmother liked lives in New York.

 Try an exercise where the relative pronoun is the object here

 Try an exercise about defining relative clauses, both subject and object here
 Try another exercise about defining relative clauses, both subject and object here

Non-defining relative clauses:

We don't use 'that' in non-defining relative clauses, so we need to use 'which' if the pronoun
refers to a thing, and 'who' if it refers to a person. We can't drop the relative pronoun in this kind
of clause, even if the relative pronoun is the subject of the clause.

(Clause comes after the subject)

 My boss, who is very nice, lives in Manchester.

 My sister, who I live with, knows a lot about cars.
 My bicycle, which I've had for more than ten years, is falling apart.
 My mother's house, which I grew up in, is very small.

(Clause comes after the object)

 Yesterday I called our friend Julie, who lives in New York.

 The photographer called to the Queen, who looked annoyed.
 Last week I bought a new computer, which I don't like now.
 I really love the new Chinese restaurant, which we went to last night.

Prepositions and relative clauses

If the verb in the relative clause needs a preposition, we put it at the end of the clause:

For example:

 listen to

The music is good. Julie listens to the music.

→ The music (which / that) Julie listens to is good.

 work with

My brother met a woman. I used to work with the woman.

→ My brother met a woman (who / that) I used to work with.

 go to

The country is very hot. He went to the country.

→ The country (which / that) he went to is very hot.

 come from

I visited the city. John comes from the city.

→ I visited the city (that / which) John comes from.

 apply for

The job is well paid. She applied for the job.

→ The job (which / that) she applied for is well paid.

Whose
'Whose' is always the subject of the relative clause and can't be left out. It replaces a possessive.
It can be used for people and things.

The dog is over there. The dog's / its owner lives next door.
→ The dog whose owner lives next door is over there.
The little girl is sad. The little girl's / her doll was lost.
→ The little girl whose doll was lost is sad.

The woman is coming tonight. Her car is a BMW.

→ The woman whose car is a BMW is coming tonight.

The house belongs to me. Its roof is very old.

→ The house whose roof is old belongs to me.

Where / when / why

We can sometimes use these question words instead of relative pronouns and prepositions.

I live in a city. I study in the city.

→ I live in the city where I study.

→ I live in the city that / which I study in.
→ I live in the city in which I study.

The bar in Barcelona is still there. I met my wife in that bar.

→ The bar in Barcelona where I met my wife is still there.

→ The bar in Barcelona that / which I met my wife in is still there.
→ The bar in Barcelona in which I met my wife is still there.

The summer was long and hot. I graduated from university in the summer.

→ The summer when I graduated from university was long and hot.
→ The summer that / which I graduated from university in was long and hot.
→ The summer in which I graduated was long and hot.

1. The relative pronouns:

The relative pronouns are:

Subject Object Possessive

 Subject Object Possessive

who whom, who whose

which which whose

that that

We use who and whom for people, and which for things.
We use that for people or things.
We use relative pronouns to introduce relative clauses, which tell us more about
people and things.

2. Relative clauses to postmodify a noun

We use relative clauses to postmodify a noun - to make clear which person

or thing we are talking about. In these clauses we can have the relative
pronoun who, which, whose or that

 as subject (see Clauses Sentences and Phrases)

Isn’t that the woman who lives across the road from you?
The police said the accident that happened last night was
unavoidable
The newspaper reported that the tiger which killed its keeper has
been put down.
WARNING:
The relative pronoun is the subject of the clause.
We do not repeat the subject:
*The woman who [she] lives across the road…
*The tiger which [it] killed its keeper …

 as object of a clause (see Clauses, Sentences and Phrases)

 Have you seen those people who we met on holiday?
You shouldn’t believe everything that you read in the newspaper.
The house that we rented in London was fully furnished.
The food was definitely the thing which I enjoyed most about our
holiday.
- Sometimes we use whom instead of who when the relative pronoun
is the object:
Have you seen those people whom we met on holiday?
- When the relative pronoun is object of its clause we sometimes leave
it out:
Have you seen those people we met on holiday?
You shouldn’t believe everything you read in the newspaper.
The house we rented in London was fully furnished.
The food was definitely the thing I enjoyed most about our holiday.
WARNING:
The relative pronoun is the object of the clause.
We do not repeat the object:
Have you seen those people who we met [them] on holiday?
The house that we rented [it] in London was fully furnished.
The food was definitely the thing I enjoyed [it] most about our holiday.

 as object of a preposition. When the relative pronoun is the object of a

preposition we usually put the preposition after the verb.:
You were talking to a woman >>> Who was the woman who you
were talking to?
My parents live in that house >>> That’s the house that my parents
live in.
You were talking about a book. I haven’t read it. >>> I haven’t read
the book which you were talking about.
- When the relative pronoun is the object of a preposition we usually
leave it out:
Who was the woman you were talking to?
That’s the house my parents live in.
- Sometimes we use whom instead of who:
Who was that woman whom you were talking about.
- When we use whom, which or whose the preposition sometimes
comes at the beginning of the clause:
 I haven’t read the book about which you were talking.
- We can use the possessive form, whose, in a relative clause:
I always forget that woman’s name >>> That’s the woman whose
name I always forget.
I met a man whose brother works in Moscow.

3. Times and places

We also use when with times and where with places to make it
clear which time or place we are talking about:
England won the world cup in 1996. It was the year when we got
married.
I remember my twentieth birthday. It was the day when the tsunami
happened.
Do you remember the place where we caught the train?
Stratford-upon-Avon is the town where Shakespeare was born.
... but we can leave out the word when:
England won the world cup in 1996. It was the year we got married.
I remember my twentieth birthday. It was the day the
tsunami happened.

4. Giving additional information

We use who, whom, whose, and which (but not that) in relative clauses
to tell us more about a person or thing.

 as subject (see Clauses, Sentences and Phrases)

My uncle, who was born in Hong Kong, lived most of his life
overseas.
I have just read Orwell’s 1984, which is one of the most frightening
books ever written.
WARNING:
The relative pronoun is the subject of the clause.
We do not repeat the subject:

My uncle, who [he] was born in Hong Kong, lived most of his life
overseas.
I have just read Orwell’s 1984, which [it] is one of the most frightening
books ever written.
 as object (see Clauses, Sentences and Phrases)
We saw the latest Harry Potter film, which we really enjoyed.
My favourite actor is Marlon Brando, who I saw in “On the
Waterfront”.
- we can use whom instead of who as object:
My favourite actor was Marlon Brando, whom I saw in “On the
Waterfront”.
WARNING:
The relative pronoun is the object of the clause.
We do not repeat the object:
We saw the latest Harry Potter film, which we really enjoyed [it].
My favourite actor is Marlon Brando, who I saw [him] in “On the
Waterfront”.

 as object of a clause :
He finally met Paul McCartney, whom he had always admired.
We are going back to Venice, which we first visited thirty years
ago.
We can also use who as the object.
He finally met Paul McCartney, who he had always admired.
WARNING:
The relative pronoun is the object of the clause.
We do not repeat the object:
He finally met Paul McCartney, whom he had always admired [him].
We are going back to Venice, which we first visited [it] thirty years
ago.

 as object of a preposition:
He decided to telephone Mrs. Jackson, who he had read about in the
newspaper.
That’s the programme which we listened to last night.
- We sometimes use whom instead of who:
He decided to telephone Mrs. Jackson, whom he had read about in the
newspaper.
 - The preposition sometimes comes in front of the relative
pronoun whom or which:
He decided to telephone Mrs. Jackson, about whom he had read in the
newspaper.
That’s the programme to which we listened last night.

5. Quantifiers and numbers with relative pronouns

We often use quantifiers and numbers with relative pronouns:

many of whom - most of whom - one of which - none of whom
some of which - lots of whom - two of which - etc.
We can use them as subject, object or object of a preposition.
She has three brothers, two of whom are in the army.
I read three books last week, one of which I really enjoyed.
There were some good programmes on the radio, none of which I
listened to.

6. Using "which" to give more information

We often use the relative pronoun which to say something about a

clause:
He was usually late, which always annoyed his father.
We’ve missed our train, which means we may be late.

Substitution
from English Grammar Today

Substitution: purpose

In speaking and in writing, we try to avoid repeating words, phrases or clauses. We use
substitute forms to do this:

A:
Pam always brings us back chocolates when she travels.

B:
Oh, nice.
A:
She brought some Belgian ones from her last trip, which were delicious.

B:
Lucky you!

(A uses ones to avoid repeating chocolates.)

[A has a problem with her computer]

A:
Do you think I should phone Barry and ask him to come and look at it.

B:
Yes, do. (B uses do to avoid repeating phone Barry and ask him to come and look at it.)

We can use substitution to refer backwards or forwards. Forward substitution is far less
common than backward substitution (The noun being referred to is underlined in the
examples.):

If you need them, there are nails in the toolbox (forward substitution).

A large saucepan is what we need for making jam, but I don’t have one (backward
substitution).

Substitution: what forms can we use?

We can use many different words and phrases in substitution, including words such
as both, either, some (indefinite quantifying pronouns), do and so, and expressions
such as the same and thus.

Indefinite quantifying pronouns

The following words and phrases are commonly used as substitutes:

(a) little each less one(s)

another either many other(s)

all enough much several

any few neither some

both half none

A:
There’s this card with a clown on it and this one with a monkey. Which do you think
Mark would prefer?

B:
I think he’d like either.

A:
Does she have a lot of friends at work?

B:
No, not one.

Substituting with do

We use do, do so, do it, do the same to substitute for a verb and whatever accompanies
it (complement):

A:
We always have toast and coffee in the morning.

B:
We do too. I can’t function without breakfast. (Do substitutes for have toast and coffee
in the morning.)

See also:
 Do as a substitute verb
Substituting with so

We can use so as a substitute in a number of ways: for an adjective (it remains so), an
object clause (I think so), with reporting verbs (so I heard) and in exclamations (so he
is!).
See also:
 So
 So as a substitute form
 So am I, so do I, Neither do I

Substitution for nouns

One, some, ones

We mostly use one and some/ones to substitute for countable nouns:

She tried to get a ticket but she couldn’t get one. (She couldn’t get a ticket.)

A:
Is there a bookshop around here?

B:
There are two second-hand ones at the end of the street on the right.

Where there is nothing before or after ones, some or any are used as a plural
substitute:

A:
Have either of you got any one pound coins for this machine?

B:
Let me see, I’ve definitely got some.

C:
I’m afraid I don’t have any.

Not: Let me see, I’ve definitely got ones.

Not: I’m afraid I don’t have ones.

See also:
 Any
 One
 Some
 Some and any
Indefinite quantifying pronouns (little, all, both, neither)
We can use indefinite quantifying pronouns such as (a) little, all, both, many, much,
neither, few to substitute for noun phrases:

Hundreds of people went to the village festival and all seemed to enjoy themselves very
much.

See also:
 Pronouns
 Determiners used as pronouns
That, those

We can use that and those as substitutes meaning ‘the one(s)’ in more formal contexts:

The water for the factory was that from the local reservoir.

The books he read were those which he found in the old library.

In formal contexts, especially in academic style, we use that of/those of:

The head has a similar shape and size to that of a mammal.

Formal and informal language

from English Grammar Today
We use formal language in situations that are serious or that involve people we don’t
know well. Informal language is more commonly used in situations that are more
relaxed and involve people we know well.

Formal language is more common when we write; informal language is more common
when we speak. However, there are times where writing can be very informal, for
example, when writing postcards or letters to friends, emails or text messages. There
are also examples where spoken English can be very formal, for example, in a speech
or a lecture. Most uses of English are neutral; that is, they are neither formal nor
informal.

Formal language and informal language are associated with particular choices of
grammar and vocabulary.
Contractions, relative clauses without a relative pronoun and ellipsis are more common
in informal language.

Compare

She has decided to accept the job. formal

She’s decided to accept the job. informal: She’s = contraction

Compare

The girl whom I met in Singapore was interested in

formal
working in Australia.

The girl I met in Singapore was interested in informal: relative clause without the
working in Australia. relative pronoun whom

Compare

We went to Barcelona for the weekend. We have a

Formal
lot of things to tell you.

Went to Barcelona for the weekend. Lots to tell Informal: ellipsis (more likely to be written
you. or texted than spoken)

More formal vocabulary commonly involves longer words or words with origins in Latin
and Greek. More informal vocabulary commonly involves shorter words, or words with
origins in Anglo-Saxon. Most dictionaries indicate very informal and/or formal words.

formal informal

commence start

terminate end
formal informal

endeavour try

We often choose to use certain modal verbs to be more formal and polite:

Can I suggest you try this new model? (neutral)

May I suggest you try this new model? (more formal)

Might I suggest you try this new model? (very formal)