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The Astronomy in History and Literature of Iran

Alireza Shabankareh Bandari

Humans, from the beginning, have had a great desire to understand the mystery of the sky

above. The night, the day, blinking lights in the night sky (stars) and many other unknowns led the

ancient humans to create mythical stories, for instance in ancient Greek mysteries of the universe

appeared in the shape of gods who were holding unlimited power. Iranians, as one of the oldest

civilization in the world, took another approach on this subject. Greek history defines by its

philosophical literature while Iranian history is known by its poetic literature.

The early signs of Astrology can be seen in

four to six thousand years ago in the first

monotheistic religion in the world, Mehr. Mehr

was a religion that historians estimate its root

between four to eight thousand years age in Iran

and India. The word Mehr in Iranian language

Figure 1- Mehr (Left), Naqsh-e Rustam 1200 BC

means kindness, and also, it is a substitute for the

sun. Unfortunately, there is nothing left of the possible book of the religion, but one of the chapters

of the Gathas, the religious book of Zoroastrianism, is dedicated to the religion Mehr (3500 years

ago).

Iranians were not a stranger to

Astronomy. Chogha Zanbil, one of the oldest and

greatest ziggurats in the world, was built in 1250

B.C. by Elamites (4000 B.C.-3500 B.C.). The

word ziggurat, in the ancient Iranian language,

Figure 2- Chogha Zanbil 1250 BC
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means ascended to the sky. The ziggurat

was dedicated to Inshushinak, God of earth

and protector of Susa and the god of death.

The ziggurat also was creating a connection

between Inshushinak (Earth) and Nahhunte

(sun) in Elamite religion. Although its

essential use was for the religious purposes,

Figure 3- Chogha Zanbil (Maquette)
the ziggurat considers one of the first

observatories in the world. Due to the religious requirements, people needed to know the position

of the sun to pray. The top level of the ziggurat essentially was a place to talk to the god of the sky

(Nahhunte), and also to observe the position of the sun for religious purposes and also to predict

the weather for farming.

The Observatory of the city of Goor is

another example. The observatory was built

during the Sasanian Empire (620 AD). The

buildings diameter is 65.5 meter and on the

surface can be seen 12 signs, which refer to

Figure 4- The Observatory of Goor, 600 AD

observation measurements and graphing

platforms. According to historians, the

circular structure of the ancient city of Goor

was used to install sinusoidal devices. During

the Sasanian, Empire Zoroastrianism was in

Figure 5- The ancient city of Goor its highest power. The religion was a great
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advocate for science and education, also based the closeness between Zoroastrianism and the Mehr

religion, astronomy was playing a significant role in the society.

There are some other examples of such observatories in ancient Iran, for instance, Naqsh-

e Rustam, which dates back to 1000 B.C. It was essentially a Zoroastrian temple, but it was also

the first Solar Observatory in the world.

The Mehr’s influence also outcrops after the invasion of the country by Arabs (633 AD).

Iranian, who did not want to submit, entirely, to the new religion, began to implement some of

their historical religious elements to the new religion (Islam). Since Arabs, culturally believed in

many Superstitions, which were tokens of the Idolatry era in Hijaz (Currently Saudi Arabia), it did

not seem too hard to add some of the ancient Iranian beliefs into Islam. Besides Iranians were well

educated and were fully equipped against Arabs who did not have a proper education. Iranians

used Astronomy in the form of astrology in the way that Arabs could understand and would not

cause any harm to Iranian scientists (Arabs burnt down one of the largest libraries in Iran after the

invasion).

Iranian literature was tied with Iranian science. Most scientists were philosophers and

poem was the method of expression for them, so it is not surprising to find some scientific footsteps

in Iranian poetry. Along with the astrological approach, Iranian poems adopted the same method.

What can be observed from the Iranian poetry, after the occupation, is the malevolent and

benevolent of each planet and their symmetry with the constellations, which had a close

relationship with the Iranian ancient astronomy.

The development of astronomy in Iran, in particular between 12- 14 centuries, and its use

in royal affairs and Iranians’ daily lives influenced the artworks in that era. Iranian art has always

been the direct reflection of the society.

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Constellations are most used designs in the Iranian artworks, and as mentioned above, the

concept of scientist-artist made the use of astronomy in the art more accurate.

Abd al-Rahman al-Sufi (903 AD- 986 AD) was a

famous Iranian mathematician and astronomer. His main field

of work was focused on the anatomy of previous astronomical

findings by Greeks. Adud al-Dawla, the governor of Fars,)

assigned al-Sufi to the City of Goor as the head of mathematics

and planetary science.

Al-Sufi made some significant discoveries in the

Observatory of Goor. Hence, he wrote the Book of Fixed Stars

(946 AD). The book became one of the primary source of

Figure 6- A book of Astronomy, Iran 700-
800 AD
astronomy in the Islamic world, and many artists used al-Sufi’s

discoveries in their creative pieces. In Al-Sufi’s book, each constellation and planet represent a

fictional or historical character or an animal. Al-Sufi had borrowed them from the ancient Greek

astronomy, the ancient Iranian

astronomy and some Islamic

beliefs. Using this combined

policy saved Al-Sufi’s life. The

Arabian occupiers were opposed

to anything that wouldn’t fit in

three major religions. For instance,

they called Zoroastrianism heresy,

Figure 7- The Book of Fixed Stars, Abd Al-Rahman Al-Sufi
and the punishment for that was
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death. In result, hundreds of thousands of Zoroastrians migrated to India, and many others

converted to Islam, to save their life.

Iranian artists have had a long history of using cosmic symbols in their artworks, which

their art influenced many of artists during the Islamic era. For instance, Esgrafiado potteries are

one of oldest Iranian artworks, which the ancient artists embossed them with some cosmic symbols

including Zodiac and the moon. The symbols in the artworks were representing vitality and

fertility. After Islam, with the influence of Al-Sufi’s book, Iranian artists made some development

in creating Esgrafiado potteries, including adding more symbols. Pottery always has been

considered one of the Iranian leading arts, there are some debate about if the pottery art after Islam

influenced other art categories in Iran or not, but there are similarity among the symbols used in

different types of art.

Most common symbols related to constellations used in Iranian Art

Cassiopeia: This is one of the most prominent constellations used in Iranian arts. “The

symbol of Cassiopeia is the face of a woman who is sitting on a cathedral, and the cathedral has

four legs. The face represents the immaterial soul and on the head, the stars that are inflamed and

the number of the stars is 13” (Al-Sufi 72). However, In Iranian pottery arts, Cassiopeia is shown

as a sited woman with open arms.

Figure 8- Cassiopeia, the Figure 9- Cassiopeia on a ceramic bowl, Iran, Islamic Era
Book of Fixed Stars
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Aquila: in Esgrafiado potteries this constellation is drawn as an eagle with open wings. In

some potteries, the eagle’s wings have covered the entire inner surface. There are plant designs

between and around its wings, and sturdy legs and opened eyes have increased its authority.

Figure 10- Eagle

(Aquila), the Book of
Fixed Stars Figure 11- Eagle, Persian ceramic art, Islamic Era

Taurus: in Al-Sufi’s book this constellation is shown as an ox that half it has aimed toward

the west and the south and the other half is toward the east. It lacks two legs, tail and bottom, and

its head is turned over its right shoulder. According to Al-Sufi Taurus includes 32 stars.

Figure 12- Ox, the Book of Figure 13- Ox, Persian Ceramic art, Islamic
Fixed Stars era

Leo: According to Al-Sufi, Leo includes seven stars on its face and eight stars on the rest

of the body. There are several mention of Leo in Iranian poems as the lion of heaven, the lion of

destiny, the lion of the sky and the lion of the stars. Lion has had a major role in Iranian history as
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a national symbol. Some historian believes its importance is related to the constellation and the

connection of astronomy in ancient Iranians lives. According to Iranian ancient astronomers, the

Leo is the home of the sun. Thus is not surprising to find, numerous references of a symbol Lion

Figure 15- Lion, Ceramic bowl, Persian art Figure 16-Iranian ceramic
Figure 14- Lion, the Book of Fixed Stars bowl, 11th century

and the Sun on its back during the Islamic era especially in the Seljuq Empire (1037 AD). Also,

the fifth month of the Iranian calendar was called Lion, which denotes to the constellation, Leo. In

Iranian ancient artworks, the lion often has shown in a hunting position. It can be seen lurking and

around it is filled with plants, tree branches and grape leaves.

Pisces: According to Al-Sufi the constellation is in the shape of a fish. “The stars of the

southern fish include 11 stars in the south of Aquarius. Its head aims to the east and the fishtail

toward the west” (Al-Sufi 311). Al-Sufi calls the Pisces constellation the home of Jupiter. In the

Iranian art, the fish is the symbol of fertility and has drawn in an abstract form.

Figure 18- Iranian ceramic Figure 19- The Fish, Persian

Figure 17- Fish, the Book of Fixed Stars art, Islamic era
bowl, 12th century
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Figure 21- Rabbit, Iranian art, Islamic era

Figure 20- Rabbit, the Book of
Fixed Stars Figure 22- Iranian ceramic
bowl, 11th-13th centuries

Lepus: The Book of Fixed Stars refers to the constellation as a collection of stars in the

shape of a rabbit. “The face of the Rabbit is 12 stars, and no predestined star exists outside of the

body. The Rabbit is under the feet of the Orion. Its face is toward the west, and its tail goes to the

east, which represents a rabbit running to the west” (Al-Sufi 254). The Rabbit was the symbol of

gravidity, Displacement, instability, awakening, fastness, life, vegetarian, gentleness, softness,

security and vagrancy.

Cygnus: This constellation in the Book of Fixed Stars is described as a rooster. “The

constellation is a rooster that has stretched its neck like a duck, and its wings are wide-open as any

bird will do” (Al-Sufi 277). Rooster in any culture has always been representing the sun, and it is

the symbol of light and resurrection. In figure 24, the rooster can be seen surrounded by mustard

and green wavy tendrils.

Figure 25- the Rooster on a ceramic bowl, Iranian art

Figure 24- Ceramic bowl,
Figure 23- Rooster, the Book of
Iran, 12th century
Fixed Stars
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Pegasus: “The face of Equuleus includes 20 stars. It is in the shape of a horse with a head

and two hands and doesn’t have back and tail. The ancients had drawn this horse on astrolabes and

called it Theta Andromeda” (Al-Sufi 11). The horse is described as the representation of chastity,

freedom, beautiful body, constancy, movement, speed, obstinacy and recalcitrance in Iranian

literature and it was subject to great respect praise. Most of the horse’s symbolic meanings were

emanated from the complex concept of the lunar allegory, where ancient Iranians had compared

the earth (and its motherhood), its stars, the moon and the water to dream, accolade, prediction

and prosperity to connect them to the season renewal. “The horse inhered in the cosmos and

sacrificing it is a symbol, or in the other word is the Restructuring, of the act of creation” (Al-Sufi

12).

The horse in Iranian art has shown in an abstract form with a small head, a curved neck and a big

circular body. There is some parallel stria on its neck, and a ramulous tail has illustrated by spot

drawing style using mustard and green colors.

Figure 26- The horse, the Book of Fixed Stars Figure 27- The horse on a ceramic art, Iran, 11th century
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Work cited

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Mahdavi. Tehran: Iranian Foundation for Culture, 1972. Print.

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Bagherzadeh, Firouz. Iranian Ceramics. Tehran: Kodansha International, 1981. Print.

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