Phytochem Rev (2013) 12:877–893

DOI 10.1007/s11101-013-9322-4

Saponins and their role in biological processes in plants

Ahmad Faizal • Danny Geelen

Received: 18 October 2012 / Accepted: 22 August 2013 / Published online: 29 August 2013
Ó Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht 2013

Abstract Saponins are steroid and triterpenoid gly- produced by plants (Sparg et al. 2004; Vincken et al.
cosides that display diverse biological activities. The 2007) and also by certain marine organisms, such as
wide-spread occurrence in plants as well as the starfish and sea cucumbers (Tang et al. 2009; Van
potential for pharmaceutical application has led to Dyck et al. 2010). Their name is derived from Latin
saponin extraction and identification in numerous sapo meaning soap, because they have surfactant
species. Although these efforts are important to extend properties forming stable soap-like foam upon shaking
our knowledge of naturally occurring saponin struc- in aqueous solution. Chemically, the term saponin
tures, recent attention has been given to the biosyn- defines a group of high molecular weight glycosides
thesis and distribution in plants. In this review, we that consist of a glycan moiety linked to an aglycon
present recent advances on saponin production and which is also called genin or sapogenin (Hostettmann
distribution and highlight studies showing effects on and Marston 2005). The chemical structure of sapo-
the growth and development. genin defines the classification of saponins as triter-
penoid saponins (30 carbon atoms) (Fig. 1a) which
Keywords Plant defense
Plant development
occur mainly in the class of Magnoliopsida and
Saponin biosynthesis
Steroidal saponin
steroidal saponins (27 carbon atoms with a 6-ring
Triterpenoid saponin spirostane or a 5-ring furostane skeleton), which are
almost exclusively present in the class of Liliopsida
(Sparg et al. 2004) (Fig. 1b). According to the carbon
Introduction
skeleton of the aglycon, saponins are sometimes
further classified into 12 main classes, namely the:
Saponins are structurally complex amphiphatic gly- dammaranes, tirucallanes, lupanes, hopanes, olean-
cosides of steroids and triterpenoids that are widely
anes, 23-nor oleananes, taraxasteranes, ursanes, cycl-
oartanes, lanostanes, cucurbitanes, and steroids
A. Faizal
D. Geelen (&) (Vincken et al. 2007). Moreover, saponins are often
Department of Plant Production, Faculty of Bioscience
present as complex mixtures and their composition
Engineering, Ghent University, Coupure Links 653,
9000 Ghent, Belgium may vary depending on the genetic background, the
e-mail: danny.geelen@ugent.be tissue type, the age and the physiological state of the
plant and environmental factors (Szakiel et al. 2011a).
A. Faizal
Saponins as secondary metabolites are different
Plant Science and Biotechnology Research Group, School
of Life Sciences and Technology, Institut Teknologi from the components of primary metabolism due to
Bandung, Ganesha 10, Bandung 40132, Indonesia the fact that they are non-essential for basic metabolic

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878 Phytochem Rev (2013) 12:877–893

processes in the plant. Plants synthesize diverse Hostettmann and Marston 2005; Park et al. 2005;
secondary metabolites that have been clearly demon- Augustin et al. 2011; Osbourn et al. 2011). Here we
strated to play a role in the adaptation of plants to their present a review of saponin production and distribution
environment. The production of these secondary in plants and their possible roles in biological processes
molecules may be part of the response to external including developmental regulation.
factors including various biotic and abiotic stimuli.
Alternatively, they contribute to the innate immunity
as phytoprotectants including phytoanticipins which Biosynthesis of saponins
are constitutively produced and inducible phytoalex-
ins (Dixon 2001). Saponin backbones are synthesized via the isoprenoid
Saponins have also been studied for their wide range pathway through a largely unidentified number of
of properties, including beneficial and detrimental sequential and/or parallel enzymatic steps. Squalene
effects on human health, pesticidal, insecticidal, mol- (30-carbon intermediate), which is a precursor for
luscicidal and fungicidal activity, bitterness and both triterpenoid and steroidal saponins is produced
sweetness and other industrial applications such as from the mevalonate and non-mevalonate [2-C-
foaming and surface active agents (Sun et al. 2009; methyl-D-erythritol 4-phosphate (MEP)] pathways
Takahashi et al. 2010; Dawid and Hofmann 2012; Diab through a series of enzymatic reactions involving
et al. 2012; De Geyter et al. 2012a; Chen et al. 2013; geranyl diphosphate synthase (GPS), farnesyl diphos-
Kumar et al. 2013). The pharmacological activities phate synthase (FPS) and squalene synthase (Misawa
have been reviewed extensively (Lacaille-Dubois and 2011). Subsequently, squalene is transformed into
Wagner 2000; Francis et al. 2002; Sparg et al. 2004; 2,3-oxidosqualene by squalene epoxidase. The

Fig. 1 The common classes

of triterpene (a) and steroid
(b) sapogenin

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cyclization of 2,3-oxidosqualene by oxidosqualene or monocotyledonous angiosperms. This is confirmed

cyclases (OSCs) leads to production of tetracyclic by the presence of steroidal saponin in Agavaceae,
sterols through the activity of cycloartenol synthase Asparagaceae, Dioscoreaceae, Liliaceae, Poaceae,
(CS). Furthermore, steroidal saponins are thought to Smilacaceae, and Taccaceae. The exception, however,
derive from intermediates in phytosterol pathway found in Scrophulariaceae and Solanaceae, two plant
downstream of cycloartenol formation. However, the families from class of Magnoliopsida or dicotyledon-
steps at which steroidal saponins and phytosterol eus angiosperms in which all the species studied
biosynthesis diverge have not been elucidated, contained steroidal saponin. The diversification of
although cholesterol has been suggested as a candi- triterpenoid and steroidal saponins may have come
date precursor of steroidal saponins (Phillips et al. from a species-specific independent evolution but it is
2006; Vincken et al. 2007). Triterpene saponin currently not clear to what extent the biosynthesis
biosynthesis branches off the phytosterol pathway genes for triterpene and steroid sapogenins are con-
by alternative cyclization of 2,3-oxidosqualene served. This diversity of both triterpenoid and steroi-
through the activity of enzymes such as b-amyrin dal saponins biosynthesis will be an important issue to
synthase (bAS), a-amyrin synthase (aAS), lupeol be addressed in the future when more biosynthesis
synthase (LuS) and dammarenediol synthase (DDS) genes of different species have been identified.
(Haralampidis et al. 2002; Vincken et al. 2007).

The distribution and localization of saponin

The occurrence of saponins in plant in plants

Saponin producing plants are found in various geo- Saponin production has been found to vary in
graphical regions and climatic zones around the world. individual organs and tissues. Many plant species
These include annual and biennial herbs, grasses, store saponins in the roots, where these molecules may
perennial evergreen, shrubs, trees, and wild and act as antimicrobial phytoprotectants. For example,
cultivated species. Table 1 provides a list of saponin The major saponin from Avena spp., avenacin A-1, is
research in the last 4 years (2008–2012) across many localized in the epidermal cell layer of oat root tips and
different plant families. Although the list is not also in the lateral root initials, representing a chemical
complete, it does give a good overview of the plant barrier to invading soil-borne microbes that attack
species and families which have been the focus of plant tissues (Morrissey and Osbourn, 1999; Papado-
saponin research in recent years. Of the approximately poulou et al. 1999; Haralampidis et al. 2002).
100 species listed, about half of these have been Different distribution of saponins was found in the
investigated for biological activities. Furthermore, a root of other species. The distribution of saikosaponins
number of species listed were selected based on from Bupleurum falcatum root has been reported in the
previous ethnobotanical studies on related species outer phloem layer which possesses many secretory
either from the same genus or family. One example is canals, especially in the parenchyma cells located
the genus Maesa from the family Primulaceae. They around pericycle but not in the mucilaginous exudates
were investigated because they contain maesasaponins within the secretory canals (Tani et al. 1986). In Panax
of which some were reported to have anti-cancer and ginseng, ginsenosides were found located outside the
lack haemolytic activity, which is commonly activity root cambium, particularly in the periderm and outer
for most saponins. The substitution at position C-22 is cortex outside the phloem (Kubo et al. 1980; Tani et al.
an essential structural feature that influences haemo- 1981). The study of histochemical localization of
lytic activity (Sindambiwe et al. 1998). These favor- saponins indicated that saponins reacts with vanillin-
able biological properties prompted further research to acetic acid glacial-perchloric acid solution to produce
investigate other species within the same genus color from pale red to purplish red (Du and Liu 1992;
(Leonard et al. 2003; Maes et al. 2004; Germonprez Tan et al. 2008). Based on this technique, histochem-
et al. 2005; Foubert et al. 2009). ical studies of Bupleurum chinense organs showed that
Sparg et al. (2004) reported that steroidal saponins in the root primary structures, saponins were mainly
are almost exclusively found in the class of Liliopsida distributed in the pericycle and primary phloem.

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Table 1 A list of plant species from which saponins have been isolated in 4 recent years (2008–2012)
Family Species Saponin type References

Class of Magnoliopsida
Amaranthaceae Achyranthes fauriei Triterpenoid Ando et al. (2008)
Alternanthera philoxeroides Triterpenoid Fang et al. (2009)
Celosia cristata Triterpenoid Wang et al. (2010)
Araliaceae Aralia elata Triterpenoid Lee et al. (2009a)
Cussonia arborea Triterpenoid Kougan et al. (2009)
Hydrocotyle bonariensis Triterpenoid Tabopda et al. (2012)
Hydrocotyle sibthorpioides Triterpenoid Huang et al. (2008)
Meryta denhamii Triterpenoid Cioffi et al. (2008)
Apiaceae Eryngium yuccifolium Triterpenoid Zhang et al. (2008)
Physospermum verticillatum Triterpenoid Tundis et al. (2009)
Aquifoliaceae Ilex kudingcha Triterpenoid Zuo et al. (2012)
Ilex pubescens Triterpenoid Wang et al. (2008a)
Asteraceae Aster sedifolius Triterpenoid Cammareri et al. (2008)
Lactuca scariola Triterpenoid Yadava and Jharbade (2008)
Silphium radula Triterpenoid Calabria et al. (2008)
Balsaminaceae Impatiens siculifer Triterpenoid Li et al. (2009)
Bignoniaceae Incarvillea delavayi Triterpenoid Ge et al. (2009)
Brassicaceae Barbarea vulgaris Triterpenoid Nielsen et al. (2010)
Caesalpiniaceae Cassia angustifolia Triterpenoid Khan and Srivastava (2009)
Campanulaceae Codonopsis lanceolata Triterpenoid Shirota et al. (2008)
Caprifoliaceae Lonicera macranthoides Triterpenoid Chen et al. (2009)
Caryophyllaceae Dianthus superbus Triterpenoid Chen et al. (2010b)
Dianthus versicolor Triterpenoid Ma et al. (2009)
Gypsophila altissima Triterpenoid Chen et al. (2010a)
Gypsophila pacifica Triterpenoid Nie et al. (2010)
Gypsophila pilulifera Triterpenoid Arslan et al. (2012)
Silene viscidula Triterpenoid Xu et al. (2012)
Psammosilene tunicoides Triterpenoid Deng et al. (2009)
Chenopodiaceae Salicornia herbacea Triterpenoid Kim et al. (2012)
Chrysobalanaceae Licania arianeae Triterpenoid de Carvalho et al. (2008)
Combretaceae Terminalia ivorensis Triterpenoid Ponou et al. (2010)
Terminalia tropophylla Triterpenoid Cao et al. (2010)
Convovulaceae Ipomoea batatas Triterpenoid Dini et al. (2009)
Euphorbiaceae Glochidion eriocarpum Triterpenoid Kiem et al. (2009)
Fabaceae Abrus precatorius Triterpenoid Xiao et al. (2012)
Albizia inundata Triterpenoid Zhang et al. (2011)
Caragana microphylla Triterpenoid Jin et al. (2011)
Gleditisia sinensis Triterpenoid Gao et al. (2008b)
Medicago Arabica Triterpenoid Tava et al. (2009)
Pueraria lobata Triterpenoid Niiho et al. (2010)
Pueraria thomsonii Triterpenoid Niiho et al. (2010)
Iridaceae Crocus sativus Triterpenoid Rubio-Moraga et al. (2011)
Lecythidaceae Stauntonia chinensis Triterpenoid Gao et al. (2008a)
Loganiaceae Antonia ovata Triterpenoid Magid et al. (2010)

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Table 1 continued
Family Species Saponin type References

Mimosaceae Cylicodiscus gabunensis Triterpenoid Tene et al. (2011)

Tetrapleura tetraptera Triterpenoid Note et al. (2009)
Myrsinaceae Ardisia gigantifolia Triterpenoid Wen et al. (2008)
Ardisia kivuensis Triterpenoid Ndontsa et al. (2012)
Ardisia pusilla Triterpenoid Tian et al. (2009)
Phytolaccaceae Phytolacca americana Triterpenoid Wang et al. (2008b)
Phytolacca bogotensis Triterpenoid Montoya et al. (2009)
Polygalaceae Polygala crotalarioides Triterpenoid Hua et al. (2010)
Polygala tenuifolia Triterpenoid Li et al. (2008)
Securidaca longepedunculata Triterpenoid Mitaine-Offer et al. (2010)
Primulaceae Androsace umbellata Triterpenoid Wang et al. (2008c)
Maesa ambigua Triterpenoid Foubert et al. (2009)
Maesa argentea Triterpenoid Foubert et al. (2009)
Maesa brevipaniculata Triterpenoid Foubert et al. (2009)
Maesa perlarius Triterpenoid Foubert et al. (2009)
Ranunculaceae Actaea racemosa Triterpenoid Cicek et al. (2010)
Anemone raddeana Triterpenoid Lu et al. (2009)
Clematis chinensis Triterpenoid Liu et al. (2009)
Clematis parviloba Triterpenoid Yan et al. (2009)
Nigella glandulifera Triterpenoid Xin et al. (2009)
Pulsatilla turczaninovii Triterpenoid Xu et al. (2012)
Rhamnaceae Ampelozizyphus amazonicus Triterpenoid Diniz et al. (2009)
Rosaceae Potentilla anserine Triterpenoid Zhao et al. (2008)
Sanguisorba officinalis Triterpenoid Zhang et al. (2012b)
Rubiaceae Fadogia ancylantha Triterpenoid Mencherini et al. (2010)
Gardenia jasminoides Triterpenoid Wang et al. (2012)
Sapindaceae Blighia sapida Triterpenoid Mazzola et al. (2011)
Xanthoceras sorbifolia Triterpenoid Chan et al. (2008)
Xerospermum noronhianum Triterpenoid Jean et al. (2009)
Sapotaceae Achras sapota Triterpenoid Ahmed et al. (2008)
Diploknema butyracea Triterpenoid Saha et al. (2010)
Sideroxylon foetidissimum Triterpenoid Sanchez-Medina et al. (2009)
Scrophulariaceae Digitalis ciliata Steroidal Gvazava and Kikoladze (2010)
Solanaceae Cestrum diurnum Steroidal Fouad et al. (2008)
Solanum lycocarpum Steroidal Nakamura et al. (2008)
Symplocaceae Symplocos lancifolia Triterpenoid Acebey-Castellon et al. (2011)
Class of Liliopsida
Agavaceae Agave utahensis Steroidal Yokosuka and Mimaki (2009)
Dracaena mannii Steroidal Tapondjou et al. (2008)
Yucca desmettiana Steroidal Diab et al. ( 2012)
Asparagaceae Asparagus filicinus Steroidal Wu et al. (2010)
Dioscoreacea Dioscorea nipponica Steroidal Zhang et al. (2012a)

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Table 1 continued
Family Species Saponin type References

Liliaceae Anemarrhena asphodeloides Steroidal Lee et al. (2010)

Chamaelirium luteum Steroidal Challinor et al. (2011)
Chlorophytum borivilianum Steroidal Acharya et al. (2008)
Chlorophytum nimonii Steroidal Lakshmi et al. (2009)
Chlorophytum orchidastrum Steroidal Acharya et al. (2010)
Paris delavayi Steroidal Zhang et al. (2009)
Trillium erectum Steroidal Hayes et al. (2009)
Tupistra chinensis Steroidal Liu et al. (2012)
Ypsilandra thibetica Steroidal Xie et al. (2009)
Poaceae Panicum virgatum Steroidal Lee et al. (2009b)
Smilacaceae Smilax excelsa Steroidal Ivanova et al. (2009)
Taccaceae Tacca integrifolia Steroidal Shwe et al. (2010)
Earlier report can be found in Sparg et al. (2004) and Dinda et al. (2010)

However, in mature roots, they were mainly distrib- secondary phloem, and rarely in xylem ray and xylem
uted in vascular cambium and secondary phloem. In parenchyma cells. In stems, saponin was distributed in
addition, they were also found to accumulate in mature the cortex, less in the epidermis and secondary
fruit (Tan et al. 2008). The relationship between phloem. In leaves, saponin was mainly present in the
structural features of various organs and saponin palisade tissue and less in the epidermis and spongy
accumulation was also studied in the important tissue (Teng et al. 2009). This result indicated that
Chinese traditional medicinal plant Achyrantus biden- saponin was mainly located in the parenchyma cells of
tata (Li and Hu 2009). Here, leaves are an active the vegetative organ as similarly reported in the
synthesis site rather than for storage. This is supported distribution of ginsenosides from Gynostemma penta-
by the disappearance of saponins from leaves when phyllum (Liu et al. 2005).
they withered. A. bidentata saponins mainly accumu- The accumulation of oligofurostanosides (steroidal
late in the primary root as well as in cambium cells and saponins) has been reported in Dioscorea caucasica
in the phloem cells of tertiary vascular bundles. In leaves. A histochemical study showed that this type of
addition, the presence of saponin-related substances in saponin accumulated in the leaf epidermis receptacle
stem vascular bundles indicated that the stems func- cells. These cells are generally for storage of specific
tion as transport organ (Li and Hu 2009). Hence, metabolites. On the other hand, oligofurostanosides
saponins are commonly found in the outer cell layers have not been detected in the mesophyll tissues of the
and particularly in the epidermis to be effective as a leaf where they are synthesized, which provides
first barrier against microbial attack. In addition, evidence for active transport from the mesophyll cells
saponins accumulate in phloem as a transitory phase to the receptacle cells located in the epidermal layer
during transport from the shoot to the root (Henry et al. (Gurielidze et al. 2004).
1991; Li and Hu 2009) or as an intrinsic component to The quantification of triterpene saponins in aerial
combat insects or root-knot nematodes that feed on and subterranean organs of barrel medic (Medicago
phloem sap (Dorhout et al. 1993). Furthermore, the truncatula) revealed that roots contained the highest
phloem also represents a metabolically active site for amount of saponin followed by leaf and seed, respec-
biosynthesis of sterol and saponins as reported in tively. However, differential accumulation of specific
Panax ginseng (Han et al. 2010). triterpene saponins was reported. Medicagenic acid
Triterpene saponin in Polygala tenufolia accumu- conjugates (Fig. 2a) were highly accumulated in leaf
lates in roots, stems and leaves (Teng et al. 2009). In and seed, whereas soyasapogenol (Fig. 2b) was found
the roots, saponin accumulated mainly in phelloderm, to be higher in the root (Huhman et al. 2005).

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Medicagenic acid conjugates in aerial parts have been Saponins in plant defense
correlated with biological activity as plant defense
against herbivory (Agrell et al. 2003) and the For many secondary metabolites, synthesis is stimu-
accumulation of soyasapogenol in roots as plant– lated upon challenge by biotic or abiotic stresses.
microbe signaling (Oleszek and Stochmal 2002; Although this is a strategy to combat pathogens and
Confalonieri et al. 2009) and allelopathic interactions build protection in a cost-effective way, some sapo-
(Waller et al. 1993; Khanh et al. 2005; Tava and Avato nins are produced independent from external signals
2006). Hence, the differential distribution of specific and contribute to the innate immunity. These saponins
saponins is most likely the result of spatially con- are referred to as phytoanticipins as they are present in
trolled biosynthesis and active transport. unchallenged plants. The downside of accumulating
In addition to the intracellular accumulation of saponins as a first defense is not only that it consumes
saponins, plants may also adopt alternative strategies substantial amounts of energy, but also that it allows
to make use of the saponins they produce. A recent pathogens to develop tolerance. This is avoided when
study has shown that pentacyclic b-amyrin synthe- saponin precursors accumulate and saponin content
sized through ectopic expression of the triterpenoid increases as the result of chemical modifications of
synthase AtLUP4 in Arabidopsis leaves, accumulates precursor molecules, which are stimulated upon
in the intracuticular wax layer (Buschhaus and Jetter pathogen infection (Morrissey and Osbourn 1999).
2011). Pentacyclic b-amyrin, naturally absent from For instance, the saponin content may rise due to
Arabidopsis, is removed from the epidermal synthesis partial or complete hydrolysis of stored precursors as
site via export into the cuticle with the help of an part of plant defense mechanism or by pathogen
unknown transporter (Buschhaus and Jetter 2012). The controlled degradation (Szakiel et al. 2011b).
transporter is likely a non-specific steroid or lipid Oat has become a model to study saponin biosyn-
transporter that exhibits a broad substrate spectrum thesis as part of the interaction with fungi and bacteria
including triterpenoid compounds. Indeed, cutin and (Osbourn 1996; Osbourn et al. 2003; Mugford et al.
wax exporters ABCG11 and ABCG12/CER5 (Bird 2009). Two types of saponins are constitutively
et al. 2007) share homology with sterol ABCG produced, triterpene avenacins and steroidal avena-
transporter (Tarr et al. 2009), and are potential cosides, which are present in roots and leaves,
candidate triterpenoid transporters. The secretion of respectively. Avenacins are available in an active
triterpenoid saponins suggest that they not only glycoslyated form and accumulate in epidermal cells
function as indigestive against chewing or sucking of the root tip. Avenacins have potent antifungal
insects but potentially also as insect deterrent as was activity and confer resistance to a broad range of soil-
recently shown in an artificial feeding assay with borne pathogens (Osbourn 1996). In addition, they are
Quillaja saponaria saponins pathogen attack, but they also released into the soil rhizosphere at biologically
may also help to maintain flexibility in the cuticle and active concentrations by an unknown mechanism
avoid cuticular cracks. (Papadopoulou et al. 1999; Haralampidis et al. 2002).

Fig. 2 Medicagenic acid

a found to be higher in
shoot, while soyasapogenol
B b found to be accumulated
in root of M. truncatula

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The active avenacin A-1 (Fig. 3a) is stored in the endure attack by life-threatening organisms including
vacuole and represents the major UV fluorescent herbivores and insects. The role of saponins in plant
compound allowing its detection in a fluorescence protection against herbivores is mostly based on their
microscope (Papadopoulou et al. 1999). The increased action as deterrents, toxins and digestibility inhibitors
disease susceptibility of oat variants lacking avenac- (Wittstock and Gershenzon 2002; Massad 2012;
ins supports the importance of saponin in pathogen Mithofer and Boland 2012). The exact mode of
resistance as phytoprotectants. Furthermore, accumu- saponins as deterrents or toxins is not known, but it
lation of avenacin biosynthesis pathway intermediates is mostly associated with their capacity to disrupt cell
in oat roots resulted in callose accumulation, a well membranes. For instance, the lysis of hematocytes and
known defense mechanism which suggests that accu- a number of other cell types is a standard cytotoxicity
mulation of intermediates also trigger other defense test for saponins (Osbourn 1996; Sparg et al. 2004). In
mechanisms (Mylona et al. 2008). insects, it was hypothesized that steroidal saponins
In contrast to avenacins, steroidal avenacosides may exert an antagonistic/competitive activity on the
(Fig. 3b) are known to be stored in plant vacuole as an ecdysteroid receptor complex (EcR) based on their
inactive bidesmosidic form. They are activated when similarities to the insect moulting hormone
pathogenic fungi damage the plant tissue and disrupt 20-hydroxyecdysone (Dinan et al. 2001). However,
membranes allowing the plant enzyme b-glucosidase De Geyter et al. (2012a) showed using both triterpe-
to hydrolyse the D-glucose unit forming toxic mono- noid and steroidal saponins on insect cells that the
desmosides (Morant et al. 2008; Augustin et al. 2011). action of saponins was not based on true antagonistic
The active form of avenacosides disrupts the plasma interaction with EcR signaling, but rather because of
membrane of fungi by forming membrane pores, loss of cellular integrity presumably because of
which cause fungal cell death. This deleterious effect permeation of the insect cell membrane. In addition
is associated with the formation of a complex between to cellular toxicity, saponins also showed deterrent or
saponin and ergosterol, the major membrane sterol in antifeedant activity against insects. It has been
fungi. (Weete 1989; Bonanomi et al. 2009). As reported that a steroidal saponin, aginosid isolated
ergosterol is not present in plants, these complexes from Allium porrum showed strong deterrent effects
do not form and phytotoxicity is avoided in plant cells. against two lepidopterans, the variegated cut-
Another role of saponins in plants is to protect them worm (Peridroma saucia), and the bertha army-
against herbivores and/or insects. Plants frequently worm (Mamestra configurata) (Nawrot et al. 1991).

Fig. 3 Two different type

of saponins produced by oat

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Similarly, both deterrent and toxic effects were sativum inhibited b-1,4-glucan synthesis. This action
reported for triterpene saponins against aphids. Spray- involved plant diguanylate cyclase (dgc) as a target of
ing faba bean leaves with Q. saponaria saponins at GTS in the cellulose synthesis apparatus (Ohana et al.
sublethal concentrations confirmed that aphids are 1998b). The elucidation of the complete chemical
more sensitive to the taste effect than to their toxicity structure of the saponin (Fig. 4) has enabled the
(De Geyter et al. 2012b). synthesis hydrophobic analogs that may represent
Constitutive metabolites can be produced in larger novel herbicides, which are potential for ecologically
amounts after infection. In this circumstance, their better acceptable than current synthetic herbicides.
status may refer to phytoalexin, although it would In conclusion, phytotoxicty of secondary metabo-
depend on whether or not the constitutive concentra- lites such as saponins may play an important role in the
tions were sufficient for plant protection (Dixon 2001). framework of agricultural ecosystem. The release of
The inducibility of saponin biosynthesis has in most toxic saponins into soil can be exploited not only for
cases been analyzed using in vitro cultures. For sustainable cropping systems in crop rotation, but also
example, the exposure of plant cell cultures of P. for weed management systems.
ginseng, Glycyrrhiza glabra, M. truncatula to methyl
jasmonate or other elicitors showed that squalene
synthase, squalene epoxidase and b-amyrin synthase Saponin role in plant development
are rapidly induced (Hu et al. 2003; Hayashi et al.
2004; Suzuki et al. 2005; Lambert et al. 2011). Physiological effects associated with plant growth
However, the possible role of saponins as phytoalexin regulation have been reported for saponins. The study
in intact plants is still unclear. on germination process of fenugreek seeds (Trigonella
foenum-graecum) showed that the diffusible saponin
substances located both in the endosperm and peri-
Phytotoxicity of saponins sperm inhibited the production of a-galactosidase
activity needed to germinate (Zambou et al.
The toxicity of saponins is not restricted to pathogens 1993). In addition, a spirostanol saponin from Yucca
or other attacking organisms, but also plants may induced callose synthesis in carrot cells (Messiaen
display sensitivity. For example M. sativa saponins et al. 1995).
applied to wheat seedlings lead to a significant A c-pyronyl triterpenoid saponin termed chromo-
reduction in growth although that germination seems saponin 1 (CSI) (Fig. 5) was isolated from pea and
not affected (Oleszek 1993). Waller et al. (1999)
reported that soyasaponin I isolated from mungbean
(Vigna radiata) showed phytotoxic effect on shoot
elongation and root growth of Lactuca sativa. Addi-
tional investigations showed that medicagenic acid
inhibits plant growth when applied at high concentra-
tion (Guenzi et al. 1964; Waller 1989; Waller et al.
1993; Li et al. 2005). Furthermore, by comparing
different structure of saponins from Medicago species,
it was shown that monodesmoside saponins are in
general more active than the related bidesmosides
(Tava and Avato 2006). It was hypothesized that a
possible mechanism of saponins phytotoxicity may be
related to the water absorption at the lipid bilayer
interface (Scognamiglio et al. 2012).
Saponins have also been shown to affect cellulose
synthesis (Ohana et al. (1998a). Using tobacco cell
suspension culture, it was shown that glycosylated
triterpene saponins (GTS) isolated from Pisum Fig. 4 Structure of purified GTS isolated from P. sativum

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886 Phytochem Rev (2013) 12:877–893

Fig. 5 The chemical

structure of chromosaponin
I (CSI)

other leguminous plants. CSI is a conjugate of soya- Genetic analysis of avenacin A-1 saponin-deficient
saponin I and c-pyrone, and was reported to stimulate (sad) mutants, the major avenacin produced by oats
the growth of lettuce roots (Lactuca sativa L. ev. showed their expression is tightly regulated and is
Grand Rapids). The stimulation effect was confirmed restricted to the epidermal cell layer of root tips
by a similar test with Trolox (6-hydroxy-2,5,7,8-tetra- (Mylona et al. 2008). Mutants defective for Sad1, the
methylchroman-2-carboxylic acid), another amphi- gene for the first committed enzyme in the pathway,
pathic reductant. In contrast, no root regulation effects show normal root morphology. Thus, saponins are not
were observed using hydrophilic reductants including required for root development. However, mutations at
ascorbate, NADPH, NADH and glutathione (Tsurumi the two loci, Sad3 and Sad4 resulted in stunted root
and Tsujino 1995). Therefore, the root growth stimu- growth, membrane trafficking defects in the root
latory activity was suggested to result from amphipatic epidermis, and root hair deficiency. sad3 and sad4 -
reducing activity of CSI. mutants are both affected in their ability to glucosylate
The influence of CSI on root growth was further avenacins and accumulate the same intermediate,
investigated in Arabidopsis (Rahman et al. 2001). CSI monodeglucosyl avenacin A-1. These mutants have
specifically interacts with the AUX1 protein in epidermis-specific membrane trafficking defects that
regulating the gravitropic response of Arabidopsis are suppressed by mutations at Sad1, indicating that
roots. Application of 60 lM CSI disrupted the verti- accumulation of monodeglucosyl avenacin A-1 is the
cally oriented elongation of wild type roots grown in cause rather than a consequence of the observed root
agar plates but oriented the elongation of agravitropic defects. This result suggested that Sad3 and/or Sad4 -
mutant aux1-7 roots toward gravity. In aux1-7 roots, may be required specifically for triterpene glycosyl-
CSI stimulated the uptake of IAA and induced ation. Alternatively, they may have functions in root
gravitropic bending. The correlation between auxin growth and development that indirectly affect the
uptake and gravitropic bending suggests that CSI may glycosylation process.
regulate gravitropic response by inhibiting or stimu- Soyasapogenol B, a triterpene saponin which is
lating the uptake of endogenous auxin in root cells present in most legume species was reported to
(Rahman et al. 2001). Furthermore, the growth rate of stimulate germination of barley seeds (Hordeum
Arabidopsis roots was accelerated when the seedlings vulgare) (Macias et al. 1997). In addition, Soyasapo-
were treated with 300 lM CSI. The length of mature genol B isolated from common vetch (Vicia sativa)
epidermal cells was increased by 2–3 folds and the showed a stimulatory activity on broomrape (Oroban-
number of epidermal cells was also increased by che minor) seed germination, but did not stimulate any
twofold (Rahman and Tsurumi 2002). This result other Orobanche species (Evidente et al. 2011). It
indicated that saponin affects cell elongation, which showed high stimulatory activity on O. minor seed
previously has been reported to inhibit ethylene germination when tested at 10-3–10-4 M. At 10-5 M,
signaling (Rahman et al. 2000). no stimulatory activity was observed, suggesting poor

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Phytochem Rev (2013) 12:877–893 887

specificity. Nevertheless, this stimulatory activity inoculation with nodule bacterium Mesorhizobi-
could be important for weed germination control um loti. Further investigation showed that lupeol has
strategies, as an alternative to strigolactones which are no direct effect on Mesorhizobium loti. In addition,
unstable in water (Akiyama et al. 2010). the silencing of lupeol synthase (LuS) gene resulted in
Takagi et al. introduced two different RNAi a phenotype that was similar to that observed for plant
cassettes driven by seed-specific promoter to target overexpressing ENOD40 (Delis et al. 2011). Thus, in
b-amyrin synthase expression in Glycine max (Takagi the absence of lupeol, the expression of ENOD40 is
et al. 2011). This experiment resulted in a sufficient elevated leading to a more rapid nodulation pheno-
reduction of saponin content of soybean seeds. Such type. As it has been previously reported, ENOD40
saponin deficiency, however, did not appear to affect leads to accelerated nodulation in Medicago as a
the growth of plants under greenhouse conditions, consequence of extensive cortical cell division and
suggesting that seed saponins are not required for increased initiation of primordia (Charon et al. 1999).
normal growth and development in soybean (Takagi However, this effect appears to be specific lupeol as
et al. 2011). application of another triterpene, b-amyrin has no
effect on ENOD40 expression (Delis et al. 2011). So
far, it is not known whether lupeol act by modifying
Root nodulation enzymes or other compounds required for nodulation.

Expression and biochemical studies have suggested a

possible involvement of b-amyrin and derived sapo-
Concluding remarks
nins in the regulation of root nodulation. Indeed, over-
expression of AsOXA1, a b-amyrin synthase
The wide spread occurrence of plant saponins under-
from Aster sedifolius in M. truncatula caused in a
writes the importance of this group of secondary
subset of lines enhanced root nodulation (Confalonieri
metabolites in the plant kingdom. While most studies
et al. 2009). The improvement of nodulation is,
support a role for saponins as phytoprotectants, a role
however, presumably indirect as these plants did not
for saponins in the regulation of plant growth and
exhibit significant differences in saponin content in
development remains one of the possible functions
roots or in growth and biomass performance compared
that warrant further investigation.
with the control plants. Similarly reported by Hayashi
The biosynthetic pathway of saponin is still not
et al. (2004) who examined the expression pattern of
fully unraveled although major progress has been
b-amyrin synthase in different tissues of Glycyrrhiza
made for oat and other saponin producing plants.
glabra, found high levels of b-amyrin synthase mRNA
Furthermore, the diversity of both triterpenoid and
and triterpene saponins in root nodules. Interestingly,
steroidal saponins has led to increasing interest of
by analyzing pea root nodules, Hernandez and Cooke
these compounds in recent years. It also offers the
(1996) were able to detect b-amyrin in peribacteroid
opportunity for further research on phytochemistry
membranes and the microsomal fraction of nodule
and biological activity of saponins. Accordingly,
cells, which mostly corresponded to plant cell endo-
much effort has been put into elucidation of possible
plasmic reticulum vesicles. Further investigation
roles of saponins in plants, as well as their prospect
showed that the host plant synthesized b-amyrin, but
application for industry. In the next years additional
this compound was not detected in free-living bacteria
efforts should focus on the tissue specificity of saponin
or in the plasma membrane of roots.
production as well as more detailed analysis of the
Lupeol, another type of the triterpene aglycon, has
cellular localization and storage of saponins. These
been reported to influence nodule formation in Lotus
studies will provide further insight into the functions
japonicus by down-regulating the expression of early
of saponins in plants and promote the exploration of
nodulin gene ENOD40. A clear decrease in ENOD40
plant-derived natural products in the future.
expression was observed in plants treated with lupeol
when compared with untreated plants. The effect was Acknowledgments The authors would like to thank the BOF
very rapid after the addition of lupeol at 10 min and (special research fund No. 01WI0111, Ghent University) for
was even more pronounced at 6 and 12 h post- A.F. Ph.D. fellowship.

123
888 Phytochem Rev (2013) 12:877–893

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