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SPRINGER LABOR MANUAL
Springer
Berlin
Heidelberg
New York
Barcelona
Budapest
Hong Kong
London
Milan
Paris
Santa Clara
Singapore
Tokyo
Th. Kohler D. LaBner A.-K. Rost
B. Thamm B. Pustowoit H. Remke
Quantitation of mRNA
by Polymerase Chain Reaction
Nonradioactive peR Methods
With 15 Figures
, Springer
Dr. rer. nat. Thomas Kohler Dr. rer. nat. Barbara Thamm
University of Leipzig University of Leipzig
Department of Medicine Department of Medicine
Institute of Clinical Chemistry Institute of Human Genetics
and Pathological Biochemistry Research Laboratory
Molecular Biological Laboratory Philipp-Rosenthal-StraBe 55
Paul-List-StraBe 13/15 D-04103 Leipzig
D-04103 Leipzig
Dirk LaBner PO Dr. habil. Barbara Pustowoit

Prof. Dr. med. Harald Remke University of Leipzig
Anne-Katrin Rost Department of Medicine
Institute of Virology
University of Leipzig
LiebigstraBe 24
Department of Medicine
D-04103 Leipzig
Institute of Clinical Chemistry
and Pathological Biochemistry
Molecular Biological Laboratory
LiebigstraBe 16
D-04103 Leipzig
Die Deutsche Bibliothek - CIP-Einheitsaufnahme

Quantitation of mRNA by polymerase chain reaction:
nonradioactive PCR methods I Th. Kohler ... - Berlin;
Heidelberg; New York; Barcelona; Budapest; Hong Kong;
London; Milan; Paris; Tokyo: Springer, 1995
(Springer lab manual)
ISBN-13: 978-3-642-79714-9
NE: Kohler, Thomas
ISBN-13: 978-3-642-79714-9 e-1SBN-13: 978-3-642-79712-5

001: 10.1007/978-3-642-79712-5
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Preface
In the last decade, no comparable method has revolutionized both research and
diagnosis in clinical laboratories more than the polymerase chain reaction
(PCR). This simple technique, which was developed by scientists of the Cetus
Corporation in 1985, allows the in vitro enzymatic synthesis of millions of
copies of a specific DNA segment even starting with an incredibly small
number of target molecules. Originally developed for the identification
and sequencing of novel genes and pathogens within the Human Genome
Project (HUGO) this method has been applied more and more to medical
disciplines, for example diagnosis and screening of genetic diseases and cancer,
detection of minimal residual disease and drug resistance of tumors, the rapid
detection of slow growing bacteria and difficult to cultivate viruses, and in HLA
typing.
More recently and with increasing success, PCR and related techniques are
used for the quantitation of viral genomes in body fluids and determination of
the relative levels of abundance of a particular mRNA, changes in its abundance
over time or after induction, and the actual number of mRNA molecules in tissue
samples. The latter attempt is of increasing interest because PCR techniques have
been shown to be thousands of times more sensitive than traditional attempts,
e. g. Northern blot. This exquisite sensitivity gives us the ability to detect and
quantify extremely rare mRNAs, or mRNAs in small numbers of cells or
amounts of tissue with the additional advantage that only up to one day is
needed.
This book is intended to provide a practical introduction into strategies
using PCR-based techniques (e.g. competitive PCR, ELOSA-Enzyme Linked
Oligonucleotide Sorbent Assay) to quantify mRNAs in biological samples. It was
originally designed as a course manual for our traditional annual practical
workshop for molecular biology, which last year took place with participants
from 13 European countries and Israel and was supported by FEBS. We were
encouraged by the participating students to publish these applied optimized
protocols. In addition to the experimental parts, theory and applicability of each
method are illustrated by some new figures and the advantages and limitations
associated with them are compared.
It is emphasized that exclusively non-radioactive detection protocols, for
instance HPLC, biotin and digoxigenin based detection protocols, are described
in this manual, thus preventing time consuming licensing procedures and
expensive discharge of radioactive waste.
VI Preface
This volume is an attempt to combine all the practical experiences and

discussions with the course participants from the summary of the courses. Thus
this laboratory guide should be helpful for both professionals and beginners.
The authors wish to emphasize that all listed chemicals, kits and technical
supports proved themselves to be very worthwhile in the respective laboratories.
Nevertheless, all the materials may be replaced by other products of comparable
quality.
Finally we wish to thank Springer-Verlag and the sponsoring companies for
their support of the book.
Leipzig, August 1995 Th.Kohler

D.LaBner
A.-K. Rost
B. Thamm
B. Pustowoit
H.Remke
Abbreviations
ADR Adriamycine
AMV Avian myeloblastosis virus
AP Alkaline phosphatase
bp base pair
BSA Bovine serum albumin
cDNA complementary DNA
CFTR Cystic-fibrosis transmembrane-conductance regulator
CMV Cytomegalovirus
cpm counts per minute
cRNA copy RNA (i. e. cDNA complementary RNA synthesized from
synthetic DNA constructs)
CSPD Disodium 3- (4-methoxyspirol{I ,2-dioxetane-3,2' -( 5' -chloro)
tricyclo [3.3.1.1 3.7 ]decan}-4-yl)phenyl phosphate
dATP 2' -deoxyadenosine 5'- triphosphate
dCTP 2' -deoxycytidine 5' -triphosphate
ddNTPs 2',3' -dideoxynucleotide triphosphate
DEAE Diethylaminoethyl
DEIA DNA Enzyme Immunoassay
DEPC Diethylpyrocarbonate
dGTP 2' -deoxyguanosine 5'- triphosphate
DIG Digoxigenin
DMFA Dimethyl formamide
DMSO Dimethyl sulfoxide
DNase Deoxyribonuclease
dNTP Deoxynucleoside triphosphates
DTT Dithiothreitol
dTTP 2' -deoxythymidine 5'- triphosphate
dUTP 2' -deoxyuridine 5' -triphosphate
EDTA Ethylenediamine tetraacetic acid
EGTA Ethylene glycol-bis-(,B-aminoethyl ether)-tetraacetic acid
ELISA Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay
ELOSA Enzyme-linked oligonucleotide sorbent assay
GAPDH Glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase
HPLC High performance liquid chromatography
kb kilobase
KD Dissociation constant
VIII Abbreviations
liDS Lithium dodecyl sulphate

Lumigen PPD 4-methoxy-4-(phosphatphenyl) spiro ( 1,2-dioxetan -3,2'-
adamantan)
MCS Multiple cloning site in plasmids
MDR Multidrug resistance
MOPS Morpholinopropanesulfonic acid
MPC Magnetic particle concentrator
mRNA Messenger ribonucleic acid
MRP Multidrug resistance-associated protein
MW Molecular weight
NaN 3 Sodium azide
NBT Nitro blue tetrazolium
nt Nucleotide
O.D. Optical density
p53 Tumor suppressor gene p53
PAA Polyacryl amide
PAGE Polyacryl amide gel electrophoresis
PBS Phosphate buffered saline
PCR Polymerase chain reaction
POD Peroxidase (horseradish)
RARa Retinoic acid receptor a
RARf3 Retinoic acid receptor f3
RARy Retinoic acid receptor y
rpm Rounds per minute
rRNA Ribosomal RNA
RT Reverse transcriptase
SDS Sodium dodecyl sulfate
SRY Sex-determining region Y gene
SSC Standard saline citrate
ssDNA Single stranded DNA
TAE Tris-acetate-EDTA
TBE Tris-borate-EDTA
TE Tris-EDTA
Tm Melting point of DNA
TMB Tetramethylbenzidine
tRNA transfer RNA
Tth pol DNA polymerase of Thermus thermophilus
U Unit
UDG Uracil-DNA glycosylase
UV Ultra violett
VCR Vincristine
X-Gal 5-bromo-4-chloro-3-indolyl-f3-D-galactoside
X-phosphate 5-bromo-4-chloro-3-indolylphosphate
Trademarks
AmpliTaqTM, GeneAmpTM 9600 thermal cycler, MicroAmpTM reaction tubes,

GeneAmp® Thermostable rTth Reverse Transcriptase RNA PCR Kit (Perkin-
Elmer Co., Norwalk, U.S.A.)
CleanGelTM, ImageMaster™ Software, Sephaglas™ BandPrep Kit, MicroSpin™
Colums (Pharmacia LKB Biotechnology, Uppsala, Sweden)
EMBL® (European Molecular Biology Laboratory, Heidelberg, Germany)
GenBank® (National Institutes of Health, USA)
Hitachi HIBIO DNASIS ™ DNA Sequence Analysis System (Hitachi Software
Engineering Co. Ltd., Yokohama, Japan)
Medline® U.S. National Library of Medicine (Silver Platter International N.V.)
OLIGO® 5.0 Primer Analysis Software for Windows (National Biosciences, Inc.)
TaqStart™ monoclonal antibody (Clontech Laboratories Inc., Palo Alto, U.S.A.)
ScanPack® (Biometra, G6ttingen, Germany)
Wizard™ PCR Preps DNA Purification System, PolyATtract® mRNA Isolation
System, fmoFM (Promega Corporation, Madison, U.S.A.)
Tween®20 (ICI Americas Inc.,Wilmington, U.S.A.)
LumigenTM PPD (Lumigen Inc., Detroit, U.S.A.)
HyperfilmTM-ECL (Amersham, Little Chalfont, U.K.)
CSPDTM, SEQ-LightTM,AVIDxTM-AP and I-Block™ (Tropix Inc., Bedford, U.S.A.)
Polaroid® (Polaroid Corporation, Cambridge, MA, U.S.A)
Bacto®-Agar, Bacto® Yeast Extract (Difco, Detroit, U.S.A.)
RNAzol ™ B, Trisolv™ (Biotecx Inc., Houston, U.S.A.)
OneShot™ competent cells, pCR HTM plasmid, TA Cloning® Kit (Invitrogen
Corp., San Diego, U.S.A.)
TRlzoFM (Life Technologies Inc. Gibco BRL, Gaitherburg, U.S.A.)
Dynabeads®, Dynabeads® mRNA DIRECTTM Kit (Dynal A.S., Oslo, Norway)
Roti®Phenol (Roth, Karlsruhe, Germany)
QIAprep ™ Spin Plasmid Kit (Qiagen GmbH, Hilden, Germany)
Sequenase ™ (United States Biochemical, Cleveland, U.S.A.)
PreMix Long Ranger™ Gel (AT Biochem Inc., Malvern, U.S.A.)
Gen-Eti-KTM (Sorin Biomedica, Saluggia, Italy)
PCR is covered by US patents numbered 4683202,4683 195, and 4965 188 issued
to Cetus Corporation and owned by Hoffmann La-Roche.
Introduction
In many applications in biomedical research and clinical diagnosis it may be

necessary to measure the concentration of a given target DNA or RNA. The need
for accurate evaluations is important for clinical applications such as gene
expression studies [1-6] e.g. the determination of "multidrug-resistance" gene
expression where assessment of drug effectiveness is required following treat-
ment with cytotoxic drugs or for detection of microbial infections [7,8] e.g.
measurement of viral RNA levels in patients with asymptomatic hepatitis C.
Here the estimation of the exact copy number of a nucleic acid can be helpful
in evaluating the physiological role of the investigated transcript or the success
of therapy. Even though relative quantitation can be used to judge the efficacy
of treatment, absolute quantitation is a better reflection of the patient's clinical
state. However, small amounts of tissue often limit broad examination of gene
expression for routine clinical investigation. Therefore, a methodology is needed
that can provide sensitive and quantitative detection of absolute numbers of
target molecules.
PCR, as a powerful and sensitive tool, can be employed to measure unknown
concentrations of DNA (e.g. viral or bacterial DNA) or mRNA in a sample. But
resulting from its exponential nature, some limitations of this method must be
taken into consideration to prevent experimental inaccuracies in processing the
method which could result in a potentiation of each failure [9,10].
Amplification of mRNA molecules to study gene expression can be achieved
by a method that combines two sequential enzymatic steps: the synthesis of DNA
from the RNA template by reverse transcriptase (RT) and followed by PCR using
of a heat stable DNA polymerase (Taq polymerase). The extremely high sensitiv-
ity of RT -PCR enables us to detect rare mRNAs, mRNAs in small numbers of cells
or in small amounts of tissue as well as mRNAs expressed in mixed-cell popula-
tions. Here conventional techniques e.g. Northern blotting which requires at
least 10 5 -10 6 molecules per sample [11, 12], in situ hybridization [13] or
solution hybridization (e.g. nuclease protection assay) [14] often fail to provide
quantitative results. For instance the detection of interleukin 5 (IL-5) mRNA
was shown to be impossible to achieve using conventional Northern blot
analysis [15].
To obtain accurate quantitative results with this two-step technique is still
problematic but possible with some adaptations that will be discussed in the
following chapters. Nevertheless, the unlimited possibilities for application are
leading to increasing efforts to use quantitative PCR-based strategies for
XII Introduction
diagnostic and research fields. This trend is partially reflected by the rise of
relevant publications from only 3 in 1991 to 73 in 1994 (excluding December) as
analyzed by the Medline Bibliographic Data Base for medicine.
To date some different quantitative RT-PCR protocols have been described to
determine relative levels of diverse human mRNAs, e.g. for mdr-l [1,16-19],
CFTR [18], cardiac muscle sodium channel [20], cytotoxic cell proteinases [21],
dystrophin [2], various cytokins and cytokin receptors [3, 11, 15], several
oncogens [12], renin [4] etc. These new approaches have also been tested to
determine the activity of heterologous promoters by directly measuring
reporter gene transcription products [23], to quantitate basal reporter gene
expression in transient transfection assay [24] and as a very recent and forward-
looking attempt to measure the transduction efficiency for gene therapy [25].
Based on our experiences in the detection and measurement of gene expres-
sion involved in the formation of the "Multidrug resistance" phenotype or genes
responsible for degradation and rebuilding of the connective tissue in associa-
tion with rheumatoid arthritis, we want to provide a collection of quantitative
PCR based methods with this laboratory guide. The practically tested reliable
protocols are discussed critically for their use and trouble shooting associated
with them. We have tried to highlight the prospective trends of PCR related
quantitation methodologies for clinical analysis.
References
1. Murphy LD, Herzog CE, Rudick JB, Fojo AT, Bates SE (1990) Use of polymerase chain
reaction in the quantitation of mdr-l gene expression. Biochemistry; 29: 10351-10356
2. Chelly J, Montarras D, Pinset C, Berwald-Netter Y, Kaplan J-C, Kahn A (1990) Quantitative
estimation of minor mRNAs by cDNA-polymerase chain reaction. Eur J Biochem; 187:
691-698
3. Wang AM., Doyle MV, Mark DF (1989) Quantitation of mRNA by the polymerase chain
reaction. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA; 86:97l7-9721
4. CaroffN, Della Brunna R, Philippe J, Corvol P, Pinet F (1993) Regulation of human renin secre-
tion and renin transcription by quantitative PCR in cultured chorionic cells: Synergistic effect
of cyclic AMP and protein kinase C. Biochem. Biophys Res Comm; 193: 1332-1338
5. Nagano M, Kelly PA (1994) Tissue distribution and regulation ofrat prolactin receptor gene
expression. J Bioi Chern; 269: 13337-13345
6. Yokoi H, Natsuyama S, Iwai M, Noda Y, Mori T, Mori KJ, Fujita K, Nakayama H, Fujita J (1993)
Non-radioisotopic quantitative RT-PCR to detect changes in mRNA levels during early
mouse embryo development. Biochem Biophys Res Comm; 195: 769 -775
7. Jalava T, Lehtovaara P, Kallio A, Rauki M, Soderlund H (1993) Quantification of hepatitis B
virus DNA by competitive amplification and hybridization on microplates. BioTechniques;
15: 134-139
8. Miller RH, Bukh J, Purcell RH (1993) Importance of the polymerase chain reaction in the
study of hepatitis C virus infection. Int J Clin Lab Res; 23: 139 - 145
9. Katz ED, DiCesare JL, Picozza E, Enderson MS (1993) General aspects ofPCR quantitation.
Amplifications; 10: 7- 8
10. Siebert PD (1993) Quantitative RT-PCR. Methods & Applications; Book 3, Clonetech
Laboratories, Inc.
11. Bouaboula M, Legoux P, Pessegues B, Delpech B, Dumont X, Piechaczyk M, Casellas P, Shire D
(1992) Standardization of mRNA titration using a polymerase chain reaction method invol-
ving co-amplification with a multispecific internal controL J Bioi Chern; 267:21830-21838
References XIII
12. Scheuermann RH, Bauer SR (1993) Polymerase chain reaction-based mRNA quantification
using an internal standard: Analysis of oncogene expression. Methods Enzymol; 218:
446-473
13. Nonradioactive in situ hybridization. Application manual. Boehringer Mannheim GmbH
1992.
14. Farrell RE (1993) Quantitation of specific messenger RNAs by the Sl nuclease assay. In:
Harcourt, Brace, Jovanovich (eds.). RNA methodologies. A laboratory guide for isolation
and characterization. Academic Press, San Diego, New York, pp. 221- 234
15. Guiffre A, Atkinson K, Kearney P (1993) A quantitative polymerase chain reaction assay for
interleukin 5 messenger RNA. Anal Biochem; 212:50-57
16. Lyttelton MP, Hart S, Ganeshaguru K, Hoffbrand AV, Mehta AB (1994) Quantitation of multi-
drug resistant MDR1 transcript in acute myeloid leukaemia by non-isotopic quantitative
cDNA-polymerase chain reaction. Br J Haematol; 86:540-546
17. Lonn U, Lonn S,Nylen U, Stenkvist B (1992) Appearance and detection of multible copies of
the mdr-1 gene in clinical samples of mammary carcinoma. Int J Cancer; 51 : 682 - 686
18. Bremer S, Hoof T, Wilke M, Busche R, Scholte B, Riordan, JR, Mass G, Tummler B (1992)
Quantitative expression patterns of multidrug-resistance P-glycoprotein (MDRl) and
differentially spliced cystic-fibrosis transmembrane-conductance regulator mRNA
transcripts in human epithelia. Eur J Biochem; 206: 137-149
19. Futscher BW, Blake LL, Gerlach JH, Grogan TM, Dalton WS (1993) Quantitative polymerase
chain reaction analysis of mdr1 mRNA in multiple myeloma cell lines and clinical
specimens. Anal Biochem; 213 : 414 - 421
20. Zhou J, Hoffman EP (1994) Pathophysiology of sodium channelopathies. J Bioi Chern; 269:
18563-18571
21. Prendergast JA, Helgason CD, Bleackley RC (1992) Quantitative polymerase chain reaction
analysis of cytotoxic cell proteinase gene transcripts in T cells. J Bioi Chern; 267: 5090 - 5095
22. Caroff N, Della Brunna R, Philippe J, Corvol P, Pinet F (1993) Regulation of human renin
secretion and renin transcription by quantitative PCR in cultured chorionic cells:
Synergistic effect of cyclic AMP and protein kinase C. Biochem Biophys Res Comm; 193:
1332-1338
23. Kovacs DM, Kaplan BB (1992) Discordant estimates of heterologous promoter activity as
determined by reporter gene mRNA levels and enzyme activity. Biochem Biophys Res
Comm; 189:912-918
24. Morales MJ, Gottlieb DI (1993) A polymerase chain reaction-based method for detection
and quantification of reporter gene expression in transient transfection assays. Anal Bio-
chern; 210: 188-194
25. Rettinger SD, Kennedy SC, Wu X, Saylors RL, Hafenrichter DG, Flye MW, Ponder KP (1994)
Liver-directed gene therapy: Quantitative evaluation of promoter elements by using in vitro
retroviral transduction. Proc Natl Acad Sci; 91: 1460-1464
Contents
Part 1
Theoretical and Methodical Prerequisites for Using PCR
to Quantitate Nucleic Acids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Chapter 1.1
General Aspects and Chances of Nucleic Acid Quantitation by PCR 3
TH. KOHLER
1.1.1 Theory of Template Amplification by PCR 3

1.1.1.1 Mathematical Description of the PCR Reaction 3
1.1.1.2 The Plateau Phase of Reaction . . . . . . . . . 5
1.1.2 Experimental Approaches to Using PCR for
Quantitation of mRNA . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.1.2.1 Quantitative PCR Using External Standards . 6
Titration Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Kinetic Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.1.2.2 Quantitative PCR Using Internal Standards 8
Endogenous mRNA as Internal Control . . . 9
Competitive PCR Using Exogenous Added RNA/DNA as
Internal Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.1.3 Sensitivity and Reproducibility of Quantitative RT-PCR Assays 12
1.104 Methods for Detection and Quantitation of PCR Products 13
1.1.5 Avoidance of PCR Contamination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Chapter 1.2
Design of Suitable Primers and Competitor Fragments
for Quantitative PCR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
TH. KOHLER
1.2.1 Primer Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

1.2.2 Design and Construction of Synthetic Internal PCR Standards 16
1.2.2.1 Synthetic Genes Serving as Multifunctional Standards
(Multistandards) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
1.2.2.2 Construction of Competitors by Site-Directed Mutagenesis 19
Methods Using PCR and Subsequent Cloning Strategies 19
PCR Products as Internal Controls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
XVI Contents
1.2.3 What Should be the Internal Standard of Choice? . . . . . . . . . . 22

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 24
Chapter 7.3
Cloning of Short DNA Fragments and In Vitro Transcription
to Generate RNA Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 27
D. LASSNER
1.3.1 Theoretical Background 27
1.3.2 Experimental Procedures 29
1.3.2.1 TIA Cloning Procedure .. 29
TIA Cloning Ligation ... 29
TIA Cloning Transformation . 30
1.3.2.2 Minipreparation of Plasmid DNA 32
1.3.2.3 Digestion of Isolated Plasmid DNA with
Restriction Endonucleases . . . . . . . . . 34
1.3.2.4 In Vitro Transcription of Cloned Fragments by
T7 RNA Polymerase 35
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
Chapter 7.4
Direct Non-Isotopic Sequencing of PCR Products or Standards .. . . . . . . .. 39
B. THAMM
1.4.1 Theoretical Aspects . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
1.4.2 Experimental Procedures . . . . . . . . 40
1.4.2.1 Direct Non-Isotopic Cyclic Sequencing
of Double Stranded PCR Products 40
1.4.2.2 Direct Non-Isotopic Solid-Phase Sequencing
of Single Stranded PCR Products 44
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
Part 2
Conventional Techniques for mRNA Analysis ............... 53
Chapter 2. 7
Isolation of mRNA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 55
D. LASSNER
2.1.2 Precautions in RNA Isolation 56
2.1.3 Methods of mRNA Isolation . 57
2.1.4.1 Isolation of Total-RNA by RNAzol B 58
2.1.4.2 mRNA Purification by Dynabeads Oligo (dThs .. 60
Contents XVII
2.1.5 Quantitation of Purified mRNA . 62

2.1.6 Storage of Purified RNA .. 63
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
Chapter 2.2
Synthesis of cDNA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 65
D. LASSNER
2.2.1 Theoretical Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65

2.2.2 Experimental Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
2.2.2.1 Reverse Transcriptase Reaction with AMV-RT . 67
2.2.2.2 RT Reaction Using rTth DNA Polymerase .. 68
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
Chapter 2.3
Qualitative RT -PCR: Amplification of Synthesized mdr-l cDNA . . . . . . . . . . 71
TH.KoHLER
2.3.1 Theoretical Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71

2.3.2 Experimental Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
2.3.2.1 Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR), Basic Protocol 72
2.3.2.2 Analysis of the PCR Products by Agarose Gel Electrophoresis. 75
2.3.2.3 Digesting PCR Products with Restriction Enzymes . . . . . 77
2.3.2.4 Polyacryl Amide Gel Electrophoresis and Silver Staining of
Restriction Fragments 78
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
Chapter 2.4
Single-Tube RT-PCR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 81
D.LAssNER
2.4.1 Theoretical Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81

2.4.2.1 Amplification of Single-Stranded cDNA with
Taq DNA Polymerase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
2.4.2.2 Amplification of mdr1 cDNA with rTth DNA Polymerase 83
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
Chapter 2.5
Nonradioactive Determination of PCR Products by Using
a DIG-Labeled DNA Probe (Dot Blot) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 85
TH. KOHLER

XVIII Contents
2.5.2.1 Preparation of Dot Blots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86

2.5.2.2 Hybridization of the Blots with a DIG-Labeled Probe . . . . . . .. 88
2.5.2.3 Detection of DNA-DNA Hybrids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 91
Chapter 2.6
Nonradioactive Northern Blot Hybridization with DIG-Labeled DNA Probes ... 93
A.-K.RoST
2.6.1 Principle and Application of
Nonradioactive Northern Blot Hybridization . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
2.6.2 Preparation of DIG-Labeled DNA Probes by
Using PCR-Generated DNA Fragments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 95
2.6.2.1 Synthesis of DNA Fragments by PCR .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 95
2.6.2.2 Purification of DNA Fragments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
2.6.2.3 DIG-Labeling of DNA Fragments by Random Priming . . . . . . . 97
2.6.2.4 Estimating the Yield of DIG-Labeled DNA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
2.6.3 Preparation of Northern Blots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
2.6.3.1 RNA Electrophoresis Through Denaturing Agarose Gels
Containing Formaldehyde . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
2.6.3.2 Capillary Transfer of Denatured RNA to a Nylon Membrane . . . . 103
2.6.4 Northern Blot Hybridization with DIG-Labeled DNA Probes 106
2.6.5 Immunological Detection of the DNA-RNA Hybrids . . . . . . . . 107
Colorimetric Detection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
Chemiluminscent Detection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
2.6.6 Analysis of Northern Blots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
2.6.6.1 Evaluation of mRNA Size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
2.6.6.2 Semiquantitative Evaluation of Steady-State Levels of
Specific mRNA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
2.6.7 Stripping and Reprobing of Northern Blots After
Nonradioactive Detection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
Part 3
Semiquantitative and Quantitative Protocols for Measurement
of Nucleic Acids by PCR ............................ 115
Chapter 3.1
Quantitation of mRNA by the ELOSA Technique Using External Standards .... 117
D. LAssNER
3.1.1 Principle of the ELOSA Technique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
3.1.2 Quantitation of mRNAs by PCR-ELOSA with
External RNA Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
Contents XIX
3.1.3 Experimental Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119

3.1.3.1 Quantitation of mdr-l mRNA by PCR-ELOSA . . 120
3.1.3.2 Sensitivity and Reproducibility of the Assay . . 123
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
Chapter 3.2
Semiquantitative Detection of Viral DNA, e. g. for (MV,
by Using the DNA Enzyme Immunoassay (DEIA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
B. PUSTOWOIT
3.2.1 CMV Infection in Human Beings 125

3.2.2 Applications of Quantitative PCR in
Cytomegalovirus Pathogenesis 125
3.2.3 Definition of CMV Infection . . . .. 125
3.2.4 Diagnosis of Cytomegalovirus Infection . 126
3.2.5 Experimental Procedures . . . . . . . .. 128
3.2.5.1 Preparation of Samples for PCR - Principal Difficulties 128
3.2.5.2 Detection of Human Cytomegalovirus Using PCR . . . 129
3.2.5.3 DEIA: DNA Enzyme Immunoassay .. . . . . . . . . . 130
3.2.6 Limitation of PCR for the Diagnosis of CMV Infection 132
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
Chapter 3.3
HPL( - Analysis of Nucleic Acids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
H. REMKE and TH. KOHLER
3.3.1 Theoretical Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
3.3.2.1 Benefits of HPLC Analysis of PCR Products .. 138
3.3.2.2 Drawbacks of HPLC Analysis 140
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
Chapter 3.4
Quantitation of Absolute Numbers of mRNA Copies in a cDNA Sample
by Competitive peR ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
TH.KoHLER
3.4.1 Theoretical Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
3.4.2 Experimental Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
3.4.2.1 Generation of an Internal DNA Standard for Competitive PCR 144
3.4.2.2 Purification and Calibration of the Standard Oligonucleotide. 146
3.4.2.3 Quantitation of MRP mRNA by Competitive PCR 147
3.4.2.4 Sensitivity and Reproducibility of the Assay 152
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
xx Contents
Acknowledgment 155
Appendix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
Subject Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161

Part 1
Theoretical and Methodical Prerequisites
for Using PCR to Quantitate Nucleic Acids
Chapter 1.1
General Aspects and Chances
of Nucleic Acid Quantitation by PCR
TH. KOHLER
1.1.1 Theory of Template Amplification by PCR
Quantitative peR analysis compared with qualitative peR reaction is more

complicated because of two features inherent in in vitro amplification.
First, during the exponential phase of reaction minute differences in a
number of variables (e.g. concentration of reaction components, tube-to-tube
variation) can greatly influence the reaction rates, with a substantial effect
on peR product yield. Second, as a consequence of reaction compo-
nent consumption and generation of inhibitors (e.g. pyrophosphates, final peR
products) the reaction enters a plateau phase where the reaction rate declines
dramatically.
1.1.1.1 Mathematical Description of the peR Reaction
An optimized amplification protocol is fundamental for quantitation of nucleic

acids by peR. Optimization of a peR reaction is not problematic in the majority
of cases and should therefore not be subject of this book. We therefore recom-
mend reading the ongoing literature [1,2,44,45].
By definition, the peR process is a chain reaction. The products from
one cycle of amplification serve as template for the next leading to an exponen-
tial and non-linear increase of the product. Under theoretical conditions,
the amount of product doubles during each cycle of peR according to Eq. (1).
(1) N =No*2n
N = number of amplified molecules
No =initial number of molecules
n = number of amplification cycles
A crucial factor for the reliability of quantitative peR is the amplifica-

tion efficiency. That is the fraction of the template which is replicated
during each reaction cycle. Experimentally, the efficiency of amplification is
less than ideal (Figure 1.1-1) and may vary in the exponential phase of reaction
from 0.78-0.97 for different genes (3-6).Very small differences in the amplifica-
4 1.1 General Aspects and Chances of Nucleic Acid Quantitation by PCR
log peak area [mV'sl
3,0 --RAR a
-#o-RAR p
2,5
---GAPDH
- - Linear regression
2,0
1,5
1,0
Efficiency of amplification:
0,5
GAPDH E = 0,91
0,0
RARa E= 0,89
RARj3 E = 0,92
-0,5 L...L-1----""'--'---'22-...L----L a
24-...L---'-6-"'---2.L.
2 -'---3'-O-'---'32
number of cycles
Fig. 1.1-1. Ascertainment of efficiency for amplification of 3 different genes by HPLC analysis
of PCR fragments, the plateau phase is reached between cycle 28 and 30, respectively. Values for
the efficiency E of the amplification may be calculated from the slope of the curves following
linear regression analysis
tion efficiency, therefore, can have profound changes on the abundance of the
final product. The efficiency (E) of the reaction is influenced by several factors:
• concentrations of DNA polymerase, dNTPs, MgClz
• PCR product strand reannealing during later amplification cycles leading to a
diminished efficiency of the reaction
• secondary structure and G/C content of target sequence affect the melting
point of the target DNA, interfere with primer binding, and reduce processi-
bility of Taq polymerase
• sequence and composition of chosen primers strongly influence the primer
annealing kinetics
• insufficient optimization of the PCR protocol, occurrence of side products
• length of sequence being amplified: synthesized fragments should not be
longer than 1000 bp, because E is roughly inversely proportional to the
fragment length separating the two primers on their analyzed template [3]
• presence of inhibitors of reverse transcriptase or Taq polymerase in the RNA
preparations
• tube to tube effects from unknown reasons
The process of product accumulation is therefore better described by Eq. (2).
(2) N = No * (I + E)n
where: E = amplification efficiency
1.1.1 Theory ofTemplate Amplification by peR 5
N = number of amplified
z molecules
Cl No = initial number of
o molecules
....I
n = number of cycles
E = efficiency
Log (HE)
Log No {
~----------------~~
n
Fig. 1.1-2. Kinetic estimation of the initial number of molecules (No) in a sample and efficiency
(E) of peR amplification reaction
In practice, equation 2 is utilized in its logarithmic form:
(2.1) Log N = Log No+ n * Log 0 +E)
By plotting the logarithmic values of the PCR product yield (Log N) against the
number of amplification cycles (n) a linear curve can be generated with the
intercept equal to the logarithmic values of the target (Log No) and the slope
equal to Log (1 + E) (Figure 1.1-2). Equation (2.1) is only valid ifpCR is perform-
ed in the exponential phase of the reaction and is typically used to assess the
cycle-to-cycle efficiency of amplification [7].
Equation (2) can be also rearranged as:
(2.2) No=N/O+E)n
When E is deduced from the slope of the semi-log plot (Eq. (2.1)) and the
efficiency remains constant (exponential phase of reaction) the value of No can
be calculated from Eq. (2.2) [3,8].
1.1.1.2 The Plateau Phase of Reaction
Experimentally the kinetics of product accumulation are far from the

theoretical case as described by Eq. (2) and shown in Figure 1.1-2 because
amplification is not exponential over the whole cycle range. The amount of
product initially increases exponentially with efficiencies close to 1. During later
amplification cycles, the rate of production slows. This effect is referred to as the
"plateau effect" or "saturation" [1,9,10].
Factors that may be responsible for this observation are as follows:

• One or more of the components necessary for the reaction become limiting,
especially the DNA polymerase, which is the most expensive component of the
reaction mixture and is therefore employed with only a slight excess.
• The product or partially extended primers accumulate to a concentration at
which their reassociation competes with primer annealing and extension [11].
• Pyrophosphates which are known as inhibitors of polymerase activity
accumulate [1].
• The thermal inactivation of polymerase during later cycles (e. g. the half live
of AmpliTaq distributed by the Perkin-Elmer Co., is approximately 35 min at
95°C) [9].
• The denaturation efficiency is reduced especially in the later cycles [9].
It should be mentioned here that simultaneous amplification of two or more
different targets using the same primer pair (e.g. as introduced by competitive
PCR, see 1.1.2.2) will result in reaching the plateau phase more rapidly at much
lower cycle numbers.
1.1.2 Experimental Approaches to Using PCR

for Quantitation of mRNA
The first steps in the analysis of mRNA are isolation (see chapter 2.1) and the
reverse transcription into cDNA (see chapter 2.2) serving as template for PCR.
Following amplification, the goal of quantitative PCR is to draw a conclusion
from the amount of final PCR product to the initial number of target molecules
or the relative starting levels of target molecules among several samples. Various
approaches have been developed in the last few years by inclusion of external
and internal standards.
1.1.2.1 Quantitative peR Using External Standards
Quantitation of nucleic acids by PCR assays using external standards is generally

possible, however, it is inconvenient for two restrictive reasons: tube-to-tube
variations regarding amplification efficiency must be minimal and all data must
be obtained before the reaction reaches the plateau. Thus, complex and time-
consuming operations are required before the actual quantitation experiments
can be started.
If the two conditions stated above are in effect, generally speaking two forms
of experimental analysis, namely titration and kinetics, can be used to estimate
the relative initial amounts of target mRNA or cDNA in different samples.
1.1.2 Experimental Approaches to Using peR for Quantitation of mRNA 7
N = number/amount of amplified
product
a No = initial number of molecules/ b
starting amount
z z
----
OJ concentration 1 OJ
o concentration 1
.3 -l
~centration 2
------
1-----1
concentration 2
Log No n
Fig. 1.1-3. Methods for the experimental determination of relative differences in the initial
amount of target molecules of two samples (according to Siebert [1 J). a Titration analysis, b
Kinetic analysis
Titration Analysis
This type of PCR analysis is performed using several dilutions of analyzed cDNA
of unknown concentration. In parallel a set of dilutions of a cDNA with known
concentration or a reference sample is prepared. Following amplification in
separate tubes and measuring the product the Log of the amount of synthesized
DNA (N) is graphed as a function of the initial amount of the reference sample
(No). Because in the exponential phase of the reaction the amount of amplified
DNA is a constant proportion of the total starting material (No) for each of the
various dilutions of a sample, the relative difference in No between two samples
is proportional to the difference between the slopes of the curves (Figure 1.1-3,
Panel a).
Thus, for quantitation, a value of No is chosen on the X axis and the
corresponding value of Log N are extrapolated for both curves. The difference
between the two values is equivalent to the relative differences in No for the two
samples (Figure 1.1-3, Panel a).
Kinetic Analysis
In contrast to the titration analysis the kinetic analysis is the more commonly
used method. Values of N are determined for a number of consecutive amplifica-
tion cycles (n) for different samples (Figure 1.1-3, Panel b). A value of n is chosen
at a point where the two curves are parallel, suggesting equal efficiency of the PCR
reaction. The values of Log N are extrapolated as described above. At the chosen
point the difference between the two values of Log N is directly proportional to
the difference of Log No between the two samples. However, in contrast to the
titration method, this type of analysis can only be used to estimate differences in
the initial number, not the initial number of target molecules itself.
1.1.2.2 Quantitative peR Using Internal Standards
To use internal standards for quantitative peR, two different methods may be
used. The first is the use of endogenous housekeeping gene transcripts which are
contained in every RNA preparation derived e. g. from eucaryotic cells. These
internal control-mRNAs may be used under the assumption that the coding
genes are transcribed constantly and independently from the extracellular envi-
ronment and that their transcripts are reverse transcribed with the same effi-
ciency as the product of interest. In the second method, an exogenous native or
synthetic mRNA or DNA standard of known concentration is added to the deter-
mined target (Figure 1.1-4). Both approaches share the property that target and
standard are amplified simultaneously in the same reaction tube.
Researchers most commonly use such internal standards to control tube-to-
tube effects on amplification efficiency and to determine absolute amounts of
mRNAs.
Addition of RNA
standard
Addition of DNA
standard
o
Gel electrophoresis HPLC ELOSA
c:::::::J
- --
c;;;;;:l ~ t=I
[W
Fig. 1.1-4. Different approaches to use internal PCR standards. (1) Housekeeping genes are
used as endogenous control, (2) cRNA standard added prior to RNA preparation or reverse
transcription, (3) DNA standard added prior to PCR reaction
Endogenous mRNA as Internal Control
One of the first attempts to use PCR to quantitate mRNAs of interest was the
evaluation of relative amounts of target mRNA in a sample by co amplifying a
structurally unrelated endogenous mRNA, e.g. for f3-actin [12-15],132 micro-
globulin [16,17]' aldolase A [3,18], elongation factor EF-1a [19] or GAPDH [10,
20-22]. But this approach is problematic when the control gene is affected by
experimental or physiological conditions, e. g. as described for the f3-actin gene
in human fibroblasts [10]. Only the genes for histone H 3.3 or ribosomal protein
119 (rp119) have shown to be cell-cycle independent and constitutively
expressed in all tissues [23, 24]. Either in two separate PCR reactions or
amplified in the same reaction, a minimization of tube-to-tube variations may
be achieved. However, when amplifying target and reference mRNA in the same
tube or not, both templates may be amplified with different efficiencies and the
point when the reaction reaches the plateau must be known to stop the
amplification during its exponential phase. These are the main prerequisites for
obtaining reliable quantitative results. The data can be obtained either by titra-
tion or kinetic analysis as described previously.
If endogenous target and internal standard are simultaneously amplified the
amounts of both products generated following n cycles would be according to
Eq. (2):
Nt = Not (1 + Et)n
and Ns = Nos (1 + Es)n
Both terms combined give Eq. (3).
(3) Nt/Ns=N ot (1 + Et)n/Nos (1 + Es)n or rearranged

Log Nt/N s = (NOt/Nos) + n * Log (1 + Et)/(1 + Es)
where: Not = initial number of target molecules
Nos = initial number of standard molecules
Nt = amount (number) of amplified target molecules
Ns = amount (number) of endogenous standard molecules
Es = efficiency of standard amplification
Et = efficiency of target amplification
The relative initial amounts of target mRNA at a known concentration of

endogenous standard can now be determined.
From Eq. (3) it is seen that even in the case where Es is not equal to Et
endogenous mRNAs can be used to compare relative target levels. If the
amplification efficiencies of both target and standard are identical, equation 3
can be simplified to Eq. (4):
(4)
where: As = amount of amplified standard (cpm or OD 26o units)

At = amount of amplified target (cpm or OD26o units)
Attempts to use PCR, as described above, are time consuming because they
require the estimation of the amplification efficiencies for each run that may
vary from sample to sample even when the same transcript was amplified under
identical conditions [1].
In practice these efforts are simplified in that it is not the ratios of the initial
absolute numbers of target and standard that are estimated but the measured
amounts of each PCR products in different samples are compared. For this
reason this technique is often termed "semiquantitative" or "comparative
RT-PCR" (cRT-PCR) [23] because it does not result in an absolute value for the
mRNA of interest.
Another problem is that simultaneously amplified mRNAs may be initially
present at widely different levels resulting in competition for limiting
PCR substrates. The effect of such competition is a loss of exponential ampli-
fication and hence an attenuation of the final product levels [16, 23]. A
clever solution to this problem is simply waiting before adding the primers
for the endogenous standard at later amplification cycles (primer dropping
method) and/or by selectively limiting the number of PCR cycles [10, 13]
or modification of the concentration of each set of primers according to the
relative abundance and size of the corresponding PCR product of each mRNA
amplified [20].
But because of the associated problems, such experiments are somewhat
imprecise and increasingly inconvenient in practice. Therefore, attempts have
been made to develop quantitative procedures involving reactions driven to the
plateau phase resulting in higher product accumulation combined with higher
sensitivity and advanced reproducibility.
Competitive PCR Using Exogenous Added RNA/DNA as Internal Control
Competitive PCR is a quantitative adaptation of the PCR method in which a

known number of copies of an exogenously synthesized cRNA [4,5,14,17,19,21,
22,24-28] or DNA [15,29-32,43,46] are introduced together with the sample
into the PCR reaction mixture. The basis of competitive PCR is the coamplifica-
tion of a nucleic acid of interest and the internal standard DNA. This is possible
if target and standard show the same DNA sequence or at least the same primer
binding sites. Both targets therefore compete for the common primers and
reagents in the same reaction tube. In competitive PCR, a dilution series is used
either from the analyzed target or the competitor fragment and an identical
amount of the other component is added to each of the reaction tubes. Both the
amplified standard and product derived from the cDNA of interest are
distinguished by either size, restriction endonuclease cleavage [22], or specific
hybridization.
If the supposition is justified that the amplification efficiencies are similar, a
relatively easy and accurate quantitation under plateau conditions is possible.
1,5··
fI)
~ 1 -- At = amount of amplified target

..... As = amount of amplified standard
~ N = initial number of standard
OJ Os molecules
.Q 0,5 No = initial number of target
t molecules
°
-0,5
-1
-1,5
°
-2~--'--'--r--,--r--,--,--,--,-~--,--,--,---,-~
-2 -1,8 -1 ,6 -1 ,4 -1,2 -1 -0,8 -0,6 -0,4 -0,2 0,2 0,4 0,6 0,8
NOt log Ns (attomoles)
Fig. 1.1-5. Results of a competitive PCR experiment under plateau conditions. The Log of the
ratio of amplified target to competitor product is graphed as a function of the Log of a known
amount of competitor added to the PCR reaction. Note that when the molar ratio of target and
competitor is equal to 1, the Log of ratio is equal to 0
The quantitation may be achieved by simply comparing the relative amounts of

the two products At and As (Eq. (4), Figure 1.1-5).
But, as shown by Pannetier and coworkers [15] and according to our own
observations, the internal standards must be very similar to the target DNA
which is to be assayed in order to perform quantitation under saturating peR
conditions. Differences in length of only 4 bp out of a few hundred between
standard and endogenous target may be sufficient to make quantitation at the
plateau phase unreliable [15].
Because RNA extraction and reverse transcription often have rather variable
yields [15, 21]), an additional adjustment (normalization) of the results is
necessary. Since even the inclusion of an internal RNA standard at the reverse
transcriptase reaction level would not check for any variations in RNA extrac-
tion, an assay analogous to one used for endogenous controls to measure house-
keeping gene transcripts is absolutely essential in order to normalize the results
[10,15,17, 19,22,46}. Housekeeping genes are assumed to be equally transcribed
in various samples and their transcripts are reverse transcribed with compar-
able efficiencies. However, measurements of the control gene must also be per-
formed in the exponential range. Since most of the control genes used are
expressed at higher levels than most mRNAs under study, and therefore the
reaction plateau is reached more quickly, non-comparative conditions may occur

as described in section 1.1.2.2. But co-quantitation of a housekeeping transcript
should be used to correct for RNA loading of the PCR reaction. This feature is
very useful when amounts of total or poly A+ RNA cannot be quantified by UV
spectrophotometry prior to RT -PCR [19].
Another interesting attempt to validate quantitative PCR results is the intro-
duction of genomic DNA with known gene loci ratios. Zhou et al. [14] employed
this method to measure sodium channel mRNA quantities in a sample which
were corrected by amplified genomic DNA where the loci ratio of actin: adult:
fetal sodium channel was known to be 1 : 1 : 1. The correction factor obtained was
similar to that obtained using known amounts of cloned sodium channel gene
plasmid DNA [14].
Although one of the best techniques now available a main disadvantage of
competitive and most other quantitative PCR techniques exist: numerous PCR
reactions are required to measure the level of a single target sequence within a
sample. To overcome this ineffectiveness novel quantitation strategies are
employed, e. g. quantitative multiplex fluorescent polymerase chain reaction
(QMF-PCR) [14]. QMF-PCR was described as allowing the measurement of
multiple mRNA species simultaneously in a single PCR reaction using primers
labeled with fluorescent dyes in multiplex reactions (i. e. different sets of primers
were simultaneously used to amplify a variety of different templates in the same
tube) and analyzed on automated sequenators [14]. Two similar multiplex PCR
based approaches were described by Wong et al. [10] and Dostal et al. [19] using
a competitive multiplex PCR assay. The very recently described competitive and
differential RT-PCR assay (CD-RT-PCR) [46] is a combination of multiplex peR
and normalization procedure.
However, single tube reactions containing more than one set of primers are
limited by different primer kinetics and the fact that the exponential phase of the
reaction is likely to occur after a different number of cycles [17, 26].
1.1.3 Sensitivity and Reproducibility of Quantitative RT -PCR Assays

To check the sensitivity of the procedure, reconstitution experiments are needed
i. e. dilutions of a cloned target DNA were mixed with a constant amount of un-
related DNA and co amplified with known concentrations of an internal
standard. 10 copies of e.g. HIV-DNA were readily assayed [15]. That means, rare
mRNAs of about 0.003 - 0.1 copies per cell may be quantitated without any
problems [6,17,26].
In spite of the method-associated problems, quantitative RT-PCR assays
were shown to yield an accurate experimental precision of about 25 % as assayed
for a PCR assay run to saturation [15] and intraassay coefficients of about
2 - 7 % [4, 13,26]. Values obtained from both radioisotopic and non-radioisotopic
quantitative RT-PCR assays were found to be consistent with values obtained
from Northern blot analysis [4,33].
1.1.5 Avoidance ofrCR Contamination 13
Reverse transcription here is an important source of variability which may

range from 5-90% [15,19,31]. In most of the cases MMLV reverse transcriptase
was used for reverse transcription because AMV RT was described to be less
efficient in synthesis of cDNA [20]. The efficiency may be estimated e.g. by
measurement of a 32 P-dCTP incorporation into the newly synthesized cDNA
[15]. The extraction of total RNA rather than polyA+ RNA was reported to
decrease the risk of losing weakly expressed mRNAs. Dukas et al. [20] observed
that oligo (dT) priming did not produce background PCR bands which appear
by random priming whereas specific priming with the down-stream PCR primer
is more efficient than oligo (dT) priming [26]. The occurrence of unspecific PCR
product formation clearly affect the efficiency of PCR product accumulation.
1.1.4 Methods for Detection and Quantitation of PCR Products

Unlike the widespread use of radioactive labeled nucleotides or primers [13,16,
23,26,31,34] the PCR reaction and detection of products should be performed
nonradioactively. The exact determination of molar concentrations of a product
which accumulates in consecutive cycles can be performed by HPLC (chapter
3.3), ELOSA (chapter 3.1) or densitometric scanning of ethidium bromide
stained gels following electrophoresis [19,20]. The estimation of PCR product
amounts from at least 3 different cycles in the exponential phase of reaction
makes it possible to calculate the efficiency of amplification and initial amount
of the target molecules.
1.1.5 Avoidance of PCR Contamination
The extremely high sensitivity of PCR makes this method susceptible to reagent
and sample contamination or product "carryover". For this reason a number of
routine precautions should be taken when performing any type of PCR to
eliminate unwanted transfer of DNA to the reaction or to selectively destroy
contaminating DNA. Often it will be sufficient to prevent carryover by following
the general rules for "good laboratory practice":
• If possible set up the experiments in a laminar flow hood dedicated solely to
PCR use.
• DNA amplification and PCR product storage, electrophoresis, purification or
plasmid preparation should be situated in separate laboratories.
• Generally add the internal standards in a different room from the PCR
reaction compartment.
• Separate pipettes, consumer materials, and reagents should be used for PCR,
all materials should be autoclaved.
• Disposable gloves should be worn at all times and changed frequently.
Additional techniques should be employed to eliminate nevertheless occurring
contamination. These efforts include subsequent DNase I treatment to eliminate
trace DNA contaminants derived from plasmid DNA [35] or DNA crosslinking
by exposing the contents of the PCR reaction mix to short-wave UV radiation
before adding the sample template. Such an attack should nick and crosslink any
contaminating DNA rendering them sufficiently unamplifiable [36].
The best results to prevent carryover we have achieved were by general
substitution of TTP nucleotides with dUTP in conjunction with sample treat-
ment with uracil-DNA glycosylase (UDG). All PCR products and the internal
standard synthesized and used in our laboratory contain dUTP instead of dTTP.
UDG added to later PCR reactions ensures deglycosylation of any contaminating
DNA originating from previous PCRs, thus inhibiting its amplification [28,37].
The extreme specificity of UDG for dU -containing DNA leaves the natural target
unaffected. PCR products containing dU can be as well as natural DNA cleaved
by restriction endonucleases [37], can be cloned efficiently using a UDG-
deficient strain of E. coli [37] and can be amplified with the same efficiency
compared to natural DNA.
References
(see end of chapter 1.2.)
Chapter 1.2
Design of Suitable Primers and Competitor Fragments
for Quantitative PCR
TH. KOHLER
1.2.1 Primer Selection
The first step to design specific primers is to get some sequence information
from the gene or the mRNA of interest. All known sequences are available from
special databases (e. g. EMBL, GenBank) which are commercially distributed by
CD-ROM or via data networks, respectively. Using special hardware and soft-
ware (e.g. Hitachi HIBIO DNASIS DNA Sequence Analysis System, verso 7.0 or
higher) partial or complete sequences can be picked out. Following selection of
the sequence part of interest the primer search can be started.
Unfortunately, there is no general set of rules that will ensure the synthesis
of an effective primer pair so that the selection is somewhat empirical. But the
majority of primers can be made to work if the following guidelines are taken
into account:
• Random base distribution over the total length of the primer typical primer
length: 18-30 nucleotides
• GtC content between 50% and 60%, lower percentage of GtC is possible but
cause lowered Tm
• Tm between 55°C and 80 DC, balanced for a given primer pair
• Avoid sequences with significant secondary structure (e. g.loops, hairpins).
• Avoid complementary bases at the 3' ends of primer pairs as this promotes
the formation of primer dimers which compete with the target for Taq-
polymerase and nucleotides.
• Test the specificity of the designed primer pair by running the selected
sequence against the complete database.
Automated primer search software (e. g. OLIGO 5.0 Primer Analysis Software) in
general follows these guidelines.
Primers designed for mRNA quantitation should be situated on two different
exons and span at least one intron to allow unambiguous discrimination between
cDNA and unwelcome genomic amplification products [25]. If genomic DNA is
used as an internal control (see section 1.1.2.2) PCR primers have to be selected
which may amplify both DNA and RNA (i.e. situated within a single exon) [14].
Another way to generate primers specific for mRNA detection is the situation of
one of the primers directly on the fusion site of two neighboring exons which
allows exclusive cDNA amplification.
16 1.2 Design of Suitable Primers and Competitor Fragments for Quantitative PCR
To minimize the effect of possible variations in reverse transcription using

oligo (dT) Zhou et al. [14] recommend choosing primers near the 3' end of each
coding sequence to be determined. Primers designed for quantitative PCR
should generate PCR products in a window as narrow as possible to minimize
preferential amplification of target sequences due to template size differences.
1.2.2 Design and Construction of Synthetic Internal PCR Standards
1.2.2.1 Synthetic Genes Serving as Multifunctional Standards (Multistandards)
As described by several groups [5,21,38] and for the first time by Wang et al. [4],
synthetic genes were constructed facilitating the quantitation of different
cellular transcripts. The constructs used as "multistandards" consisted of 5'
primer sequences of several target genes connected in sequence followed by the
complementary sequences of the 3' primers. These products were generated by
sequential PCR reactions with overlapping primers and cloned using special
vectors allowing insertion of the multiple primer regions between flanking RNA
polymerase promoters and a downstream polyadenylated sequence. From the
cloned and purified vectors the in vitro synthesis of cRNA serving as internal
standard was performed (see section 1.1.2.2). Competitor fragments that share
the same primer template sequence but contain a completely different inter-
vening sequence were designated as heterologous competitors. As shown in
Figure 1.2-1 and Table 1.2-1 a very similar construct (pMS1) showing the same
features as described was designed in our laboratory. Linkers containing unique
restriction enzyme recognition sites were placed after the sets of 5' and 3'
primers to allow insertion of any additional primers needed. However, in
contrast, the 3' primer sequences were arranged in such an order that allows the
synthesis of standard products of sizes comparable to the endogenous products
thus yielding comparable amplification efficiencies. The insertion of a lacZ
promoter element in the construct allows simple discrimination between the
PCR products derived from standard and endogenous target by hybridization
with a specific DNA probe or usage of lacZ promoter binding proteins e. g.lacI-
f3-galactosidase fusion protein as described by Lundeberg et al. [39].
Before synthesis, a newly designed standard nucleotide sequence should be
analyzed for the presence of internal repeats and restriction sites because it was
anticipated that internal repeats could cause problems during subsequent PCR
amplification and quantitation experiments using internal standard RNA [21].
After synthesis and cloning a sequence analysis is necessary to find out point
mutations generated during Taq polymerase synthesis which fidelity is far from
optimal [11]. Longer overlapping oligonucleotides can be used to reduce the
number of steps for the synthesis of the insert leading to a reduced number of
errors [21]. An alternative way is the usage of Pfu DNA polymerase (Gibco)
which in contrast does not possess terminal transferase activity (i.e. intro-
duction of unwanted nucleotides, usually A, onto the 3' ends of the newly
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Table 1.2-1. Oligonucleotides used for quantitation of 9 different gene transcripts by competi-
tive PCR
Gene (+ )-primer (- )-primer product standard Ref.

size (bp) size (bp)
TIMP 5' CAACCAGACC 5' AGTTCCACTC 500 392 d)

ACCTTATACC 3' CGGGCAGGAT TC 3'
SRY 5' GAATATTCCC 5' ACAACCTGTT 422 311 11

GCTCTCCGG 3' GTCCAGTTGC 3'
GAPDH 5' CGTCTTCACC 5' CGGCCATCAC 300 139 a)

ACCATGGAGA 3' GCCACAGTTT 3'
RARa 5' GACCGGCTCT 5' GGTGCTGGAG 371 212 b)

TGAGACATCC 3' AGTGGTCAGA 3'
RARf3 5' GGAACGCATT 5' GGAAGACGGA 383 212 b)

CGGAAGGCTT 3' CTCGCAGTGT 3'
RARy 5' CCAGTATGTA 5' GTAGCCAGAG 480 354 40

GAAGCCAGTC 3' GACTTGTCAT T
p53 5' TTCCTCTTCC 5' GCAAATTTCC 325 217 41

(exon 5) TGCAGTACTC 3' TTCCACTCGG 3'
p53 5' CCTATCCTGA 5' CCAAGACTTA 330 194 41

(exon 8) GTAGTGGTAA 3' GTACCTGAAG 3'
Collage- S' TTGCACTGAG 5' TTGCCTCCCA 179 116 c)

nase AAAGAAGA 3' TCATTCTT 3'
mdr-I 5' AGATCAACTC 5' GGGCTAGAAA 289 196 d)

GTAGGAGTGT 3' CAATAGTG 3'
a) Sequences given by Dr. H. Gam, Philipps-University of Marburg, Institute of Immunology.

b) Sequences given by Dr. S. Grams, GSF Forschungszentrum flir Umwelt und Gesundheit
GmbH, Neuherberg.
c) Sequences given by Dr. U. Sack, University of Leipzig, Institute of Clinical Immunology and
Blood Transfusion.
d) Sequences designed in our laboratory.
synthesized double-stranded DNA molecule) and which has a higher

polymerization fidelity [23].
Another way to construct synthetic genes was described by Bouaboula et al.
[5]. The constructs were generated from the primer oligonucleotides by sequen-
tial phosphorylation with T4 polynucleotide kinase and ligation with T4ligase.
Only the last assembly step was performed by peR using primers corresponding
to the two extremities of the assembly and being flanked by EcoRI and HindIII
restriction sites necessary for further cloning. But just as described for the
former method, insertion errors cannot be prevented and have to be corrected
e.g. by site-directed mutagenesis [5,21].
1.2.2.2 Construction of Competitors by Site-Directed Mutagenesis
Methods Using PCR and Subsequent Cloning Strategies
Many PCR based methods for site-directed mutagenesis have been reported as
being quicker and more convenient than non-PCR based mutagenesis [14, 19,
22-24]. Synthetic standards that produce a PCR product of a different size may
be constructed by simple insertion of anyone DNA sequence into compatible
cloning sites located between the primer binding sites [24, 27]. Site-directed
mutagenesis may be also performed by using mismatched primers to introduce
a new restriction site into a PCR fragment [22]. Cloned and in vitro transcribed,
the co amplified standard can be discriminated from the wild-type fragment by
subjecting aliquots of the PCR products to restriction digestion.
However, quanti tat ion experiments must be always performed during the
exponential phase. Reassociation of DNA molecules not serving as template (e.g.
in the plateau phase) could lead to heterodimers that are resistant to cleavage
thus affecting the results [22]. An alternative protocol described the generation
of deletions in cloned eDNA fragments by using inverse PCR. Deletions in eDNA
were generated by amplification with primers which had a corresponding gap
between their 5' ends [19].
A reliable method which yields up competitor fragments with only slight
standard to target sequence differences was described by Zhou et al. [14]. Here
PCR products or synthetic oligonucleotides were cloned into suitable vector
plasmids. The plasm ids were digested with appropriate restriction enzymes, the
overhangs were filled in by Klenow enzyme or shortened by exonuclease activity
of T4 DNA polymerase yielding synthetic fragments which differ slightly in size
from the native fragment. Followed by in vitro blunt -end ligation (see chapter 1.3)
the constructs were subcloned into a vector containing the T3/T7 polymerase pro-
moter. In vitro transcription generated cRNAs with high sequence homology to
the target sequence. Another efficient PCR based mutagenesis method which
requires only one new primer for each desired mutation was described by Chen
and Przybyla [23]. Starting with a vector that contains the gene of interest and the
target mutation site both flanked by two known primer sequences a mutation
primer directing the desired mutation and spanning the target mutation site was
used for amplification. Following purification of this first PCR fragment and its
direct use as a primer together with the alternate primer a second round of DNA
amplification on the same plasmid DNA was performed. This now mutated frag-
ment was purified again, restricted and ligated into the original parent plasmid
followed by transformation directly into E. coli to obtain a recombinant clone [23].
PCR Products as Internal Controls
A rapid and highly versatile method for synthesis of internal DNA standards was
described by Celi et al. [29] and an improved and more detailed protocol was
published by Forster [30].
The principle is shown in Figure 1.2-2. A competitor fragment of defined size

for a chosen PCR product is generated in two consecutive steps. Standard PCR
primers (PrI, Pr2) for the chosen sequence and an additional linker primer (Pr3)
are needed. Following amplification of the DNA sequence with the outer primers
the first reamplification step was performed by replacing primer 2 by a 3' linker
primer (Pr3) carrying the original sequence of primer 2 on its 5' end. The second
reamplification step of the fragment generated with primer 1 and 3 was
performed with the original primers yielding a shortened fragment.
Alternatively, the internal standard can be generated by a single step using
primers 1 and 3 to synthesize a desired competitor in a single day [29]. Following
purification and quantitation by conventional techniques (e.g. HPLC, see
chapter 3.3 and 3.4) a known number of copies of this internal standard may be
introduced into the sample and amplified with primers 1 and 2. With this
....--w_.
!
0 • •- ------.
--
Template
pr~
!
Pr3
!
Reamplification with both original primers
!
• Purification of standard fragment by electrophoresis or HPLC
• Calibration against a DNA standard of known concentration
Fig. 1.2-2. A simple method for generation of internal standards by peR
a b
24 28 32 36 40 24 28 32 36 40
256bp _____ 256bp~
340bp~ -------
---_ .. 340bp~
- --
cycle
-"'---
cycle
N
N
Log peak area [mV*s] Log peak area [mV*s] t:l
1.000'1-----------------------------------, 1.000'1------------------------------------, '"'"
<§.
;:I
""0.-
100 100 n
o
~
....,
c
p.
10 10 o·
;:I
o
......
-§
Symbols &
Symbols ~
;:; .
..... MRP standard ... endogenous MRP ..... MRP standard'" endogenous MRP S'
~
....,
~I ~
01 __ __L _ _ L_ _ J_~L__L
_ _J __ _ __ L_~
_ _L _ _ L_ _ ~ ~ 01 L I_ _~~_ _~~_ _~~_ _~_ _~~_ _~~_ _~~
::;
'16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 40 42 , 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 40 42 a
'"0
cycle
n:>:l
cycle C/)
Fig. 1.2-3. Kinetic analysis of simultaneous amplification of MRP-cDNA and internal standard. Both standard and product accumulate in a parallel man- or
;:I
0.-
ner over the whole cycle range even the tested standard concentrations differ in one order of magnitude. a 2 f'l of RT reaction product corresponding to ....,
eDNA synthesized from 100 ng of total RNA from the CCRF ADR5000 cell line [42], 0.15 amol standard; b 100 ng eDNA, 0.015 amol standard per reaction ""
~
tube
N
approach, two products are generated, one derived from the endogenous
template, and another, some base pairs smaller derived from the internal
standard (Figure 1.2-2).
The advantage of this method is the generation of internal standards which
do not differ from the DNA sequence of the endogenous derived fragment
(homologous competitors) allowing amplification with identical efficiencies
for both products and quantitation at plateau conditions even when the used
internal standard concentrations differ in one order of magnitude (Figure 1.2-3).
1.2.3 What Should be the Internal Standard of Choice?
For measuring absolute numbers of starting amounts of a mRNA of interest the

internal standard of choice should fulfill a number of criteria:
• It must be amplified with the same efficiency as the natural mRNA target.
• The standard must control for RNA extraction and cDNA synthesis.
• The different PCR products must be distinguishable.
• It should produce a standard curve by generation of the ratio of internal
control to target, rather than extrapolating against a standard curve.
• It must control for intratube variations at the level of cDNA synthesis and PCR
amplification.
• Internal PCR standards should be exactly measurable and storable over a long
time period.
All these criteria are best fulfilled by the use of RNA standards which show the
highest possible similarity (homologous competitors) to the target sequence and
added prior to reverse transcription to allow quantitation at plateau conditions.
But some limitations of cRNA usage were reported by Guiffre et al. [25] who
described problems to yield DNA-free cRNA. The often used DNase I treatment
[5,22,25,27] to purify the cRNA transcript from the template (e.g. plasmid) or
an oligo (dT) chromatography [4] may be unsuccessful because of the presence
of SP6 polymerase which is often used to synthesize cRNA seems to be sufficient
to protect the vector DNA from degradation by DNase I in cRNA purified by
standard procedures. This problem was overcome by centrifuging the cRNA
preparation through a cesium chloride gradient followed by phenol/chloroform
extraction of the transcription product. Another disadvantage was reported by
Babu et al. [43] who found that sometimes the internal standard RNA competes
with the target mRNA when both are present in disproportionate concentrations
in the initial simultaneous RT reaction. These limitations were circumvented by
the competitor DNA standard approach and quantitation of mRNA levels by
calculating the RT efficiency.
As is generally known, RNA is very susceptible to ubiquitous RNases. Special
efforts, e. g. exclusive use of DEPC treated solutions, RNase inhibitors, are there-
fore necessary to protect RNA standards from degradation. Since RNA extrac-
tion and reverse transcription often have rather viable yield [15] the inclusion of
internal RNA as standard would not check for variations in RNA extraction if
1.2.3 What Should be the Internal Standard of Choice? 23
-0,5
... - - - - - ~--
........
..
--... -- ... -- ....... - ......... -- -- ... --,.
-1
Symbols
-1,5
• Multistandard ... MRP standard
-2~--~--~--~--~--~--~--~---r---r---'--~---'--~
16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 40 42
cycle number
Fig. 1.2-4. Identification of efficiency differences between endogenous and standard molecules
(data expressed in terms of the Et/E s ratio according to [21]) Dashed line: MRP standard
generated by site-directed mutagenesis as described [29, 30], Continous line: Simultaneous
amplification of mdr-l cDNA and calibrated multistandard peR fragments. Significant
differences in amplification of standard and endogenous target result in non-horizontal Et/E s
curves (continous curve). The efficiencies for standard and target amplification calculated by
linear regression analysis were for the MRP standard 1.09 and 1.32 and for the multistandard
0.59 and 0.90 respectively
not added at the level of RNA preparation from the biological source [15]. If only
comparative but not absolute results are required the use of an endogenous
internal control such as the ubiquitous GAPDH mRNA has several advantages.
This kind of internal control was described as being present in all cellular
samples and processed under identical conditions. So an extensive series of
reactions per sample is not necessary and, a synthetic internal standard does not
need to be cloned or synthesized [10].
Although DNA cannot be utilized to check for the reverse transcription step
we favor DNA standards because they are much more stable, can be stored frozen
as stock solutions over a long period, may be precisely calibrated e. g. by HPLC
(see chapter 3.3.) and allow additional contamination security if dUTP
nucleotides are permanently incorporated in all synthesized PCR products. As
shown in Figure 1.2-4, standards generated by site-directed mutagenesis
according to the method described by Forster [30] (see above) may have some
advantages over multi standards generated from synthetic genes. In contrast to
the multi standard, such competitors may be amplified with the same efficiency
as the endogenous target over the whole cycle range (Figure 1.2-4) allowing
quantitation even with reactions driven to the plateau.
References
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Laboratories, Inc.
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21:577-583
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multidrug resistant MDR1 transcript in acute myeloid leukemia by non-isotopic quantita-
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18. Hoof T, Riordan JR, Tiimmler B (1991) Quantitation of mdr1 transcript by PCR: a tool for
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Omn-E Thermal Cycler
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HYBAID
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R. Kuhn, S. Hoffstetter-Kuhn
Capillary Electrophoresis: Principles and Practice
1993. x, 375 pp. 90 figs. (Springer Lab Manual)
Hardcover OM 98,-; iiS 764,40; sFr 94,50 ISBN 3-540-56434-9
The authors of this book have exhaustive practical experience in the application of CE
methods in the pharmaceutical industry and provide the reader with a comprehensive
treatment of this method. The main focus is on how to solve problems when applying
CE in the laboratory. Physico-chemical theory is dealt with in depth where necessary
to understand the underlying separation mechanisms or the influence of different
instrumental parameters. An addendum includes
tables on the preparation of buffers and recommended ••••••••••
further reading.
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Springer-Verlag. Postfach 31 13 40. D-10643 Berlin. Fax 0 30 / 8207·301/448. e·mail: orders@springer.de tm.BA95.0S.25
References 25
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BioTechniques; 17:657-659
24. Futscher BW, Blake LL, Gerlach JH, Grogan TM, Dalton WS (1993) Quantitative polymerase
chain reaction analysis of mdrl mRNA in multiple myeloma cell lines and clinical
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29. Celi FS, Zenilman ME, Shuldiner AR (1993) A rapid and versatile method to synthesize
internal standards for competitive PCR. Nucl Acids Res; 21 : 1047
30. Forster E (1994) An improved general method to generate internal standards for competi-
tive PCR. BioTechniques; 16: 18 - 20
31. Wadhwani KC, Fukuyama R, Giordano T, Rapoport SI, Chandrasekaran K (1993) Quantita-
tive reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction of glucose transporter 1 mRNA levels
in rat brain microvessels. Anal Biochem; 215: l34-141
32. Rhoer-Moja S, Cohen-Haguenauer 0, Jouve C, Healy J-C, Vindimian M (1993) Detection of
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33. Yokoi H,Natsuyama S,Iwai M,Noda Y,Mori T,Mori KJ,Fujita K,Nakayama H,FujitaJ (1993)
Non-radioisotopic quantitative RT-PCR to detect changes in mRNA levels during early
mouse embryo development. Biochem Biophys Res Comm; 195:769-775
34. CaroffN, Della Brunna R, Philippe J, Corvol P, Pinet F (1993) Regulation of human renin secre-
tion and renin transcription by quantitative PCR in cultured chorionic cells: Synergistic effect
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Chapter 1.3
Cloning of Short DNA Fragments and In Vitro
Transcription to Generate RNA Standards
D. LASSNER
1.3.1 Theoretical Background

Quantitation of mRNA by polymerase chain reaction requires valuation of the
possible modification of native mRNA molecule through cDNA synthesis (see
chapter 2.2), following amplification (see chapters 2.3 and 2.4) and quantitation
of generated PCR products by several methods (see chapters 2.5; 3.1; 3.3; 3.4).
Addition of an internal RNA standard during extraction step in RNA isolation
protocol is the most reliable check of processing of the initial RNA molecule in
complete RT-PCR. The use of DNA standards can also be successful (see also
chapter 1.2). A disadvantage of using a DNA standard is the different transcrip-
tion rate in cDNA synthesis.
Generation of standards was very laborious before PCR technology reached
molecular biology laboratories. For the reproducible synthesis of a desired
standard, cloning selected nucleic acid fragment into a vector such as plasmids
or phagemids is recommended. Searching for and inserting a new DNA
fragment without the use of PCR is very difficult and good practical experience
in molecular cloning is obligatory.
DNA cloning consists of three steps:
• Enrichment of DNA fragments selected for ligation and cloning
• Efficient cloning into a suitable vector
• Multiplying the cloned fragment
By PCR selection and enrichment of any fragment from a pool of millions of
different sequences is possible. Synthesis of the necessary amount of a definite
fragment is the first step of cloning. Specificity of selection is given by an applied
primer pair in amplification.
Three methods are favored for ligation of PCR products [1]. The first method
is ligation of blunt-ended PCR products into a vector which is digested with a
restriction enzyme that cuts the vector which also becomes blunt-ended. This
method of cloning is very difficult and the amplification product is randomly
inserted in the cloning site. More successful are two other methods of cloning
which use the specificity of the PCR process.
The 5'-terminus of a primer is not essential for specific annealing and the
resulting extension of this in subsequent DNA synthesis by Taq polymerase.
New restriction sites can be incorporated in a PCR product by modification of
5' -termini of one or both primers used. Throughout amplification, sufficient
28 l.3 Cloning of Short DNA Fragments
Oao
~D~ECORI Xbal
/ " ) \ / p e R Ir-p-r-im-e-r -1....1 - - - -
p-c -R-p-ro-d-u-ct- - - - . -
I p-r-im-e-r-2', A
\/ A I Eco RI, Xbal digestion direct cloning I
+ (TA cloning) +
L peR product PC R product
Eco R1? y ~ Xl>al A
A
~ <:::':: Xbal
T
a MCS b MCS
ligation
SP6 olor and SP6
'" transformation
~ PCR p<:oduct / '\,
IBel lael
MCS MCS
in vitro
restriction cloned transcription
digestion
SP6p
peR with RNA
product polymerase
IMCS I PCR product I Mcsi ------ '\, ~
as DNA standard lael
as RNA standard
Fig. 1.3-1. Cloning of PCR products: a Unique restriction sites were incorporated into
previously amplified PCR products by using specific primers. Following digestion with restric-
tion endonucleases the sticky ended fragments were ligated into prepared plasmids. b rIA
cloning. Single adenosine overhang at 3'-termini of PCR products allows simple ligation into a
vector with single thymidine overhang
DNA fragments of a specific sequence flanked by two specific restriction sites

are accumulated. After restriction enzyme digestion of the amplified sample, the
selected sequence can be cloned into the vector which is digested by the same
restriction enzymes. This method offers the possibility of directional cloning
(see Figure 1.3-1, a).
Taq DNA polymerase creates a single adenosine overhang at the 3'-termini
of newly synthesized PCR products. This property is exploited in T/ A cloning
[2]. The amplification product generated is cloned by a conventional ligation
reaction into a special vector which has a single thymidine overhang (see Figure
1.3-1, b). The universal use of this cloning overcomes the disadvantage of non-
directed insertion of DNA fragment.
Plasmids were transferred into bacteria such as Escherichia coli and after
growing on culture media the transferred vector can be prepared with high
yields.
An ideal standard has the same sequence, same length and primer binding
sites as the native sequence. Therefore it is optimal to clone a PCR product which
is generated by amplification of a native DNA/cDNA fragment.
Cloning should be performed with a vector with a universal multicloning
site (e.g. a multitude of restriction sites symmetrically and asymmetrically
distributed, two blunt-end generating endonucleases), promoter sites for

RNA polymerases to perform in vitro transcription for designing cRNA
standards and include a lac Z operon for selecting positive clones by blue/white
screening.
1.3.2 Experimental Procedures

Cloning of PCR product can be done in many different ways. Here is a possible
procedure for cloning a PCR product up to the generation of cRNA standards.
Following steps are described separately:
• The T/ A cloning method
• Transformation of E. coli
• Selection of positive colonies
• Plasmid preparation
• In vitro transcription with T7 RNA polymerase
1.3.2.1 T/ACloning Procedure
The "TA Cloning Kit" (Invitrogen) is used for T/A cloning and the subsequent
transformation. With this kit, all chemicals, media and even competent cells for
ligation and efficient transformation are provided.
The T/A cloning system provides a quick, one-step cloning strategy for the
direct insertion of a PCR product into a plasmid vector. The procedure
eliminates any enzymatic modifications of the PCR product such as Klenow or
T4 polymerase treatment to create blunt ends, and it does not require the use of
PCR primers which contain restriction sites.
Generally, 100 ng of DNA are sufficient to serve as template for peR. If
amplifying cDNA, the amount needed will depend on the relative abundance of
the message of interest in your mRNA population and the reaction mixture.
Perform the amplification reaction in a 50 fll volume as described in chapters 2.3
and 2.4. For optimal ligation efficiencies, the use of no more than 30 PCR cycles
is recommended. Analyze the peR products by agarose gel electrophoresis
through a 0.8-1.5% agarose gel (see Sect. 2.3.2.2).
TIA Cloning Ligation
There is no need to clean or purify the PCR product after the final amplification
cycle. For optimal ligation efficiencies, use only freshly prepared PCR products.
The single 3' A-overhangs on the PCR products will degrade over time, reducing
ligation efficiency. Ligations with the pCRIl vector should be set up as a 1: 1 to
1 : 3 molar ratio of the vector to the PCR product. After running a few microliters
of the completed peR reaction product on a gel to estimate its concentration, use
30 1.3 Cloning of Short DNA Fragments
the formula below to determine the amount of PCR product to be ligated with
50 ng of pCRII vector. Then set up the ligation reaction as outlined below:
(Y bp PCR product) ,. (50 ng pCR II vector)

X ng of PCR product =
(size in bp of the pCR II vector)
where: X ng is the amount of PCR product of Y base pairs to be ligated for
a 1 : 1 molar ratio.
The pCR II vector is 3932 bp in length. Use 3 ,. X for a 1: 3 molar ratio.
Materials:
1) Water bath (12 DC)

2) 10 Ligation Buffer (provided with the kit)
3) Resuspended pCRIl vector (25 ng/fll, provided with the kit)
4) T4 DNA ligase (provided with the kit)
5) PCR product (see chapter 2.3 or 2.4)
6) Sterile water
7) Ice bucket with ice
8) Mastertips and Biomaster (Eppendorf)
9) Eurotips and Varipettes 4810 (Eppendorf)
Protocol 1: Direct Ligation of the Generated peR Product
~ipette the following solutions to perform one ligation reaction (all steps on ice):
• Sterile Water 5 III
• 10 x Ligation Buffer 1 III
• Resuspended pCRIl vector (25 ng/IlI) 2 III
• PCR product 1 III
• T4 DNA Ligase 1 III
Incubate ligation reaction at 12 °C for a minimum of 4 hours (preferably over-
night). Ligation at higher or lower temperatures will diminish the ligation
efficiency.
TIA Cloning Transformation
This protocol represents a general way to transform competent cells. With the
"TA Cloning" kit, ready-to-use competent cells are provided. Store these cells at
-70°e.
Be extremely gentle when working with competent cells because they are
highly sensitive to changes in temperature or mechanical lysis caused by
pipetting. Transformation should be started immediately following the thawing

of the cells on ice and mixing should be done by swirling or tapping the tube
gently, not by pipetting.
Sterile conditions for growing of bacteria are essential. For details see the
relevant literature [3,4].
Materials:
1) 42°C water bath

2) 37°C incubator
3) 10 cm diameter LB agar plates with appropriate antibiotic (50 flg
kanamycinlml agar)
4) X-Gal stock solution (40 mglml DMSO)
5) Ice bucket with ice.
6) SOC medium (provided within the kit)
7) 0.5 moUI j3-mercaptoethanol (provided within the kit)
8) OneShot competent cells (E. coli strain)
Protocol 2: Transformation of Competent Cells
1. Heat a water bath to 42°C.

2. Warm up one vial of SOC medium to room temperature.
3. Place an appropriate number of 10 cm diameter LB agar plates with anti-
biotic in an incubator at 37°C to remove excess moisture. Use two plates for
each ligation/transformation reaction.
4. Use a test tube rack that will hold all of the transformation tubes so that
they can all be put into the 42 °C water bath at once.
5. Spin the vials containing the ligation reactions briefly and place them on ice.
6. On ice, thaw 0.5 molll j3-mercaptoethanol and one 50 III vial of frozen
OneShot competent cells for each ligation/transformation.
7. Pipette 2 III of the 0.5 molll j3-mercaptoethanol into each vial of the
competent cells and mix by tapping gently.
> >Caution: Do not mix by pipetting up and down !< <
8. Pipette 1 III of each T/ A Cloning ligation reaction. Store the remaining
ligation mixture( s) at - 20°C.
9. Incubate the vials on ice for 30 min.
10. Incubate for exactly 30 s in the 42°C water bath. Do not mix.
11. Remove the vials from the 42 °C water bath and immediately place on ice for
2 min.
12. Add 450 III of pre-warmed SOC medium to each vial (SOC is a rich medium
and good sterile technique must be used to prevent contamination).
13. Place the vials in a micro centrifuge rack and fasten with Parafilm to avoid
loss of the vials. Shake the vials at 37°C for exactly 1 h at 225 rpm in a rotary
shaking incubator.
14. While the incubation is going on, prepare an L-shaped glass spreader by
first flaming the end of a glass Pasteur pipette shut, then bending the thin
portion of the pipette in the flame. Prepare LB agar plates containing
kanamycin (50 /lg/ml) or ampicillin (50 /lg/ml) by spreading 25 /ll of X-Gal
on top of agar with the glass spreader. Let the X-Gal diffuse into the agar for
approximately 1 h.
15. Place the vials with the transformed cells on ice.
16. Spread 25 III and 100 III from each transformation vial on separate, labeled
LB agar plates containing antibiotic and X-Gal.
17. Invert the plates and place them in a 37°C incubator overnight.
Note: In some cases, a longer incubation (up to 40 h) is required to allow the blue
color to develop in the background colonies.
18. Pick the white colonies for plasmid isolation and restriction analysis, PCR,
or sequencing.
Note: InvaF' competent cells of TA Cloning kit are derivatives of an E. coli K12
strain with genotype F'endA1 recA1 hsdR17 (r-K,m + K) 1- supE44 thi-1 gyrA96
relA1 F80DlacDM15D(lacZYA-argF)U169 deoR.
Trouble Shooting:
When cloning PCR products of 500 bp or less, light blue, rather than white,
colonies may appear. The reading frame of the lacZ gene may not have been
disrupted in these colonies. Treat these light blue colonies as if they were white
because they may contain the insert. Spreading of 100 III from each transforma-
tion can lead to a filled agar plate. IPTG is not required since the OneShot cells
do not express the lac Iq repressor (for details see [4]). Typically, plating out 25 III
of transformed cells yields -50 colonies.
We have cloned a 300 bp DNA fragment and obtained distinctly white colonies.
In contrast, it has been difficult to clone a 1700 bp-fragment of mdr-1 mRNA.
1.3.2.2 Minipreparation of Plasmid DNA
The first hint to successful transformation of E. coli cells with cloned plasmid is
the occurrence of white colonies on the LB agar plate. Cloning of the desired PCR
fragment in the pCR II vector is statistically predominate. Positive colonies of
transformed E. coli cells which contain the plasmid with the inserted PCR
product may be detected after minipreparation of plasmid DNA.
The ideal method for the isolation of single positive colonies is called
"streaking". Each colony identified as "white" is streaked on a separate plate as
described in detail [3]. From each streaked plate, white colonies are picked and
a liquid culture of each is made. After growing overnight plasmids are purified
from cells by alkaline lysis and several purification steps [5].
Materials:
1) LB agar plate containing kanamycin (50 flg antibioticlml agar)

2) LB medium for overnight culture with appropriate antibiotic
3) NaOHISDS solution (0.2 moUI NaOH, 1 % (vlv) SDS)
4) Potassium acetate solution (see appendix)
5) 100% Ethanol
6) 70% (vlv) Ethanol
7) X-Gal (40 mglml DMSO)
8) RNase, DNase-free (Boehringer Mannheim)
9) TE buffer (see appendix)
10) Glass spreader
11) Inoculating loop
12) Incubator (37 DC) with shaking table
13) Sterile toothpicks
14) Ice bucket with ice
15) Vortexer
16) Eppendorf reaction tubes (Eppendorf)
18) Heto vacuum concentrator (He to, Scandinavia)
Protocol 3: Minipreparation of Plasmid DNA
l. Prepare LB agar plates with appropriate antibiotic by spreading X-Gal as

described above.
2. Use two LB agar plates for 10 white colonies obtained from transforma-
tion.
3. Pick each white colony with one sterile toothpick on two separate agar
plates. Mark the position of identical colonies on both plates. Pick up to 10
colonies from each plate to get finally two identical plates.
4. Incubate the plates in an incubator (37 DC) overnight. Next day check that all
colonies are visible on both plates. Store one plate at + 4 DC and use the other
for plasmid mini preparation.
5. Inoculate 5 ml LB medium with one colony from the agar plate. Grow to
saturation overnight by shaking at 225 rpm at 37 DC in an incubator with a
shaking plate.
6. Transfer l.5 ml of cells to a sterile Eppendorf reaction tube and spin 20 s in
a micro centrifuge.
7. Remove the supernatant and resuspend pellet in 100 III TE buffer and
incubate for 5 min at room temperature.
8. Add 200 !Jl NaOH/SDS solution, tap the tube with the finger and place on ice
for 5 min.
9. After addition of 150!Jl potassium acetate solution vortex the tube at
highest speed and place again on ice for 5 min.
10. Centrifuge for 1 min and transfer the supernatant to a new Eppendorf
reaction tube.
11. Add 0.9 ml of 100 % ethanol and allow to incubate at room temperature for
2 min.
12. Centrifuge 1 min and remove supernatant. Add 1 ml of 70% ethanol and
repeat centrifugation.
13. Dry pellet under vacuum and resuspend in 100 III TE buffer.
14. Pipette 1 III of RNase to the prepared sample and incubate for 1 hour at
37°C to eliminate all remaining RNA.
This original protocol of Birnboim and Doly [5] is the basis of many commerci-
ally available miniprep kits. Pure, RNA-free plasmids can be prepared in less
than one hour using a "QIAprep Spin Plasmid Kit" (Qiagen).
The amount of purified plasmid DNA is determined by UV spectroscopy
(see Sect. 2.1.6) and examined by agarose gel electrophoresis after restriction
digestion as described below.
1.3.2.3 Digestion of Isolated Plasmid DNA with Restriction Endonucleases
Most of the commercially available plasm ids are fitted out with multiple cloning
sites (MCS). In general, DNA fragments which we want to clone are inserted
between the "sticky ends" of a multicloning site generated by digestion of the
plasmid preparation with corresponding restriction enzymes. In the same way
cloned DNA fragments can be removed from the plasmid and distinguished
following agarose gel electrophoresis from the linearized plasmid.
The structure of plasmid pCR II containing an insert synthesized by PCR is
schematically demonstrated in Figure 1.3-1.
A mdr-1 mRNA derived fragment is inserted into the EcoRI restriction site
of the pCR II vector. Digestion of the plasmid containing the insert by this
enzyme and analysis on agarose gel (see Sect. 2.3.2.2) results in two different
bands: one of3932 bp (vector pCR II) and one of289 bp (cloned fragment). If the
vector is digested with Xba I, which recognizes only one intramolecular site, only
one single band representing the linearized molecule is obvious.
The MCS of vector pCR II is, in addition, flanked by the two different viral RNA
polymerase transcription promoters SP6 and T7. This property may be exploited
for high-level in vitro transcription of one of the two strands from the inserted
PCR fragment derived by simple selection of the respective RNA polymerase [6].
A fragmentation of the construct into 31 restriction fragments may be
achieved by digestion with endonuclease Hha 1. The 743 bp fragment obtained
includes the full multiple cloning site, both promoter sequences and the cloned
mdr-1 PCR fragment.
Materials:
1) Hha I (10 U/fll, Pharmacia)

2) 10 x One-Phor-All buffer Plus (J 00 mmolll Tris/HCI; pH 7.5; 100 mmolll Mg-
acetate, 500 mmolll K-acetate) (Pharmacia)
3) Plasmid preparation
4) Lambda DNA-EcoRI & HindIII digest (AGS)
5) DEPC-H2 0
6) Thermomixer (Eppendorf)
Pipette the following solutions to prepare one restriction digestion assay of
plasmid preparation (50 fll):
• 10 x One-Phor-All buffer Plus 5 fll
• DEPC-H 20 24 fll
• Plasmid (about 1 flg) 20 fll
• HhaI 1 fll
Incubate at 37°C for 1 h and inactivate enzyme by additional incubation at 65°C
for 15 min. Load 10 fll of restriction digest onto an agarose gel (0.8-1.5%, w/v)
and examine the results as described in Sect. 2.3.2.2. Use a 100 base-pair ladder
(Pharmacia) as length size marker to examine Hha I digest composition. If only
the cleaved plasmid is separated use a A-phage DNA-digest (EcoRIIHindIII
digested A-DNA,AGS) as size marker.
Digestion with other endonucleases may be performed in a very similar way.
Most restriction enzymes show a temperature optimum at about 37°C and can
be easily inactivated at 65 °C for 15 min.
If the insert is needed for further application carry out cleavage (e. g. with
Eco RI) and concentrate the sample by vacuum drying and dissolving in 10 fll
DEPC-H2 0 or buffer. Load the whole concentrated digest on agarose gel. This
way is preferable when the cloned fragment is very short (less than 500 bp).
For primary check of the accuracy of the cloned fragment, purify an aliquot
of the digested sample by phenol-chloroform-isoamyl alcohol extraction as
mentioned below (Sect. 1.3.2.4). Dissolve the extracted material and perform a
reamplification with the corresponding primers. If a desired PCR product is
obtained the right sequence was cloned.
1.3.2.4 In Vitro Transcription of Cloned Fragments by 17 RNA Polymerase
In vitro transcription means the generation of single stranded RNA from a

cloned DNA template using a DNA-dependent RNA polymerase that is highly
specific for its promoter sequence. The promoter represents the starting point of
the very rapid and extremely processive RNA synthesis. If a cloned cDNA frag-
ment is in vitro transcribed into RNA the resulting transcripts are called cRNA
("copy-RNA") .
Previous linearization of purified plasmid by restriction digestion increases

the yield of in vitro transcribed cRNA.
After in vitro transcription, the remaining DNA template must be hydro-
lyzed with 10 U DNase (RNase-free) at 37 °C for 1 h. If the amount of DNA intro-
duced into the assay is too high the DNase treatment may be insufficient. It is
therefore advisable to generate at first a target fragment consisting of the cloned
PCR product flanked by one remaining promoter sequence followed by separa-
tion on agarose gel and subsequent extraction from the respective agarose slices
(see Sect. 2.6.2.2). The purified fragment is now ready to use for in vitro tran-
scription and subsequent DNase digestion without the problems mentioned.
In the case of cloned mdr-1 PCR product a Hha I digestion of pCR II vector
(Sect. 1.3.2.3) is performed and the 739 bp fragment is separated from the
agarose gel as described in Sect. 2.6.2.2.
In vitro transcription requires an absolutely pure DNA preparation. There-
fore it is sometimes necessary to perform a subsequent phenol-chloroform-
isoamyl alcohol extraction as described below.
Materials:
1) Buffer-saturated phenol (RotiPhenol, Roth)

2) Chloroform-isoamyl alcohol (24: 1, v/v) mixture (-20 °C)
3) Na-acetate solution (2.5 moUl Na-acetate)
4) Ethanol (100 %, - 20 °C)
5) Ethanol (75%, -20 °C)
6) Vortexer
7) Eppendorf reaction tube (Eppendorf)
9) Centrifuge 5415 C (Eppendorf)
10) Heto vacuum concentrator (He to, Scandinavia)
Protocol4: Extraction of Pure, Protein Free Nucleic Acid Preparations by

Phenol-Chloroform-Isoamyl Alcohol
1. Dissolve gel-purified DNA pellet in 100 III DEPC-treated water (see Sect.
2.6.2.2).
2. Add a half volume of buffer-saturated phenol (50 fl.l) and a half volume of
chloroform: isoamyl alcohol (24: 1).
3. Mix thoroughly by vortexing and centrifuge the solution at 4000 rpm for
5 min.
4. Transfer the upper phase (about 100 fl.l) carefully to a new Eppendorf reac-
tion tube.
5. Add one volume of chloroform-isoamyl alcohol (100 fl.l) and vortex
thoroughly again.
6. Centrifuge the solution at 4000 rpm for 5 min and transfer the upper phase
to a new Eppendorf tube.
7. Add 1/10 volume Na-acetate solution (10 Ill) and 2.5 vol. of ice-cold 100%
ethanol, precipitate nucleic acid overnight at - 20 DC or lower.
8. Centrifuge the tube at 12000 rpm for 15 min. Remove the supernatant
immediately by inverting the tube over a paper towel to remove alcohol
completely.
9. Wash the pellet obtained (could be invisible!) by addition of 100 III of 75 %
ethanol and centrifuge the tube at maximum speed for 15 min.
10. Remove alcohol as described above and dry the pellet under vacuum.
Dried pellets are used for the in vitro transcription assay.
Materials:
1) T7 RNA polymerase (20 U/{tl, Boehringer Mannheim)

2) 10 x Transcription buffer (0.4 mmolll TrisIHCI; pH 8.0, 60 mmolll MgCI2>
100 mmolll DTT, 20 mmolll spermidine) (Boehringer, Mannheim)
3) NTPs (10 mmolll of each ribonucleotide ATp, CTp, GTp, UTp, Pharmacia)
4) RNase inhibitor (20 U/fll, AGS)
5) DEPC-H20
6) DNase, RNase-free (Boehringer)
7) Thermomixer (Eppendorf)
ProtocolS: In Vitro Transcription of DNA Fragments with Tl RNA Polymerase
Add the following solutions using a Biomaster pipettor and Mastertips to the
vacuum dried DNA pellet.
Prepare a mastermix and transfer 20 fll of the mixture to the tubes containing
the DNA target.
Proceed as follows (pipetting scheme for one assay, respectively):
• DEPC-HzO 12.5111
• 10 transcription buffer 2.0 III
• ATP 1.0 f.1l
• CTP 1.0 III
• GTP 1.0 III
• UTP 1.0 III
• RNase inhibitor 0.5 III
• T7 RNA polymerase 1.0 III
1. Incubate the completed in vitro transcription assay 2 h at 37 DC using a
thermomixer and slight rotating.
2. Add 1111 DNase (RNase-free) to each reaction mix and incubate for one hour
at 37 DC. This step eliminates plasmid DNA in the transcription sample. Only
freshly synthesized RNA remains.
3. Add 80 f!l DEPC-treated water and perform extraction by phenol-chloroform-

isoamyl alcohol (see above) to remove proteins and contaminating salt
residues.
4. Dissolve the pellet in DEPC-treated water and estimate nucleic acid (RNA)
content as described in Sect. 2.1.6. The RNA can now be applied for quantita-
tion by using external standards (see chapter 3.1). Dilute the RNA sample
with a solution of carrier RNA (tRNA of E. coli, Boehringer Mannheim) to
increase stability of specific standard during storage at - 20 DC (or long-time
storage at -70 DC).
These RNA standards can be reverse transcribed accordingly to the RT reaction

protocols (chapter 2.2) and simultaneously, with the endogenous transcript,
amplified by PCR. Check the generation of cRNA standards very carefully. Check
the standards if possible also by Northern blotting (chapter 2.6).
Trouble Shooting:
In this multiple step procedure, there are many possible sources of error. For
cloning protocols, for more details see [3,4,6]. A problem for further quantita-
tion is the remaining plasmid DNA in the cRNA standard solution. Remove all
RNA by digestion of the standard solution with RNase (DNase free) and perform
an amplification with specific primers. The DNase digestion (see step 2) of the in
vitro transcription sample will not be complete if a PCR product is present [7].
References
1. Costa GL, Sanchez TR, Weiner MP (1994) pCR-Script Direct SK( +) vector for directional clo-
ning of blunt -ended PCR products. Strategies; 7: 5 - 7
2. Clark JM (1988) Novel non-templated nucleotide addition reaction catalyzed by procaryotic
and eucaryotic DNA polymerases. Nucl Acids Res; 16: 9677 - 9686
3. Ausubel FM (ed.) (1990) Current protocols in molecular biology. Greene Publishing Asso-
ciates Inc. and John Wiley & Sons Inc., New York
4. Sambrook J, Fritsch EF, Maniatis T (eds.) (1989) Molecular Cloning: A laboratory manual,
Cold Spring Harbor University Press, Cold Spring Harbor
5. Birnboim HC, Doly J (1979) A rapid alkaline extraction procedure for screening recom-
binant plasmid DNA. Nucl Acids Res; 7: 1513-1523
6. Perbal B (ed.) (1988) A practical guide to molecular cloning. John Wiley & Sons Inc.,
New York
interleukin 5 mRNA.Anal Biochem; 212:50-57
Chapter 1.4
Direct Non-Isotopic Sequencing of PCR Products
or Standards
B. THAMM
1.4.1 Theoretical Aspects

The direct sequencing method represents an efficient and uncomplicated
technique to obtain the exact sequence information of PCR [1] products or
synthetic PCR standards.
Since the introduction of the chain termination DNA sequencing method by
Sanger et al. [2] a variety of technical modifications have been developed to
improve the efficiency of sequencing reactions and to adapt them to the analysis
of specific templates.
The basic principle of the method consists of the DNA polymerase catalyzed
in vitro synthesis of populations of DNA strands complementary to the template
DNA and differing in length by one nucleotide. The synthesis is initiated at a
specific primer annealing site and terminated by the incorporation of a
nucleotide analog that lacks the 3-0H group necessary for DNA chain elongati-
on (2',3'-dideoxynucleoside S'-triphosphates/ddNTPs). Optimal mixtures of
dNTPs (providing elongation) and one of the four ddNTPs (stopping elonga-
tion) will result in the generation of DNA chains determined in length by the
locations of the complementary base of this particular ddNTP in the template.
Four separate reactions, each containing a different ddNTP, will give the
complete sequence information after high-resolution gel electrophoresis.
The problem of sequencing short double-stranded DNA such as PCR
products is the tendency of the templates to reanneal. To prevent renaturation
we use two alternative sequencing strategies: The thermal cycling DNA
sequencing utilizing a thermo cycling apparatus and a solid phase DNA sequenc-
ing technique.
Cyclic sequencing yields a linear amplification of the template DNA,
reducing the amount of template required to achieve a detectable sequence
ladder. The high temperatures employed during each denaturation cycle help to
circumvent the problems associated with rapid reannealing; the high annealing
temperatures increase the stringency of primer hybridization. Sequencing grade
Taq DNA polymerase (Promega) produces a sufficient uniform band intensity,
low background and a high degree of accuracy.
The solid phase approach using Dynabeads (Dynal) as a magnetizable solid
phase for the capture of PCR products yields an immobilized, purified single
stranded DNA template suitable for sequencing with Sequenase T7 DNA poly-
merase (USB). This enzyme produces a very uniform band pattern and provides
40 1.4 Direct Non-Isotopic Sequencing of peR Products or Standards
the choice between end-labeling of the sequencing primer and internal labeling
of one dNTP in non-radioactive systems.
The sequencing reaction products were simultaneously separated and
blotted onto a nylon membrane [3,4] in the TwoStep Direct Blotter (Hoefer).
This system combines automatically the steps of separation and transfer. The
linear speed gradient at which the nylon membrane automatically passes under
the gel provides a uniform separation and high resolution of the transferred
DNA fragments .. The immobilized fragments were detected using chemi-
luminescent or colorimetric detection methods [5-8].
Two different methods of direct non-isotopic sequencing of PCR products
will be demonstrated using the 423 bp PCR amplified genomic DNA fragment of
the HMG box of the human SRY, the sex-determining region of the Y chromo-
some [9]:
The forward strand will be analyzed by cyclic sequencing using the 5'-
biotin-endlabeled primer API [iO], the reversed strand will be analyzed by solid
phase sequencing using the non-labeled primer AP2 [iO] and an internal
labeling step with digoxigenin-16-dATP.
Both biotin and digoxigenin are high efficient non-radioactive labeling
substances in manual sequencing.
The biotinylated fragments are detected via binding to streptavidin alkaline
phosphatase conjugate using the chemiluminescent substrate CSPD. The light
emission from the dephosphorylating CSPD results in a DNA band pattern that
is captured on X-ray film.
The digoxigenated fragments are visualized in a similar way, but the
streptavidin alkaline phosphatase is replaced by anti-digoxigenin alkaline
phosphatase conjugate.
The quality of the band pattern is similar to that achieved through the incor-
poration of nucleotides labeled with 32p or 35S radioisotopes. Due to the short
exposure times on the X-ray film, the data can be obtained in only one day.
1.4.2.1 Direct Non-Isotopic Cyclic Sequencing of Double Stranded peR Products
Materials:
(A) Sequencing Reaction

1) peR product
423 bp PCR amplified genomic DNA fragment of HMG box of SRY
(5 fmol/fll). PCR amplification of genomic DNA samples (200 ng) was
performed in 50 fll reactions using 0.5 flmol/l of each primer API (5' -GAA-
TAT-TCC-CGC-TCT-CCG-G-3') and AP2 (5'-ACA- ACC-TGT-CCA-GTT-
1. PCR with two non-labeled primers
2. Purification of the PCR product (Removing primers, dNTPs)
3. Cyclic sequencing (5'-biotinylated primer, d/ddNTPs, Taq-polymerase)
3' denaturation (950 C)

5'
biotin ........
!
3' prlmer-anneallng
5'
(at specific annealing temperature)
l
[~.........
.........
d_ ddNTP
ddNTP
1 termination/extension (720 C)
~ ddNTP
3'
- - - - - - - - - - - - + · 3 0 cycles
4. Separation and parallel blotting of the 5'-biotinylated fragments

onto nylon membrane
5. Chemiluminescent detection
I
binding of the streptavldln-alkallne phosphatase-conjugate
to the bTn ofth. Immobl"",, frogmen" ~ "'ht __~
1 ~dIM_
A~~7
enzyme-substrate reaction
(AVIDx-AP; CSPD)
Fig. 1.4-1. Direct non-isotopic cyclic sequencing of double stranded peR products - principle
of the method
GC-3'; according to Jager et al. [10],3 mmolll MgCl z,200 mmolll each dNTP
and 1.25 U of Taq polymerase.
The PCR products were purified using the QIAquick Spin PCR Purification
Kit (Qiagen).
2) Sequencing primer
API: 5'-biotin-GAA-TAT-TCC-CGC-TCT-CCG-G-3', 1 pmolljll
The following reagents [3 - 6] are components of the fmol DNA Sequencing
System (Promega):
3) d/ddNTP nucleotide (Deaza-) Mixes
4) fmol Sequencing 5x buffer
5) Sequencing grade Taq-polymerase
6) fmol Sequencing Stop Solution
(B) Denaturing Polyacrylamide Gel Electrophoresis/Blotting

7) 1 x TBE buffer prepared from the 10 x stock solution (see appendix)
8) 6% Long Ranger gel (AT Biochem)
(Cl Chemiluminescent Detection of DNA Fragments

The following reagents are components of the SEQ-Light DNA Sequencing
Detection Kit (Tropix).
9) Blocking buffer: 0.2 % I-Block reagent; 0.5 % SDS in 1 x PBS (0.058 molll
NazHP0 4 , 0.017 molll NaH zP0 4 x H 20, 0.068 mol/l NaCl; pH 7.4)
10) Conjugate solution: 1 :5000 dilution of AVIDx-AP Conjugate in Blocking
buffer.
11) Wash buffer: 0.5 % SDS in 1 x PBS
12) Assay buffer: 0.1 M diethanolamine; 1 mmolll MgClz in aqua ster.,
pH 10
13) CSPD detection solution: 0.24 mmolll CSPD in Assay buffer (200 III in
20ml)
Protocol 1: Direct Non-Isotopic Cyclic Sequencing
(Al Sequencing Reaction

1. For each set of sequencing reactions, label four 0.5 ml Eppendorf tubes
(G,A,T,C).
Add 2 III of the appropriate d/ddNTP mix to each tube. Cap the tubes and
store on ice until needed.
2. Mix the following reagents in an Eppendorf tube:
• Aqua sterile 7.5 III
• Sequencing 5 x buffer 5.0 f.1l
• PCR product 2.0 III
• Primer 1.5 III (final volume 16 Ill)
Quant it; 1I i v(' pe H f)(' u'ct ion
I I,,' IH'I\ lati'M 1."-.-"111 1'( :1{ l .l n l , illl·~·'·'W'·
1)"h"'li"" ~~~l1"lIIlak,'~ ' 1II1I11IiI1lli,,' ~1k' ... n""'·I,·r. \"

... ·'I' ... r'n· ,I,·" ..-,j,," I" 11,·\\ I"I!'I~ IIf !!,·I..I... ·l n)I'III,I"I·,i, .
"•. n.••• ". ... ,"'J~ .....,./.
~IM' ... I at.,1 tl.n .. I!!I'I .. II . ,·il.illilli ll 11I1"lIi,I,·. ~•• .r.-.... ,.. "•. ,.,,..,
~, ... ~ ...I'"".""",
(l'l H'I),.rlll;""'I"·,·ifi,·i l~ i, Ili!!I,,·!". .......,,, ....... ,••• .." . Ii
,'M'. \., f,'" ;,~ 10 lIIul"" II I,'~ 1,:,\1·1""'11

,1"1",'11',1 - i,. 1'( :11 .... ,I,lI i, .. , - ",i" .!! HI' "ill l ll ... 1 :1I 1 \ 1 :t' I'~ I."i-.-"IB 1'( :1{
'·I.....;!~ 1r:"hf,... I~·I\\"'·' I I\\') 0111'1"1""",11
, I ~ ,', "II " Iar;!," - 'III" 'ifi,' 1'1"1110'. ' 1 " ( :", ,1;'1'1 ")(1" I.0·;.1 I'.·,.kill-I·:II" '·I"
,'11-' "',· IlIa\i" "1I 1I 1"('li"l,ilil\ alil l "m,·.· f,>I" •• 11" ""1 MWI ,I.· ... '!"il .ill;! ' I.ta"-
,', "1\ "lIi"lIn', nil' 'I"I·~'·'· II.·.· I il1ll i,u. "f 1>( :11 "'1"1,1:",· ~I:trl il';!
i, 01,·1 ,·, ....,1 1.1 ii ,,· I"I'I'~ 111 11 •• 1.·...
1"1·... ·:.1"1·11-1'1"1)\ ,'1 .
?ERKIN ELMER
_ .",01_75411
,n."o._
f ......
Go<_ 10l11!l).1II>O
_"" 0I~1.1IOO
SpoIo (~to)-<21O
_ 0<2iSrm
"" '0JIl~'
__ PCII_. .
ll.l. ·0$2SI_
' -1*_ Coroo>. ""-'r <I (O, . .13;W 301
<IMIapod .....
-",--~
~'*""'us ~
...
Mix briefly by pipetting up and down.

3. Add 1.0 fil of Sequencing grade Taq polymerase to the primer/template mix.
Mix briefly by pipetting up and down.
4. Add 4 fil of the enzyme/primer/template mix from steps 2. and 3. to the inside
wall of each tube containing d/ddNTP mix.
5. Add 25 f!l of mineral oil to each tube and briefly spin in a micro centrifuge.
6. Place the reaction tubes in the thermal cycler (e.g. TRIO Thermoblock; Bio-
metra) that has been preheated to 95°C and start the cycling program:
95 °C for 5 min, then:
95°C for 30 s (denaturation)
57°C for 30 s (annealing)
72 °C for 60 s (extension)
30 cycles total, then
72 °C for 5 min, then
4°C
7. After the thermo cycling program has been completed, add 3 fil of Sequencing
Stop Solution.
S. The samples may be stored at - 20°C overnight.
(B) Denaturing Polyacrylamide Electrophoresis/Blotting

1. Pour about 1.0 liter of 1 x TBE into the lower buffer chamber.
2. Cut a piece of nylon membrane 50 em long (Pall Biodyne A; Hoefer).
>>Always wear gloves when handling nylon membrane< <
3. Squirt a few milliliters of buffer under the membrane flap on the transport
belt. Place one end of the nylon membrane under the flap. Advance the
transport belt until the flap is located under the glass rod immediately
behind the sandwich.
4. Place the gel sandwich and the aluminum plate into the blotter. Carefully
inspect the interface between the bottom of the gel and the nylon
membrane. If any bubbles are trapped, remove them by directing a stream
of buffer at the interface using a transfer pipette.
5. Pour the buffer into the upper buffer chamber.
6. Remove the blank comb.
7. Insert the shark's tooth comb.
S. Activate the power supply for the prerun (35 W for 45 min).
9. Load the samples:
Heat the samples at so °C for 2 min immediately before loading, then
place them on ice. Load 2.0 f!l of each reaction on the gel in the order
G-A-T-C.
10. Run the gel at 30 W until the tracking dye has reached the bottom of the gel.
11. Program the Controller:
Using MAIN MENU/EDIT/SINGLE RUN set the following program:
Total 03.30 (h:min)
Delay 00.00 (h:min)
Init 15.00 (cm/h)

Last 08.00 (cm/h)
Generally, the first fragments move off the gel and onto the membrane quickly;
in order to allow for adequate separation of the fragments, the initial speed
setting should therefore be rather high. Longer fragments move more slowly
through the gel. In order to get the best resolution and still achieve adequate
separation, the last speed setting should be slower than the initial speed setting.
Save the program using MAIN MENU/FILER/SAVE.
Load the program using FILER MENU/LOAD.
Activate AUTO-ADVANCE using the OPTIONS MENU in order to move the
transport belt an additional 10 cm -at top speed- at the end of the run.
12. After the tracking dye has reached the bottom of the gel, start the run of the
nylon membrane using MAIN MENU/START RUN.
13. Remove the membrane from the flap at the end of the run.
14. Immobilize the DNA at the membrane by UV irradiation.
(Cl Chemiluminescent Detection of DNA Fragments

The following steps will be performed at room temperature in a hybridization
oven (MWG).
1. Place the membrane in the tube (GATC).
2. Add 100 ml of Blocking buffer and incubate for 15 min.
3. Incubate for 20 min in 100 ml of Conjugate solution.
4. Wash 1 x 5 min in 100 ml Blocking buffer.
5. Wash 3 x 10 min in 100 ml Wash buffer.
6. Wash 2 x 1 min in 100 ml Assay buffer.
7. Incubate for 5 min in CSPD Detection solution.
8. Remove the membrane and seal the membrane in plastic wrap. Do not allow
the membrane to dry.
9. Expose for 30 min at room temperature to BIOMAX MR film (Kodak).
1.4.2.2 Direct Non-Isotopic Solid-Phase Sequencing of Single Stranded PCR Products
Materials:
(Al Separation of Single-Stranded DNA

1) PCR product
423 bp PCR amplified genomic DNA fragment of HMG box of SRY.
PCR amplification of genomic DNA samples (500 ng) was performed in 50 Jll
reactions using 0.5 Jlmolil of each primer AP1 (5'-biotin-GAA-TAT-TCC-
CGC- TCT-CCG-G-3') and AP2 (5'-ACA-ACC- TGT-CCA-GTT-GC-3'; according
to Jiiger et al. [lO), 3 mmolll MgCl 2 , 200 mmolll each dNTP and 1.25 U of Taq-
polymerase.
G A T C G ATC GATC
--- --
---
Fig. 1.4-2. Direct non-isotopic sequencing of double stranded peR products using a 5'-bio-
tinylated primer. DNA sequences generated with the ±Mol DNA Sequencing System (Promega)
as detailed in the protocoll
1. PCR with one non labeled and one 5'-biotinylated primer

2. Preparation of single-stranded DNA
I
immobllisaflon of the biotinyiated PCR product
onto Dynabeads M-280 Streptavidin
~
::=.===;:
dsDNA "DNA
et
meiflng (NaOH) • , - -_ _ _ 3'
YbioHn
U Dynabeads M-280 streptovldin
3. Solid-phase sequencing (ssDNA DIG-16-dATP. Sequenase 2.0,

d/ddNTPs)
_ _ 5'
et
----3·
prlmer-anneallng • et~---3'
labeling
« ]
(DiG-16-dATp, Sequenase 2.0
ddNTP ~
ddNTP~
ddNTP~5' termination/extension ~ 5'
cf cf
4. Separation and parallel blotting of the DIG-labeled fragments
onto nylon membrane
5. Chemiluminescent detection
I
binding of the anti-DiG-aikaline phosphatase-conjugate
!
to the DiG of the immobilised fragments
Inght emission I
! F='- f' -(
~=~7~G /~-~7
enzyme-substrate reaction
(anti-DiG-AP/ CSPD)
Fig. 1.4-3. Direct non-isotopic solid-phase sequencing of single stranded peR products -
principle of the method
2) Dynabeads M-280 Streptavidin

Dynabeads M-280 are uniform, superparamagnetic, polystyrene beads.
Dynabeads M- 280 Streptavidin have streptavidin covalently attached to the
bead surface. Streptavidin is a protein (MW of approx. 66000) made up offour
identical subunits, each containing a high affinity binding site for biotin
(KD =1015 molll).
3) Binding & Washing buffer (B & W, Dynal): 10 mmolll Tris-HCI, pH 7.5;
1 mmolll EDTA, 2.0 molll NaCl
4) NaOH-solution: 0.1 molll NaOH, 0.04 mmolll EDTA
5) TE-buffer: 10 mmolll Tris-HCI, pH 7.5; 1 mmolll EDTA
(B) Solid-Phase Sequencing

6) Sequencing Primer
AP-2: 5'-ACA-ACC-TGT-CCA-GTT-GC-3', 10 pmollJAl
7) Labeling substance: DIG-16-dATP (Boehringer, Mannheim)
17 JAmolll solution of digoxigenin-16-dATP in aqua sterile.
Final concentration in the labeling mixture: 1 JAmolll
DIG-16-dATP can replace dATP as a substrate for T7 DNA polymerase in
DNA sequencing according to Sanger et al. [2J.
See Note at the end of the chapter.
The following reagents are components of the Sequenase Version 2.0 DNA
Sequencing Kit (United States Biochemicals):
8) Sequenase reaction buffer,S x concentrated
9) Dithiotreitol, 0.1 molll
10) Mn buffer
11) Enzyme dilution buffer
12) GIAITIC-terminationlextending mixes: 1 Vol. Extending Mix, 4 Vol
Termination Mix
13) Sequenase Version 2.0 T7 DNA polymerase, 13 UM
14) Stop solution
(C) Denaturing Polyacrylamide Electrophoresis/Blotting

15) 1 x TBE buffer prepared from the 10 x stock solution (see appendix)
16) 6% Long Ranger gel (AT Biochem)
(D) Chemiluminescent Detection of DNA Fragments

15) 1 x PBS: 0.058 molll Na2HP04, 0.017 molll NaH2P04xH2 0, 0.068 maUl NaCl
in aqua bidest; pH 7.4
16) Blocking buffer: 0.2% I-Block reagent; 0.1 % Tween 20 in 1 x PBS
17) Conjugate solution:
1: 5000 dilution of Anti-DIG-AP conjugate (polyclonal sheep anti-
digoxigenin Fa b-fragment, conjugated with alkaline phosphatase;
Boehringer, Mannheim) in 1 volume of 1 x PBS and 1 volume Blocking
buffer.
To avoid unspecific spots at the blot, spin the antibody for 3 min in a micro-
centrifuge before use, then dilute with 1 vol. 1 PBS, filtrate the solution with
a syringe through a 0.45 JAm microfilter and add the Blocking buffer.
18) Wash buffer: 0.3 % Tween 20 in 1 x PBS
19) Assay buffer: 0.1 mmolll diethanolamine; 1 mmolll MgCl 2 in aqua ster.,
pH 10
20) CSPD Detection solution: 0.24 mmolll CSPD in Assay buffer (200 JAl in 20 ml)
Protocol2: Direct Non-Isotopic Solid Phase Sequencing
(A) Preparation of Single Stranded DNA

1. Place the tube containing 40 !Jl of Dynabeads in the appropriate magnetic
particle concentrator (MPC).
Remove the supernatant with a pipette while keeping the tube in the magnet.
2. Resuspend the Dynabeads in 40 fl.l of B & W buffer and mix gently by pipet-
ting up and down. Remove the supernatant with a pipette while keeping the
tube in the MPC.
3. Repeat 2.
4. Resuspend the beads in 40 fl.l B & W buffer.
5. To the 40 fl.l of prewashed beads add 40 fl.l of PCR product. Mix by pipetting
up and down.
6. Place the tube in the thermocycler (e. g. TRIO Thermoblock, Biometra) that
has been preheated to 37°C.
7. Incubate for 30 min keeping the beads suspended by gently tipping the tube.
8. Remove the supernatant using the MPC.
9. Wash the Dynabeads/PCR-product twice with 2 x 40 fl.l B & W buffer using
the MPC.
11. Add 50 fl.l of the NaOH solution. Mix by pipetting up and down.
12. Incubate at room temperature for 5 min.
l3. Remove the supernatant using the MPC.
14. Wash the beads (with the immobilized biotinylated strand) once with 50 fl.l
NaOH solution, once with 50 fl.l B & W buffer and once with 50 fl.l TE buffer.
16. Resuspend the beads in 8 fl.l aqua sterile.
(B) Solid-Phase Sequencing

Primer annealing:
1. To the tube containing the immobilized ssDNA (lO!Jl) add: 2 fl.l Reaction
buffer and 1 fl.l Sequencing primer (10 pmol).
Mix by pipetting up and down.
2. Heat the sample for 5 min at 65°C in the thermocycler, slowly cool down to
room temperature over a period of 30 min.
Labeling reaction:
3. While the mixture is cooling down dilute the Sequenase enzyme to 2.6 U/fl.l:
Mix 2.0 fl.l Enzyme dilution buffer and 0.5 fl.l Sequenase enzyme in a fresh
tube.
Keep the diluted enzyme on ice.
4. After the template-primer-reaction mix has cooled down add (on ice):
• 1 fl.l dithiotreitol
• 1 fl.l Mn buffer
• 1 fll DIG-dATP labeling solution and

• 1 fll diluted Sequenase enzyme (2.6 U)
5. Incubate for 10 min at 37°C.
6. After the labeling reaction has finished add another 1 fll aliquot of the
diluted Sequenase enzyme (2.6 U).
Termination/ extension reaction:
7. While the labeling mixture is incubated at 37°C,label four fresh 0.5 ml tubes
(G,A, T,C).
Add 2.5 fll of the appropriate termination/extending mixes to each tube and
bring up to 37°C.
8. Add 3.5 fll of the labeling mixture to each of the four termination mixes.
9. Incubate for 5 min at 37°C.
10. Stop the reaction by placing the tubes on ice. The reaction products might
be stored at 4°C until the next day.
Preparation of the samples for electrophoresis:
11. Mix the samples by pipetting up and down.
12. Place the samples into MPC and remove the supernatant.
13. Add 4 fll Stop solution. Mix gently.
14. Heat the samples for 2 min to 80°C and chill on ice prior to applying to
the gel.
(C) Denaturing Polyacrylamide Electrophoresis/Blotting
The procedure corresponds to the method described in protocol 1 part (B) p.43-4
(D) Chemiluminescent Detection of DNA Fragments

The following steps will be performed at room temperature in a hybridization
oven (MWG).
l. Place the membrane in the tube.
>>Always wear gloves when handling nylon membrane <<

2. Add 100 mIl x PBS and incubate for 3 min.
3. Incubate for 20 min in 100 ml Blocking buffer.
4. Incubate for 20 min in 100 ml of Conjugate solution.
5. Wash 3 x 10 minutes with Wash buffer.
6. Equilibrate the membrane for 2 x 1 min with 100 ml Assay buffer.
7. Incubate for 5 min in 20 ml CSPD Detection solution.
8. Expose for 30 min at room temperature to BIOMAX MR film (Kodak)
Note: The digoxigenin residue will slightly change the migration of the DNA
fragments through the sequencing gel. Consequently, identical numbers of
labeled nucleotides must be incorporated into each DNA fragment to provide for
a uniform, single banding pattern and to avoid the appearance of multiple back-
ground bands.
The best results will be achieved by incorporating the digoxigenin residue

only once into each strand by designing a labeling mixture containing the DIG-
16-dATP and missing the unmodified dATP and at least one of the other three
nucleotides.
Example 1:
primer
5' I-----IGCADIG
3' I-----CGTA .......
template
If the labeling mixture contains dGTP, dCTP and DIG-16-dATP but no dTTP, the
primer is extended by three bases, the first two being unmodified and the third
digoxigenated.
Example 2:
primer
5' I-----IGADIG
3' I-----CTGG .......
template
In the presence of only dGTP and DIG-16-dATP in the labeling mixture the
primer is extended by two bases, the first being unmodified and the second
digoxigenated.
Example 3:
Sequencing ofPCR amplified SRY-HMG box by the primer AP2 (present case)
primer
5' IAC-AAC-CTG-TTG-TCC-AGT-TGCi-ADIG
3' -TG-TTG-GAC-AAC-AGG-TCA-ACG-TGA-AGC .......
template
The first nucleotide to be linked with the 3' end of the sequencing primer is
dATP. Thus the labeling mixture contains exclusively DIG-16-dATP. During the
labeling step the primer is extended by only one base, the digoxigenated dATP.
In either case the labeling reaction is concluded with the incorporation of
one, and only one labeled nucleotide into the newly synthesized DNA strand.
The remaining unincorporated DIG-dATP will be diluted out during the
following termination/extension step due to the excess of unlabelled dATP in the
reaction mixture.
References 51
GAT C GAT C
-
--
-
Fig. 1.4-4. Direct non-isotopic sequencing using an internal labeling method with DIG-16-
dATP.
Left: DNA sequences generated with the Sequenase 2.0 (USB) as described in the protocol 2.
Right: DNA sequencing pattern using the same protocol but a labeling mixture containing the
following substances: 17 flmolll DIG-16-dATP; 1 flmolll dGTP; 1 flmolll dCTP and
1 flmol/ldTTP. All bands are accompanied by slightly weaker artifact bands (+-) due to the
slower migration of the population of multiple labeled DNA fragments
References
1. Saiki AK, Gelfand DH, Stoffel S, Scharf SJ, Higuchi R, Horn GT, Mullis KB, Erlich HA (1988)
Primer-directed enzymatic amplification of DNA with a thermostable DNA polymerase.
Science; 239:487 -491
2. Sanger F, Nicklen S, Coulson AR (1977) DNA sequencing with chain-terminating inhibi-
tors. Proc Natl Acad Sci; 74:5463-5467
3. Po hi FM, Beck S (1987) Direct transfer electrophoresis used for DNA sequencing. Methods
Enzymol; 155:250
4. Richterich P, Heller C, Wurst H, Pohl FM (1989) DNA sequencing with direct blotting
electrophoresis and colorimetric detection. BioTechniques; 7: 52 - 59.
5. Bronstein I, Edwards B, Voyta JC (1989) 1,2-Dioxetanes: Novel chemiluminescent enzyme
substrates. Applications to immunoassays. J Biolumin Chemilumin; 4: 99 -Ill.
6. Holtke HJ, Sanger G, Kessler C, Schmitz G (1992) Sensitive chemiluminescent detection of
digoxigenin-Iabeled nucleic acids: A fast simple protocol and 1st applications. Bio-
techniques; 12: 104-113.
7. Martin C, Bresnick L, Jou RR, Voyta JC, Bronstein I (1991) Improved chemiluminescent
DNA sequencing. BioTechniques; 11: 110-113.
8. Tizard R, Cate RL, Ramachandran KL, Wysk M, Voyta JC, Murphy OJ, Bronstein I (1990)
Imaging of DNA sequences with chemiluminescence. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA;
87:4514-4518.
9. Sinclair AH, Berta P, Palmer MS, Hawkins JR, Griffiths BL, Smith MJ, Foster JW, Frischauf
A-M, Lovell-Badge R, Goodfellow PN (1990) A gene from the human sex-determining
region encodes a protein with homology to a conserved DNA-binding motif. Nature;
346: 240 - 244
10. Jager RJ, Anvret M, Hall K, Scherer G (1990) A human XY female with a frame shift muta-
tion in the candidate testis-determining gene SRY. Nature; 348:452-454
Part 2
Conventional Techniques for mRNA Analysis
Chapter 2.1
Isolation of mRNA
D. LASSNER
Gene expression and gene regulation are the basis of all cell and tissue functions
and are bound up to transcriptional and translational processes.
The conversion of biological information from genomic sequences (double-
stranded DNA) into a functional polypeptide through expression of hetero-
geneous nuclear RNA in the nucleus, splicing of mRNA sequences, posttran-
scriptional and posttranslational modifications is a field of extensive research in
molecular biology and clinical diagnostics.
The typical mammalian cell contains approximately 5 x 1O-5 1lg RNA [1].
There are five different forms of RNA with various functions in gene expression.
All species of cellular RNA are transcriptional products of one of the three
nuclear RNA polymerases (see Table 2.1-1).
During transcription, RNA polymerase II produces RNA molecules whose
sequence correlates precisely with DNA from which it is derived [2]. All these
transcribed RNA precursors contain introns and are called heterogeneous
nuclear RNA (hn RNA). During formation of mRNA, sequence introns are
removed by splicing and a poly A+ tail is added to the 3'-ends. The length of the
Table 2.1-1. Eukaryotic RNA polymerases, transcriptional products, mean functions and
relative contribution of cellular RNA
Enzyme Transcriptional products Function percentage of

cellular RNA (0/0)
RNA ribosomal RNA constitution of ribosomes 70-80

polymerase I (rRNA, 28 S, 18 S, 5.8 S)
RNA heterogeneous nuclear RNA precursor of mRNA 20-40

polymerase II (hn RNA)
RNA transfer RNA (tRNA) translation of mRNA to 10

polymerase III protein sequence
ribosomal RNA (rRNA) constitution of
ribosomes, intron removal
small nuclear RNA (snRNA) and splicing ofhn RNA
56 2.1 Isolation of mRNA
poly A segment is quite consistent: 200 - 250 nucleotides in vertebrates, about 100
nucleotides in yeast [3].
Heterogeneous nuclear RNA is synthesized in the nucleus. The relative con-
tribution of its spliced form, namely mRNA, is only 2 - 5 % of the total cellular
RNA. This indicates that about 75 % of all hnRNA is degraded in the nucleus.
Almost all eukaryotic mRNAs are monocistronic. This means they encode a
single polypeptide chain. In prokaryotes, many mRNA are polycistronic, i. e. they
encode multiple polypeptide chains [3].
Diversity of cellular biochemistry corresponds to the diversity of cellular
RNA. Thus, mRNA is of particular interest to molecular biologists and in many
fields of clinical diagnostics [2].
2.1.2 Precautions in RNA Isolation

With extensive research in the field of molecular biology, the isolation of pure
RNA from a large number of biological samples has become a critical issue. The
crucial aspect in any RNA isolation procedure is protection of the sample from
contamination with ribonucleases. RNases are very stable enzymes and
generally do not require any co factors for their function. Therefore a small
amount of RNase in a RNA sample is a real problem. Under experimental condi-
tions, the hands of the researcher are the major source of contamination with
RNases. Therefore:
»Always wear gloves when handling RNA.«
»Do not hesitate to change gloves frequently.«
Autoclaving will not fully inactivate RNases. Water or salt solutions used in RNA
preparation should be treated with 0.1 % diethylpyrocarbonate (DEPC) for at
least 1 hour. Then autoclave treated solutions to remove any traces of DEPC. This
chemical inhibits ribonucleases irreversibly. Tris buffers cannot be treated with
DEPC as Tris react with it. Therefore Tris should be dissolved in DEPC-treated-
and autoclaved water to get an RNase-free solution. The solution should be
autoclaved again after addition of Tris.
»When using DEPC, wear gloves and use a fume hood because DEPC is a
strong carcinogen!«
Sterile, disposable plasticware is essentially free of RNase activity. However,
autoclave all plasticware before first use and dry it at 1l0°C for 4h to remove
excess moisture. Glassware is heated to 210°C for 4 h to destroy all ribonuclease
activity. These measures are sufficient to obtain RNase-free conditions. Many
laboratory manuals also recommend rinsing all plasticware with chloroform
before autoclaving.
All chemicals should be of the highest purity.
2.1.3 Methods of mRNA Isolation 57
2.1.3 Methods of mRNA Isolation

Guanidinium thiocyanate and chloride are among the most effective protein
denaturants. They are both strong inhibitors of ribonucleases and guanidinium
extraction has become the method of choice for RNA purification.
Most common and consistently successful methods for isolation of pure,
intact total RNA are modifications of the original guanidinium thiocyanate
method of Chirgwin et al. [4].
This method has been used to isolate undegraded RNA from ribonuclease-
rich tissue e. g. pancreas. The protocol combines the disruption of tissue or cells
in high concentration of guanidinium thiocyanate and a subsequent ultra-
centrifugation of this lysate through a CsCI cushion. The RNA forms a pellet at
the bottom of centrifugation tube, while proteins and DNA remain in or above
the CsCI cushion [5].
A modified method combining guanidinium thiocyanate and phenol-chloro-
form extraction does not require an ultracentrifugation step [6]. This is often the
method of choice when multiple RNA extractions are performed. The main com-
ponent of this procedure is solution D (25 mmolll sodium citrate, pH 7.0,4 molll
guanidinium thiocyanate, 0.5% sarcosyl, 0.1 molll 2-mercaptoethanol). The
extraction step is performed by using a mixture of solution D, phenol, 0.2 molll
sodium acetate; pH 4.0, and chloroform. Two phases are obtained after incubation
on ice and centrifugation at 10000 gfor 20 min. The upper aqueous phase contains
the RNA, whereas proteins and DNA are in the lower phenol phase and the inter-
phase. After addition of an equal volume of isopropanol to the separated upper
aqueous phase, the RNA precipitates at - 20°C for at least 1 h. Sedimentation at
10000 g for 20 min was again performed and the resulting RNA pellet was resolved
in solution D and reprecipitated with one volume of isopropanol. After centri-
fugation RNA pellet was resuspended in 75 % ethanol, sedimented, vacuum dried,
and dissolved in DEPC-treated water or 0.5% SDS. Ribonucleases are inhibited
during this protocol by the presence of 4 M guanidinium thiocyanate.
Both isolation protocols described here provide high yield and purity of
undegraded RNA preparations. An improved protocol for a rapid single-step
method of RNA isolation is demonstrated below. Here a ready-to-use RNAzol
B-solution which combine all components and properties of solution D and
phenol in one solution, resulting in a more convenient protocol.
Purified total RNA could be used for many downstream applications (i. e.
poly A+ RNA selection by oligo (dT) chromatography, Northern blot analysis
(see chapter 2.6) and cDNA synthesis (chapter 2.2)}.
For some applications, it is more convenient to use mRNA instead of total
cellular RNA because of increased sensitivity, especially in Northern blot
analysis (see chapter 2.6).
The mRNA can be isolated from total RNA by oligo (dT) chromatography.
There are existing protocols to isolate mRNA directly from celllysates. One of
most convincing and reliable methods of mRNA isolation is the magnetic
separation method with oligo (dT) bound on the surface of paramagnetic beads.
A protocol for isolation of polyA+ RNA directly from cell lysate is described below.

All protocols mentioned below were established for isolation of RNA from
cultured cells. Disruption of tissues is performed by mincing the freshly isolated
sample (up to 0.1 g) on ice and subsequent homogenization with a glass/Teflon
homogenizer with 1 ml of corresponding lysis solution (RNAzolB or lysis
buffer) at room temperature. All the following steps were adapted to a scaled-up
protocol according to the volume of lysed cells/tissues. For tissues difficult to
homogenize, it is recommend to put the isolated sample first in liquid nitrogen,
grind the frozen material and transfer the frozen powder to a glass/Teflon homo-
genizer containing the lysis solution (RNAzoI B or lysis buffer). Thereafter the
procedure mentioned above is followed.
2.1.4.1 Isolation of Total-RNA by RNAzol B
RNAzoI B is a ready-to-use solution for rapid isolation of total-RNA from cells

and tissues. It contains an irritant (guanidinium thiocyanate) and a poison
(phenol). Handle RNAzoI B with gloves. There are many comparable chemicals
(e. g. TRISOLV, TRlzol) for RNA isolation with slightly improved properties (e. g.
isolation of RNA and DNA in one extraction step).
The following protocol is the method of choice for rapid RNA isolation. It is
easily scaled up or down depending on sample size.
Materials:
1) RNAzol B (AGS)
2) Chloroform (-20°C)
3) Isopropanol (-20°C)
4) Ethanol 75 (v/v) in H2 0, (-20 DC)
5) DEPC-H2 0
7) Eurotips of different size (Eppendorf)
8) Varipettes 4810 (Eppendorf)
9) Centrifuge 5415C (Eppendorf)
10) Thermomixer 5436 (Eppendorf)
11) Heto vacuum concentrator (Heto)
12) Refrigerator (-20°C)
13) Iso-Rack (O°C) (Eppendorf)
Protocol 1: Isolation of Total Cellular RNA by RNAzol BSolution
1. Homogenization
Lyse cells by addition of 0.2 ml RNAzol B per 10 6 cells. Solubilize RNA by
passing the lysate through the pipette or by vortexing.
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2. RNA extraction
Add 1/10 volume ice-cold chloroform to homogenate, cover the sample
tightly and vortex vigorously for 15 s. Place the tube in an Iso-Rack (0 DC) or
on ice for 5 min. Centrifuge suspension at 14000 rpm for 15 min. After
addition of chloroform and centrifugation, the homogenate forms two
phases: the lower blue phenol-chloroform phase and the colorless upper
aqueous phase. RNA remains exclusively in the upper aqueous phase whereas
DNA and proteins will be in the interphase and organic phase, respectively.
One volume of the aqueous phase corresponds to about 50 % of the initial
volume of RNAzol B plus one volume of sedimented cells.
Note: The extraction step can also be performed with a swing out rotor at
5000 x g for 15 min.
3. RNA precipitation
Transfer the aqueous phase to a fresh Eppendorf tube, add 1 volume of
isopropanol (- 20°C) and mix the solution by inverting the tube. Store the
samples for at least 30 min at - 20 DC. Centrifuge the suspension at 14000 rpm
for 15 min. The precipitated RNA will form a white-yellow pellet at the
bottom of the tube (often not visible to the naked eye).
4. RNA wash
Remove the supernatant immediately and add 500 fll75 % Ethanol (- 20°C) to
wash the pellet. Vortex briefly and centrifuge for 8 min at 14000 rpm. After
centrifugation, remove ethanol by inverting the tube and placing it on a
paper towel on the bench top. Dry the pellet briefly under vacuum for
10-15 min.
5. Redissolving of RNA
Dissolve dried RNA pellet in 50 - 200 fll DEPC-H20 or suitable buffer at 50°C
in a thermomixer. The volume of added DEPC-water depends on size of
visible RNA pellet.
Approximately 25 flg of total cellular RNA should be recovered by RNA isola-
tion with RNAzol B from 10 6 cells.
Trouble Shooting
The most critical step is the vigorous mixing of homogenate after addition of
chloroform. From the following centrifugation, a colorless upper aqueous phase
and a blue-brown lower phenol phase must result. Repeat the vigorous mixing
on a vortexer and centrifuge again if the phases are located inversely.
In general we recommend using RNAzol B added copiously to be sure that all
cell material is fully disrupted. The yield of total RNA is increased by longer
precipitation time (2 h, overnight) and lower temperature (- 70°C) during
precipitation.
Using polyethylene reaction tubes for RNA isolation is recommended to
avoid breakage during phenol-chloroform treatment, especially during the
centrifugation step.
All RNA preparations should be examined by denaturing agarose gel

electrophoresis (see chapter 2.6). Total RNA is undegraded if two clear bands of
ribosomal RNA (28S and 18S) are observed with the 28S band being about twice
as intense as the 18S band.
2.1.4.2 mRNA Purification by Oynabeads Oligo (dThs
Several years ago DYNAL AS (Oslo, Norway) developed uniform, paramagnetic

monodisperse polymer particles. Today these particles are known as DYNA-
BEADS and have proved themselves to be useful in solving many practical
problems during the separation and isolation of molecules or cells. For the
various applications, the magnetic beads can be loaded with antibodies,
steptavidin or oligonucleotides covalently attached to the surface. It is therefore
possible to bind specific antigens or nucleic acid sequences to the beads
following separation of target molecules or cells using a magnetic particle
concentrator (MPC).
Dynabeads Oligo(dThs are loaded with chains of deoxythymidylate, 25
nuc1eotides in length, covalently bound to the surface of the beads. This product
is designed for rapid isolation of pure, intact polyadenylated mRNA (polyA+ RNA)
from eukaryotic cells. The method relies on base pairing between oligo (dT)
residue coupled to the beads and the universal polyA+ tail of messenger RNA.
An important feature of this beads is the possibility to prepare mRNA
directly from lysates of cells, solid tissue and plants. The kit is flexible and the
protocol may be scaled up or down to specific sample requirements. The purified
mRNA is well suited for Northern blot analysis (see chapter 2.6)
All the required reagents are provided with the "Dynabeads mRNA DIRECT
Kit" of DYNAL A. S., Oslo, Norway (excluding PBS, RNase inhibitor, glycogen and
K-acetate). The essential component of this kit, paramagnetic Dynabeads Oligo
(dT), can be ordered separately.
A similar product distributed by Promega is called "PolyATtract mRNA
Isolation System".
This protocol exploits the ability of the dodecylsulphate (LiDS) to inhibit
RNase activity.
Materials:
1) Lysis/Binding Buffer: (100 mmol/l Tris/HCI; pH 8.0, 500 mmol/l LiCI,

10 mmol/l EDTA; pH 8.0, 1 % liDS, 5 mmol/l dithiothreitol)
2) RNase Inhibitor (20 U/fll, AGS Heidelberg)
3) Dynabeads Oligo (dTh Beads (5 mg beads/ml PBS, 0.02% NaN3)
4) 1 x Washing Buffer with liDS (10 mmol/l Tris/HCI; pH 8.0, 0.15 mol/l LiCI,
1 mmol/l EDTA, 0.1 % liDS)
5) 1 x Washing Buffer (10 mmol/l Tris/HCI; pH 8.0, 0.15 mol/l LiCI, 1 mmol/l
EDTA)
6) Elution Buffer (2 mmolll EDTA; pH 8.0)

7) Glycogen solution (20 mg/ml, Boehringer Mannheim)
8) K-acetate-solution (3 molll)
9) DEPC-H2 0
10) Ethanol (100 %, - 20 °C)
11) Phosphate-buffered saline (PBS): see appendix
13) Eurotips of different size (Eppendorf)
14) Varipettes 4810 (Eppendorf)
17) Heto Vac (He to)
18) Refrigerator (-20 °C)
19) Magnetic particle concentrator (MPC-E, Dynal)
20) 2 ml syringe, fitted with a 21 gauge needle
Protocol2: mRNA Purification by Dynabeads Oligo (dT) 25
(A) Preparation of lysate from cells

1. Wash the cell suspension with PBS prior to preparing a cell pellet by
centrifugation. The cell pellet can be used immediately, or frozen in liquid
nitrogen.
2. Resuspend sedimented cells (up to 4 X 10 6 ) with 1 ml Lysis/Binding buffer,
add 1111 (20 U) RNase inhibitor. Pass the solution repeatedly through a
pipette tip to obtain a complete lysis.
3. Reduce the viscosity by a DNA-shear step. The lysate is pressed three times
through a 21 gauge needle by a 2 ml syringe (use force). The reduced
viscosity is visible. Repeated shearing causes foaming of the lysate. This
should not effect the mRNA yield. Centrifuge the solution for 30 s to reduce
the foam.
(B) Conditioning of Dynabeads Oligo (dThs

4. Place a tube with 0.25 ml Dynabeads Oligo (dThs into MPC-E for 30 sand
remove the supernatant. Wash the beads in 200 III Lysis/Binding buffer.
Again remove the supernatant using the MPC-E.
5. Transfer the Eppendorf tube with the prewashed Dynabeads to another
rack (outside the MPC-E).
(C) Direct mRNA Isolation from Crude Lysate

6. Mix the cell lysate with Dynabeads and allow to hybridize for 5 min at room
temperature.
7. Use the MPC-E to collect the beads on one side of tube for 2 min and remove
the supernatant.
8. Wash the beads twice with 1 ml washing buffer with LiDS and three times
with 0.5 ml washing buffer. Remove the last wash solution as completely as
possible.
9. Add 20 1111 x Elution buffer, incubate at 65°C for 2 min (thermomixer) and
separate beads in MPC-E immediately. Transfer supernatant (Caution!
Contains mRNA) to a new RNAse free Eppendorf tube.
Note: This purified mRNA can be used directly for Northern blotting or RT -PCR.
If desired precipitate RNA performing steps 10 to 12.
10. Precipitate RNA after addition of 290 III elution buffer, 10 III glycogen
solution, 30 III K-acetate solution and 700 III Ethanol for 30 min at - 20°C as
amlmmum.
11. Centrifuge mRNA for 15 min at 14000 rpm. Remove supernatant by
inverting the tube and placing on a paper towel on the bench top.
12. Dry the mRNA pellet briefly under vacuum for 5 min. Dissolve dried pellet
in DEPC- H20 or suitable buffers at 50°C in a thermomixer.
This protocol is suitable for isolating between 1 and 3 Ilg of poly A+ RNA.
Trouble Shooting
Examination of mRNA samples on denaturing agarose gel (see chapter 2.6) will
exhibit two weak bands (28S and 18S rRNA). No mRNA preparation is free of
ribosomal RNA, but rRNA does not influence further applications.
The added RNase inhibitor protects this preparation only in the first step of
this protocol.
It is necessary to perform the RNA isolation as careful as possible to prevent
contamination with ribonucleases.
2.1.5 Quantitation of Purified mRNA

The concentration of isolated mRNA in the final eluate can be determined by
spectrophotometry. Estimation of the amount of mRNA is performed by
measuring absorbance at 260 nm and 280 nm.
The absorbance at 260 nm corresponds to the amount of nucleic acids (DNA,
RNA) and proteins in the sample. Absorbance at 280 nm only determines the
concentration of proteins. The A26o/ A280 ratio should be between 1.8 to 2.0 when
the RNA preparation is free of proteins. Nucleic acid preparation is sufficiently
free of proteins when the A26o/ A280 ratio has a value of about 1.6.
If the ratio is lower than 1.6 remove contaminating proteins by phenol-
chloroform extraction as described above (chapter 1.3).
Pipette dilutions of RNA in quartz cuvettes and measure absorbance at
260 nm and 280 nm of each dilution by photometry and calculate the con centra -
tion of RNA using the following equation:
References 63
Concentration of RNA (ng/Ill) = A260 * dilution factor * extinction coefficient

Extinction coefficients of nucleic acids are (width of cuvette is 10 mm):
ds-DNA 50.0
ss-DNA,RNA 40.0 (more precisely 44.19 for RNA) [2]
oligonucleotides 25.0
A260 of 1.00 (1 O.D., d = 10 mm) correspond to a concentration of 40 Ilg RNA per
ml examined solution.
The dilution factor is usually between 50 to 400 depending on the size of quartz
cuvettes used. For minimizing contamination, it is preferable to measure the
concentration of nucleic acids by spectrophotometry and to discard the diluted
sample. If reusing this sample is necessary, clean the cuvettes by soaking with
chromic acid (or concentrated H Cl: methanol (1 : 1)) and then rinse thoroughly
with sterile DEPC-treated water to purge of RNase activity.
2.1.6 Storage of Purified RNA

For long-term storage of isolated RNA, a washed and dried pellet is covered with
ethanol (100 %) and stored at - 20°C, or in aqueous solution at - 70 °C or below
for up to one year without appreciable deterioration [3]. Avoid repeated thawing
and freezing.
For daily use, isolated RNA is aliquoted and can be stored in aqueous
solution at - 20°C without significant loss of stability. To ensure intactness and
longer storage time of RNA preparations, add a carrier RNA (e.g. tRNA of
E. coli). For mRNA molecules, the first sign of aging and instability is a shortage
of or a lost poly A+ tail.
References
1. Sambrook J, Fritsch EF, Maniatis T (1989) Molecular Cloning: A laboratory manual. Cold
Spring Harbor University Press, Cold Spring Harbor
2. Farell RF (ed.) (1993) RNA Methodologies: A Laboratory Guide for Isolation and
Characterization, Academic Press Inc., New York
3. Darnell JE (ed.), Lodish H, Baltimore D (1990) Molecular Cell Biology. Scientific American
Books Inc., New York
4. Chirgwin JM, Przybyla AE, MacDonald RJ, Rutter W (1979) Isolation of biologically active
ribonucleic acid from source enriched in ribonuclease. Biochemistry; 18: 5294- 5299
5. Siebert P (1991) RT-PCR. Methods & Applications, Book 1, Clontech Laboratories Inc.,
Palo Alto
6. Chomczynski P, Sacchi N (1987) Single-step method of RNA isolation by acid guanidinium
thiocyanate-phenol-chloroform extraction, Anal Biochem; 162: 156 -159
Chapter 2.2
Synthesis of eDNA
D.LASSNER

For detection or quantitation of mRNA by polymerase chain reaction, it is
necessary to transcribe mRNA into copy-DNA (cDNA) by a reverse transcriptase
(RT) reaction. The quality of a cDNA depends on the integrity of the messenger
RNA and the fidelity of the transcription.
Two types of reverse transcriptases (RT, revertase) are commonly used in
cDNA synthesis: Avian myeloblastosis virus (AMV) RT and Moloney murine
leukemia virus (MMLV) RT.
Like many polymerases, revertase catalyzes more than one reaction. The
enzyme embodies two functions in vitro - a polymerase activity and an
associated ribonuclease H (RNase H) activity [1].
In general, intrinsic RNase H activity degrades most of the remaining
mRNA. In other cases, under non-optimal RT conditions, high RNase H activity
decreases the yield of the cDNA obtained. This problem can be minimized by use
of recombinant reverse transcriptases lacking RNase H activity.
Intact mRNA contained in the cDNA synthesis mixture may interfere within
the subsequent PCR process by competing with synthesized cDNA for the PCR
reaction components.
A recombinant DNA polymerase derived from the thermophilic eubacterium
Thermus thermophilus (Tth pol) was found to possess very efficient reverse trans-
cription activity in the presence of MnCb [2]. Many problems typically associated
with the high degree of secondary structure in RNA are minimized by using this
thermostable DNA polymerase for reverse transcription. The cDNA generated can
also be amplified with the same enzyme and in the same tube. A special chelating
buffer removes all Mn2+ so that the additional Mg2+ switches the reverse transcrip-
tion activity of Tth pol to DNA polymerase activity and starts the PCR process.
Performance of RT reaction and amplification in the same tube is called
"single-tube RT-PCR" [3].
Tth pol is ideally suitable for coupled RT-PCR (see chapter 2.4). The cDNA
template for RT-PCR is synthesized from a RNA by extension of an annealed
primer. There are three ways of cDNA priming:
1. Random Priming
2. Oligo-(dT) Priming
3. Specific Priming
66 2.2 Synthesis of cDNA
3' 5'
AAAA m RNA
5' 3' 5' 3'
T=r=rT=-1
r-=I
~
oligo-(dT) primer 1 .specific primer
I
RT reaction
a Revertase (AMI/, MMLl/,rTth) b
dNTPs, buffer
5' 3 ' 5' 3'

Ir-=r=T=rrl -l- --> ~A- - .
j
poly-(dT) tailed eDNA specific c DNA
tw.o specific peR 2. specific pr imer

pnmers Taq, Mg 2+, dNTPs, buffer
peR product
Fig.2.2-1. Priming of cDNA in RT-PCR. a Oligo-(dT) method. Oligo-(dT) primers are annealed
to ubiquitary poly A+ tail of mRNA and are extended by reverse transcriptase. b Specific
method. An specific downstream primer is annealed to the corresponding mRNA strand and
extended by revertase
By random priming using random hexamers the entire population of mRNA

molecules is converted into a summary of cDNAs of different lengths. This way
can be beneficial for the detection of rare mRNAs but is not usual for transcript
quantitation by PCR.
The second and third ways are shown schematically in Figure 2.2-1.
The cDNAs of all expressed mRNA are obtained when oligo-(dT) is used as
the primer in the RT reaction [4]. The specificity of cDNA synthesis and
subsequent amplification is increased by use of the respective specific primer
complementary to mRNA.
The mRNA sequence is always identical to the sequence of coding (sense)
strand of genomic DNA. The strand serving as the template for synthesis of
heterogeneous nuclear RNA (hn RNA) is called the template (antisense) strand
and its sequence is complementary to the coding strand of DNA [5].
Upstream primers are identical to the sequence of RNA or the DNA coding
strand. Downstream primers are complementary to the desired mRNA and
therefore act as starting points for specific cDNA synthesis. Second strand
synthesis is important for many applications, for example cloning strategies.
Single strand cDNA is sufficient to serve as a PCR template.

For quantitation it is necessary to reverse transcribe mRNA into a cDNA
sequence as completely as possible.
Two protocols have been described for the RT reaction using different
enzymes. Both are well suited for specific priming but oligo-( dT) priming is not
recommended in rTth RT.
Whole RT samples are incorporated after cDNA synthesis in an amplifica-
tion (coupled RT-PCR, see chapter 2.4).
2.2.2.1 Reverse Transcriptase Reaction with AMV-RT
Purified RNA is reverse transcribed by AMV reverse transcriptase using oligo-

(dT) or a specific downstream primer. For quantitation of mdrl-mRNA by
parallel amplified external standard cRNA (chapter 3.1) cDNA is specifically
primed and the complete RT reaction mixture is introduced into the subsequent
PCR assay (see chapter 2.4).
Materials:
1) 5 x RT buffer (250 mmolll Tris/HCl; pH 8.3, 250 mmolll KCl, 50 mmolll

MgClb 50 mmol DTY, 2.5 mmolll spermidine) (Promega)
2) dNTPs: 10 mM each nucleotide (Promega)
3) Down-stream primer (200 ng/fll)
4) RNase inhibitor (22 U/fll) (AGS)
5) Reverse transcriptase AMV (5 UM) (Promega)
6) DEPC-H2 0
7) MicroAmp reaction tubes (Perkin-Elmer)
8) GeneAmp 9600 thermal cycler (Perkin-Elmer)
11) Iso-Rack, white (0 DC) (Eppendorf)
Protocol 7: cDNA Synthesis with AMV Reverse Transcriptase
1. All solutions for RT mix are stored at - 20 dc. Before use, warm them up to
room temperature (except AMV-RT and RNase inhibitor). Vortex and spin all
solutions briefly before use.
2. Perform all pipetting steps with a Biomaster pipettor and Mastertips (except
for DEPC-H 20).
3. Prepare a 20 III reaction (to transcribe up to Illg RNA) by adding the
following reagents:
• DEPC-H 20 add 16.5 III
• 5 x RT buffer 2.0 III
• Downstream primer or oligo-(dT) (200 ng/Ill) 1.0 III
• dNTPs (10 mmolll each nucleotide) 1.0 III
• RNA (up to 1 Ilg) X III
68 2.2 Synthesis of eDNA
4. Incubate this mixture at 65°C for 15 min. Place the tube on ice and allow to
stay for 5 min. Add the following reagents to the chilled RT mix and incubate
for at least 1 h at 42°C:
• 5 x RT buffer
• AMV reverse transcriptase (5 U)
• RNase inhibitor (10 U)
Prepare a mastermix for all RT reactions by adding necessary volumes of
the required solutions to one tube. Vortex and centrifuge at maximum speed to
collect sample at the bottom of reaction tube.
The mastermix containing all the insensitive components may be stored at
room temperature until aliquoting to each reaction tube and heating to 65°C.
The enzyme mix must be incubated on ice.
Trouble Shooting
Incubation of reaction mixtures at 65 °c removes secondary structures of RNA

molecules. Rapid cooling on ice stabilizes the linearized RNA single strand and
the enzymes can be added at this time.
Dithiothreitol (supplied within the 5 x RT buffer) is an activator of RNase
inhibitor but is thermolabile. Therefore it is necessary to add an aliquot of RT
buffer after incubation at 65°C. In some protocols DTT is added with the
enzyme mix.
The amount of added primer is usually 200 ng per RT reaction correspond-
ing to a 20-mer of primer. Scale up or down if primer has a quite different size.
For many protocols 6 units of reverse transcriptase and 10 units of RNase
inhibitor are quite sufficient for a standard 20 III cDNA synthesis reaction.
Higher concentrations of the enzymes are not sufficient to increase the cDNA
yield.
2.2.2.2 RT Reaction Using rTth DNA Polymerase
cDNA synthesis is limited by stable secondary structures. This problem may be

circumvented by increasing reaction temperature and/or using thermostable
reverse transcriptase e.g. Tth DNA polymerase. For full activity of Tth pol an
optimal reaction temperature of 72 °C and Mn 2+ ions are required.
Temperature profile of RT reaction using Tth polymerase is comparable with
a PCR cycle: starting with linearization of mRNA molecule (at about 70°C) and
cooling to the annealing temperature of the selected primer (about 50 DC) the
extension step is performed at 72 dc. Tth RT is very suitable for specific mRNA
priming. Oligo-( dT) priming is not recommended because of the relatively low
annealing temperatures of this kind of primer. Concentration of primers, buffer
and nucleotides are very similar as compared to conventional RT reactions.
Tth DNA polymerase is efficiently used in a coupled reverse transcription
reaction where both RT and PCR are performed by the same enzyme [2] (see
chapter 2.4). All used reagents are e.g. provided with the "GeneAmp Thermo-
stable rTth Reverse Transcriptase RNA PCR Kit" (Perkin Elmer). Tth DNA
polymerase can be ordered separately.
The following protocol is used for reverse transcription of mdr-l mRNA
from 50 pg to 1500 ng of total cellular RNA isolated from multidrug resistent cell
line CCRF ADR 5000.
Materials:
1) 10 xrTth Reverse Transcriptase buffer (100 mmolll Tris/HCI; pH 8.3,

900 mmolll KCI)(Perkin-Elmer)
2) MnCl2 (10 mmolll) (Perkin-Elmer)
3) dNTPs (10 mmolll of each nucleotide) (Promega)
4) Downstream Primer NP2: 200 ng/flJ (sequence: see chapter 2.3)
5) rTth DNA polymerase: 2.5 U/ftl (Perkin-Elmer)
6) DEPC-H2 0
11) Iso-Rack, white (O°C) (Eppendorf) or ice
Protocol 2: RT Reaction with rTth Polymerase
1. All solutions for the RT mix are stored at -20°C (Store MgCl 2 at + 4 °C,do not
freeze). Before use, warm up the vials to room temperature. rTth DNA
polymerase should be kept on ice.
2. Vortex and spin all solutions briefly before use.
3. Perform all pipetting steps with Biomaster and Mastertips (except DEPC-
H 2 0).
4. Pipette following solutions (sufficient for one assay):
• DEPC-H 20 add 20.0 fll
• 10 X rTth Reverse Transcriptase Buffer 2.0 fll
• MnCl z 2.0 fll
• dNTPs 0.4 fll
• Downstream primer NP2 1.0 fll
• rTth DNA polymerase 1.0 fll
• RNA X fll
Always prepare a mastermix for all samples to get comparable reaction condi-
tions. Keep mastermix and aliquots on ice. Transfer sample tube to preheated
thermal cycler (> 60°C).
70 2.2 Synthesis of cDNA
S. The temperature profile of the RT reaction with rTth reverse transcriptase is

as follows:
• noc - Smin
• SO°C - 10 min
• noc - 3 min
• and finally cooling down to 4°C
Trouble shooting
The RT reaction performed by rTth polymerase should be considered as one

cycle of amplification. Always keep the reaction mix on ice before transferring to
the heated cycler.
References
1. Gubler U, Hoffman BJ (1983) A simple and very efficient method for generating cDNA
libraries. Gene; 25: 263 - 269
2. Myers TW, Gelfand DH (1991) Reverse transcription and DNA amplification by a Thermus
thermophilus DNA polymerase. Biochemistry; 30: 7661-7666
3. Kohler T, LaBner D, Rost A-K, Leiblein S, Remke H Polymerase chain reaction related
approaches to quantitate absolute levels of mRNA coding for the multidrug resistance-
associated protein and P-glycoprotein. In: Proceedings of the 2nd International Symposium
"Drug resistance in Leukemia and Lymphoma", March 6-8, 1995 Amsterdam, "Advances in
Blood Disorders" series, Harwood Academic Publishers (in press)
4. Krug MS, Berger SL (1987) First-strand cDNA synthesis primed with oligo (dT). In: Berger
SL, Kimmel AR (eds.). Methods in Enzymology, Vol. 152, Academic Press Inc., New York,
pp 316-325
5. Farell RF (ed.) (1993) RNA Methodologies: A Laboratory Guide for Isolation and Characteri-
zation. Academic Press Inc., New York
Chapter 2.3
Qualitative RT -PCR: Amplification
of Synthesized mdr-' eDNA
TH.KbHLER

The polymerase chain reaction (PCR) is an in vitro technique allowing the
amplification of specific DNA subsequences by simultaneous primer extension
carried out by a heat -stable DNA polymerase added to the reaction mixture. Now
performed in almost every modern laboratory, PCR has become a powerful and
sensitive tool in biomedical research and one of the most widely used techniques
in mRNA analysis.
Amplification of mRNA molecules to study gene expression can be achieved
by a method that combines both synthesis of cDNA from the RNA template by
reverse transcriptase reaction (RT, see chapter 2.2) and PCR. The extremely high
sensitivity of these two sequential enzymatic steps gives us the ability to detect
extremely rare mRNAs, mRNAs in small numbers of cells or in small amounts of
tissue, as well as mRNAs expressed in mixed-cell populations.
An optimized amplification protocol is fundamental for detection of nucleic
acids by PCR. Because the basic procedure is very simple the optimization of the
PCR reaction is not problematic in the majority of cases and should therefore
not be the subject of this chapter (we recommend the reading of literature
dedicated mainly to the basic procedure, e.g. 1-3). The requirements of the
reaction, deoxynucleotides, DNA polymerase, primers, template, and PCR buffer
containing magnesium may generally be used in the recommended concentra-
tions, but the variable parameters, e. g. the cycle program must be adapted to
each problem.
Here we will describe a basic protocol used for the amplification of a sub-
genomic mdr-l sequence. The mdr-l gene product coding for a glycoprotein
(P-glycoprotein, pgp-170) that functions as a transmembrane drug-efflux pump
is causatively responsible for the complex phenotype named multidrug-
resistance (MDR) [4,5]. This phenomenon is one of the major reasons which
limit the efficacy of chemotherapy for several types of cancer in causing the
acquired or intrinsic resistance of malignant cells to a wide variety of anti-
cancer drugs, such as anthracyclines, epidophyllotoxins, vinca alkaloids etc.
Mdr-l gene transcripts linked to a number of adverse prognostic features, in-
cluding CD34+ surface phenotype, advanced age etc. are detected with high
frequency e.g. in patients suffering from relapsed and high-risk Acute
Myelogenic Leukemia (AML). Prospective studies have shown that overexpres-
sion of mdr-l significantly reduces the frequency and duration of complete
72 2.3 Qualitative RT-peR: Amplification of Synthesized mdr-l cDNA
remissions with conventional induction and postremission therapy [6,7]. The

detection of mdr-l gene expression by RT-PCR in leukemic cells is therefore a
crucial factor in the treatment of leukemia and development of alternative
therapeutic strategies to circumvent resistance.
A basic PCR protocol is described such as for amplification of a sub genomic

mdr-l sequence from purified, into cDNA transcribed total RNA isolated from
the adriamycin-resistant T-Iymphoblastic cell line CCRF ADRSOOO (we thank
Drs. Volker Gekeler, Byk-Gulden GmbH, Konstanz, and Heyke Diddens, Medical
Laser Center Lubeck, for providing us with the cell line) and mononuclear cells
from patient samples.
• Simultaneous amplification of a f3-actin subsequence as a control for cDNA
quality
• PCR product analysis by agarose gel electrophoresis
• Restricted digestion of the amplified DNA fragment
• PAGE electrophoresis and silver staining of restriction fragments
2.3.2.1 Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR), Basic Protocol
Materials:
1) cDNA samples (synthesis see chapter 2.2):

• mdr-1 positive control (e. g. cDNA from the human drug-resistant cell line
CCRF ADR5000, [8J)
• mdr-1 negative control-cDNA
• RT-blank (prepared by addition of H2 0 instead of RNA to the RT reaction
mixture)
• patient samples: place up to 5 ml whole blood or bone marrow (1 : 1 diluted
with PBS) in a centrifuge tube containing 3 ml of lymphocyte separation
medium (density: 1.077 g/ml, Boehringer, Mannheim) and centrifuge for
20 min at 1700 rpm. Wash the pelleted cells with PBS, isolate and reverse
transcribe 1 flg RNA aliquots into cDNA.
2) 10 x PCR-buffer (Perkin-Elmer), see appendix
3) dNTP mixture (Promega), see appendix
4) f3-actin specific amplification primers (both approximately 10 pmol/fll,
dissolved in H20):
• (+ )-primer (Exon 2, nt 1126-1146): 5' ACG GCT CCG GCA TGT GCA AG 3'
• (-)-primer (Exon 3, nt 1434-1454): 5' TGA CGA TGC CGT GCT GCA TG 3'
predicted amplificate length: 314 bp (genomic DNA), 198 bp (cDNA)
5) aqua bidest
Table 2.3-1. Reagents and optimal concentration required for a standard peR reaction
Reagent recommended final concentration

(50 fll reaction mixture)
Tris buffer 10 mmol/l; pH 8.3 - 8.4 (25°C)

gelatin/BSA 0.Q1 % (w/v)
magnesium chloride 1.5 - 2.5 mmol/l
potassium chloride 50 mmolll
non -ionic detergents 0.01 % (v/v) NP40 or Tween 20
(0.1 % Triton X-lOO)
dNTPs each nucleotide 0.2 mmolll
primers both 20 - 50 pmol
target DNA 50-100 ng
UDG 0.2-1 unit
DNA polymerase 1-2 units
6) Uracil-DNA glycosylase (UDG), freshly diluted to 0.1 Wfll with H2 0

(Boehringer, Mannheim)
7) Taq-polymerase (Perkin-Elmer), freshly diluted to 0.5 U per fll with H2 0
8) mdr-1 specific amplification primers (approximately 15 pmollf/l H20):
• (+)-primer (NP1)(nt 2419-2440) 5' AGA TCA ACT CGT AGG AGT GTC 3'
• (-)-primer (NP2)(nt 2690-2708) 5' GGG CTA GAA ACA ATA GTG 3'
predicted amplificate length (eDNA): 289 bp
The components of a PCR reaction are readily available from commercial
suppliers, e.g. a complete kit is distributed by the Perkin-Elmer Corporation
("Gene-Amp" kit) that is recommended to beginners who are carrying out PCR
for the first time. Those who wish to assemble and use their own reagents and
solutions will require the chemicals listed in Table 2.3-1.
Protocol 1: Standard peR Protocol Adapted to Amplification of a mdr-1 Subsequence
1. Preparation of PCR mastermixes (this step is recommended to reduce the

number of pipetting steps and to increase the general reproducibility!)
pipette and mix the following solutions:
• mdr-1 mastermix (sufficient for 8 PCR reactions):
1) 64 III dNTPs,2) 40 III PCR buffer,3) 16jll primer NP1,4) 16 III primer
NP2,S) 16 III diluted UDG
• j3-actin mastermix (sufficient for 2 PCR reactions):
1) 16jll dNTPs,2) 10 ~ PCR buffer,3) 4jll j3-actin (+ )-primer,4) 4 III j3-actin
(-)-primer,5) 4 JlI diluted UDG
74 2.3 Qualitative RT- peR: Amplification of Synthesized mdr-1 cDNA
Table 3.2-2. Pipetting scheme for routine mdr-1 amplification
tube number 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
fll fll fll fll fll fll fll fll fll fll
H2O 24 24 24 28 26 26 24 26 26 24
mdr-1 mastermix 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19
fJ-actin mastermix 19 19
positive cDNA control 4
negative cDNA control 4
RT-blank 4
cDNA patient 1 2 2 4
cDNA patient 2 etc. 2 2 4
Taq polymerase 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
»the danger of contamination from sample to sample begins at this point«

2. add 19 J.ll of the freshly prepared mastermixes and aliquots of each eDNA
sample to the desired tubes, respectively, according to Table 2.3-2.
Note: UDG can be routinely used in conjunction with dUTP to eliminate PCR
"carry-over" contamination from previous DNA synthesis reactions. If all PCR
products synthesized and used in your laboratory contain dUTP instead of
dTTP and UDG is added prior to each PCR reaction, the enzyme ensures
deglycosylation of any contaminating DNA originating from previous PCRs,
thus inhibiting its amplification [9,10]. We recommend the use of only 0.2 U of
the enzyme per sample.
3. After brief centrifugation to deposit all of the fluid at the bottom of the
microfuge tubes, place tubes directly into the GeneAmp 9600 thermal cycler.
Note: An overlay of the reaction mixture with mineral oil to prevent evaporation
is unnecessary if a thermal cycler with special cover heating (e. g. GeneAmp
9600, Perkin-Elmer) is used.
4. Temperature profile of amplification:
After a 15 min initial incubation step at 37°C to allow UDG sterilization
perform a 10-min denaturation step at 94°C to heat-inactivate UDG. After
each mixture has reached the following programmed temperature of 72 °C
add 3 fll ofTaq-polymerase dilution to each vial ("Hot-Start" technique) [11].
Than start the desired cycle program.
Cycle parameters:
• 94°C, 0:30 min
• 53°C, 0:30 min
• 72 °C, 0:45 min

• final step: 72 °C, 10:00 min, followed by cooling to 4 °C
Note: An alternative to the "Hot-Start" protocol- a newly developed monoclonal
antibody directed against Taq DNA polymerase (TaqStart Antibody, Clontech
Laboratories, Inc.) - may be used to control the start of PCR. The antibody was
shown to neutralize polymerase activity at room temperature while all reaction
components are assembled preventing nonspecific targeting and elongation of
primers. After initial "melting" of DNA at 94°C the antibody is completely
denatured and the PCR reaction is allowed to proceed under the proper
stringent conditions.
2.3.2.2 Analysis of the PCR Products by Agarose Gel Electrophoresis
The amplified cDNA is identified by the size of the PCR product, which is
predicted from the known cDNA nucleotide sequence (available from conven-
tional sequence information data). The PCR product can be further validated by
restricted digestion (see section 2.3.2.3) and hybridization with product -specific
probes (see Dot blot, chapter 2.5).
Materials:
1) 100 bp ladder (Gibco)

2) 1 x TAE electrophoresis buffer, see appendix
3) 4 x sample loading buffer, see appendix
4) 2% (w/v) agarose gel (AGS), supplemented with 4 fll/lOO ml ethidium bromide
from a 10% (w/v) stock solution
>>Ethidium bromide is a powerful mutagen and is moderately toxic.
Gloves should be worn when working with solutions that contain this dye!«
5) power supply (e.g. GPS 200/400, Pharmacia or GD 25ID, AGS)
6) electrophoresis apparatus (e.g. Horizontal DNA/RNA self recirculating
Minigel electrophoresis system, AGS)
7) Biomaster positive displacement pipettes and tips (Eppendorf)
Protocol 2: Standard Agarose Gel Electrophoresis
1. Remove 5 -10 fll aliquots from each PCR reaction tube and transfer in
separate 1.5-ml- Eppendorf tubes.
2. Add 1 fll of the nondenaturing bromphenol blue/xylene cyanol loading
buffer to each tube, mix and centrifuge briefly.
3. Prepare marker mix: add 2 fllloading buffer to 2 fll of the 100 bp ladder, mix
and centrifuge as described.
76 2.3 Qualitative RT- PCR: Amplification of Synthesized mdr-1 cDNA
4. Preparation of an 1.5 % agarose gel: boil 1.5 g agarose in 100 ml TAE buffer (see
appendix) for about 5 min (e.g. use a microwave), cool to 60°C and add
4 fill 100 ml ethidium bromide, mix gently but avoid bubble formation, pour the
mixture onto the gel carrier, insert the desired combs immediately and allow to
cool to room temperature.
Before loading gel slots, introduce 1 x TAE buffer in the electrophoresis apparatus
to a level about 1 mm above the gel surface.
»The electrophoresis buffer is supplemented with 4 fd/lOO ml ethidium
bromide. Always handle with gloves!< <
5. Place each sample mix carefully in the desired gel slots. Place 2 fil of the
marker-mix in the outer slots.
6. Carry out the electrophoresis at 100 V. When the electrophoresis is complete,
the stained DNA bands may be examined immediately by transillumination
using UV light.
Validation and Documentation

Put the gel on a transilluminator (e.g. Vilber Lourmat TFP-20 M) and photo-
graph with a Polaroid camera DS-34 on Polaroid film 667 at f/8, exposure time
M 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 M
M 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 M
Fig.2.3-1. Routine analysis of mdr-1 expression in bone marrow samples from patients
suffering from leukemia. Lane M: 100 bp ladder; Lane 1: positive cDNA control (from
CCRF ADR5000); Lane 2: negative cDNA control (from normal blood donor); Lane 3: RT-
blank; Lane 4: H20 control; Lanes 5 -7: Pat.w.L. (B-ALL), 2 [11 cDNA for f3-actin control
(198 bp fragment) 2 and 4 [11, respectively for mdr-1 (289 bp fragment), Lanes 8-10: Pat.
I.V. (T-ALL); Lanes 11-13: Pat.A.H. (AML); Lane 14-16: Pat. B.S. (AML); Lanes 17-19: Pat
R.H.(NHL)
1/8 sec. For simultaneous generation of both positive and negative copies, a
Polaroid film type 665 is recommended. A typical gel electrophoresis of
RT -peR reaction products derived from leukemia patients is shown in
Figure 2.3-1.
>>Ultraviolet radiation is dangerous, especially to the eyes. To minimize
exposure, make sure that the UV source is adequately shielded and the face is
protected by a safety mask that efficiently blocks UV light. <<
Note: A safe way to remove ethidium bromide (a strong carcinogen) from nucleic
acid staining buffer waste and for easy disposal is the simple treatment with
charcoal or the use of activated carbon filters, e. g. provided by Schleicher &
Schull (Extractor, Ethidium Bromide Waste Reduction System).
Trouble Shooting
The main problem in peR diagnostics is "carry-over" contamination which may

generate confusing and misleading results. Adopting the dUTP/UDG-strategy
garantees almost completely contamination-free working. However, unfortun-
ately UDG remains partially active « 10 %) after an incubation period of up to
30 min at 95°C. Therefore the manufacturer recommends freezing the peR
product immediately after synthesis. This step is of even more importance for
quantitative peR work (see chapter 3.4).
In addition to such prevention, it is important that control reactions are per-
formed in parallel with the test samples to detect any further contamination.
Therefore, as a minimum, the simultaneous amplifications of one positive and
three negative checks and an additional check for RNA/cDNA integrity (e.g.
amplification of fJ-actin mRNA, Figure 2.3-1) are recommended.
2.3.2.3. Digesting peR Products with Restriction Enzymes
Digestion of a given peR product with appropriate restriction enzymes is a

simple and rapid way to check for amplification specificity. The presence of the
predicted restriction fragments is therefore proof of this.
Most manufacturers of restriction enzymes have optimized the reaction
conditions for their particular preparations and also supply concentrated
buffers - therefore one should follow the instructions on the information sheets
supplied with each enzyme.
1- 2 units of restriction enzyme are usually sufficient to cleave up to 1 flg of
DNA.
Materials:
1) Restriction enzyme Rsa I (AGS)

2) Restriction enzyme buffer for Rsa I, 10 x concentrated (AGS)
78 2.3 Qualitative RT -peR: Amplification of Synthesized mdr-l cDNA
Table 2.3-3
Enzyme [Ill] 10 X reaction H2O predicted length of

buffer restriction
[Ill] [0] fragments [bp]
Rsa I 0.5 1.5 3 55,234
Gsu I 3.5 1.5 83,206
3) Restriction enzyme Gsu I (MBI Fermentas)

4) Restriction enzyme buffer for Gsu 1,10 xconcentrated (MBI Fermentas)
Remove 2 x 10 III aliquots from the PCR mixture containing the examined
fragment and pipette into separate 1.5-ml-tubes labeled with Rsa I (tube 1) or
Gsu I (tube 2). Add the following solutions to perform restricted digestion
according to Table 2.3-3.
Incubate reaction mix at 37°C for 1 h. Stop reaction by inactivating the
enzyme at 65°C for 30 min. Store at 0 - 4 °C until electrophoresis.
2.3.2.4 Polyacryl Amide Gel Electrophoresis and Silver Staining

of Restriction Fragments
Materials:
1) PAA-gel: CleanGel (Pharmacia) (ready to use): 5 % stacking gel, 10 % resolving

gel, 0.5 mm thick, alternatively use a self-prepared gel
2) DNA-marker mix: 50,100,200,300,400,500,700,1000 bp (United States Bio-
chemicals)
3) Discontinous buffer system for DNA electrophoresis (Pharmacia) or 1 x TAE
buffer (see appendix)
4) Multiphor II basic electrophoresis unit (Pharmacia) or other horizontal slab
gel unit
5) Power supply (1000 V)
6) Reagents necessary for silver staining of PAA-gels:
• Fixing-solution: 10 % (v/v) acetic acid
• Silvering-solution: 0.1 % (w/v) AgN03 in H2 0 + 150 1'1 formaldehyde (jor
300 ml solution)
• Developing-solution: 2.5 % (w/v) Na2C03 + 150 1'1 formaldehyde + a few
grains of sodium thiosulfate
• Stop-solution: 10 % (v/v) acetic acid
• Impregnation-solution: 10% (v/v) acetic acid + 10% (v/v) glycerol
Protocol 3: PAGE Electrophoresis
1. Rehydrate the dry gel and use gel and the electrode strips according to the
manufacturer's instructions.
2. Add 5 III PCR loading buffer to each restriction vial, mix and centrifuge to
the bottom. Load 5 III aliquots of each digested sample carefully into the
PAA gel slots. To the right and left lanes apply 1111 DNA marker mix, and 1111
uncleaved PCR fragment to a neighboring lane.
3. Run the gel at 600 V for 1 h at 10°C, At the end of the run remove the gel
carefully and transfer to a staining box.
4. Fix 30 min with 250 ml fixing-solution.
5. Wash gel 3 x 2 min with 250 ml H20.
6. Stain 20-30 min with 300 ml silvering-solution.
7. Rinse 20 sec with 250 ml H20.
8. Develop for 1 min with 100 ml developing-solution under visual control.
9. Stop for 5 min with 250 ml stop-solution.
10. Impregnate for 15 min with 250 ml impregnation-solution followed by air
drying at room temperature.
Validation
Measure the distance from the loading well to each of the bands. Plot the 10gIO of
the marker bands against the distance migrated. Use the resulting curve to
calculate the size of each restriction fragment and compare with the predicted
length obtained from sequence data bases.
55bp
83bP~
206bP~
234bp
289bp
Lane
Fig.2.3-2. PAGE analysis of digested 289 bp mdr-l fragments, silver-stained. M = DNA-

marker (USB), Lanes 1, 3, 5,7,9: digestion with RsaI, Lanes 2,4,6,8, 10: digestion with GsuI
80 2.3 Qualitative RT-PCR: Amplification of Synthesized mdr-1 cDNA
Trouble Shooting
If the cleavage is incomplete, digestion for longer periods of time or with excess
enzyme does not cause problems unless there is contamination with DNase or
exonuclease, but such contaminations are rare in commercially available
preparations. If necessary, the digested DNA has to be purified by extraction
with phenol:chloroform and once with chloroform and precipitated with
ethanol (see section 2.6.2.1 for purification of peR products).
Use glass or stainless steel dishes for silver staining. Plastic bags may cause
elevated background problems.
References
1. Taylor GR (1991) Polymerase chain reaction: basic principles and automation. In:
McPherson MJ, Quirke P, Taylor GR (eds.): PCR: A practical approach. Practical approach
series, Oxford University Press, New York, pp 1-14
2. Erlich HA (ed.) (1989) PCR technology. Principles and applications for DNA amplification.
MacMillan Publishers, London
3. Innis MA, Gelfand DH, Sninsky JJ, White TJ (eds.) (1989) PCR protocols. A guide to
methods and applications. Academic Press Inc., Harcourt Brace, Jovanovich Publishers, San
Diego
4. Van der Bliek AM, Borst P (1989) Multidrug resistance. In: Advances in Cancer Research,
Vol. 52. Academic Press, New York, pp. 165 - 203
5. McLean S, Hill BT (1992) An overview of membrane, cytosolic and nuclear proteins
associated with the expression of resistance to multiple drugs in vitro. Biochim Biophys
Acta; 1114: 107-127
6. List AF, Spier C, Greer J, Wolf S, Hutter 1, Dorr R, Salmon S, Futscher B, Baier M, Dalton W
(1993) Phase IIII trial of cyclosporine as a chemotherapy-resistance modifier in acute
leukemia. J Clin Oneol; 11: 1652 -1660
7. Gekeler V, Frese G, Noller A, Handgretinger R, Wilisch A, Schmidt H et al. (1992) Mdrl!
P-glyeoprotein, topoisomerase, and glutathione-S-transferase p gene expression in
primary and relapsed state adult and childhood leukemias. Br J Cancer; 66: 507 - 517
8. Kohler T, Lagner D, Rost A-K, Leiblein S, Remke H (in press) Polymerase chain reaction
related approaches to quantitate absolute levels of mRNA coding for the multidrug
resistance-associated protein and P-glycoprotein. In: Proceedings of the 2nd International
Symposium "Drug resistance in Leukemia and Lymphoma", March 6 - 8, 1995, Amsterdam,
"Advances in Blood Disorders" series, Harwood Academic Publishers
chern; 210: 188-194
10. Bebee RL, Thornton CG, Hartley JL, Rashtchian, A (1992) Contamination-free polymerase
chain reaction: endonuclease cleavage and cloning of dU -PCR products. Focus; 14: 53 - 56
11. Ruano G, Brash DE, Kidd KK (1991) PCR: the first few cycles. Amplifications; 7: 1-4
Chapter 2.4
Single-Tube RT-PCR
D. LASSNER
Many PCR protocols for determination of specific mRNAs are based on the
synthesis of cDNA in one sample tube and following amplification of an aliquot
of RT sample in another reaction tube. This way is preferable when estimating
different mRNAs in one RNA/cDNA sample (chapter 2.3). In this case oligo (dT)
priming is recommended to obtain cDNA templates of all the desired mRNAs.
In single-tube RT-PCR [1] initially mRNA is reverse transcribed into cDNA
(20 III RT reaction) and subsequently a PCR mix is added to get a final volume of
50 or 100 III [2]. Reverse transcriptases (AMV, MMLV) are unable to synthesize
cDNAs in PCR buffers, whereas Taq DNA polymerase can perform amplification
in RT reaction conditions [3]. The concentration of the enclosed amplification
mix corresponds to the usual PCR assay including Taq polymerase and primers
(see chapter 2.3). The RT reaction solution is considered to be equivalent to
amplification solution. The activity of the reverse transcriptase used is destroyed
by initial denaturation at 95°C for 5 min. Emerging amplification products are
synthesized by thermostable DNA polymerase.
For incorporation of the whole RT reaction into the PCR process, a specific
priming of cDNA is favorable. In this case, only the specific upstream primer
must be appended with the amplification solution. The concentration of the
added upstream primer should be identical to that of the downstream primer
used for cDNA synthesis.
For comparison of two samples, equal volumes of a definite RNA/cDNA
sample should be transferred to the RT-PCR reaction vial. Pipetting inaccuracies
during apportioning of the RT sample to the PCR reaction mixtures are the main
source of sample-to-sample variations. Regarding the exponential accumulation
of the yield throughout the amplification process, only slight differences in the
starting concentration of the template may lead to quite different quantitation
values when PCR is finished. Tube to tube differences can be diminished by
incorporation the whole RT sample into the PCR reaction.

These protocols are a direct continuation of cDNA synthesis (see chapter 2.2).
The whole RT reaction is used for amplification of the synthesized mdr-l eDNA.
82 2.4 Single-Tube RT-PCR
cDNA synthesis is specifically primed using the corresponding downstream

primer NP2 (do not use oligo (dT) primer) (see chapter 2.2).
Perform PCR amplification of the newly synthesized cDNA by adding a 5'-
biotinylated second mdr-l specific primer as prerequisite for quantitation of
accumulated product by ELOSA technique (chapter 3.1).
2.4.2.1 Amplification of Single-Stranded eDNA with Taq DNA Polymerase
The cDNA of the RT reaction with AMV-RT is used completely in the following
PCR assay. 30 /-ll of PCR mastermix is added to the RT sample to yield a final
volume of 50 !Jl.
Materials:
1) 10 x PCR buffer (Perkin-Elmer); see appendix

2) dNTPs (1.25 mmolll dAIGICIUTP) (Promega)
3) Upstream primer NP1 (biotinylated, 200 nglJ1l)
4) Taq DNA polymerase (diluted to 0.5 UM H2 0) (Perkin-Elmer)
5) DEPC-H2 0
10) Iso-Rack, white (O°C) (Eppendorf)
Protocol 1: Coupled RT-PCR with Taq DNA Polymerase
The amplification reaction is prepared while the RT reaction is still in progress.

Thaw frozen components, vortex and spin all solutions briefly before use.
1. Prepare a mastermix for all PCR samples in a new Eppendorf tube:
Pipette the following solutions (sufficient for one sample):
• DEPC-H 2 0 18.2/-l1
• 10 x PCR buffer 3.0 III
• dNTP 4.8 /-ll
• Primer NP1 1.0/-l1
• Taq polymerase 3.0 /-ll
2. Transfer tubes containing AMV-RT from thermal cycler to a white Iso-Rack
or into ice.
Vortex and spin the mastermix briefly. Pipette 30 /-ll of mastermix to the tubes
containing cDNA (20 /-ll).
3. Start program and place the PCR samples in the preheated cycler (> 60°C,
"hot start").
Use the temperature profile listed in chapter 2.3.1.
4. Analyze PCR products by agarose gel electrophoresis (see section 2.3.2.2)
and estimate the synthesized DNA by the ELOSA technique (see chapter 3.1).
2.4.2.2 Amplification of mdrl eDNA with rTth DNA Polymerase
cDNA synthesized with rTth polymerase is used for the following amplification
protocol (see chapter 2.2.2.2}.A PCR mix consisting of chelating buffer (chelates
intrinsic Mn2+) and MgC1 2, which is an essential cofactor for DNA polymerase
activity, is added. Amplification is performed using essentially the same
temperature profile as described above.
Materials: (see also section 2.2.2.2)
1) MgCl 2 (25 mmolll) (Perkin-Elmer)

2) 10 x Chelating buffer (100 mmolll Tris/HCI pH 8.3, 1 molll KCI, 7.5 mmolll
EGTA, 50% (v/v) glycerol, 0.5% (v/v) Tween 20) (Perkin-Elmer)
3) Upstream Primer NP1 (200 ng/fll) (sequence see chapter 2.3)
4) DEPC-H2 0
6) GeneAmp 9600 thermal cyder (Perkin-Elmer)
9) Iso-Rack, white (O°C) (Eppendorf)
Protocol 2: Single-Tube RT-PCR with rTth DNA Polymerase
Thaw all solutions after pipetting RT reaction with rTth polymerase (see section
2.2.2.2).
Vortex and spin solutions briefly before use.
1. Prepare mastermix for all PCR samples in an Eppendorf tube.
Pipette the following solutions (sufficient for one sample):
• DEPC-H20 61111
• MgCb 10 III
• Chelating buffer 8 III
• Upstream primer NPI (biotinylated) 1111
2. Vortex and spin the master mix briefly. Pipette 80 III of rTth PCR master-
mix to the MicroAmp tubes supplemented with rTth RT sample stored at
DOC.
84 2.4 Single-Tube RT-PCR
3. Start PCR program and place the PCR samples in the preheated thermal
cycler (hot start, > 60 QC).
4. Analyze PCR products by agarose gel electrophoresis and ELOSA (see
chapter 3.1).
Trouble Shooting
For successful single-tube RT-PCR the concentration of upstream and down-

stream primers (supplemented with RT reaction) should be identical. The
concentration of DNA polymerases could be reduced to about 0.5 U per sample.
However, for a robust quantitative PCR system do not limit this component.
General precautions should be carried out as described in chapter 2.3.
References
1. Kohler T, LaBner D, Rost A-K, Leiblein S, Remke H (in press) Polymerase chain reaction
Symposium "Drug resistance in Leukemia and Lymphoma", March 6 - 8, 1995, Amsterdam,
2. Myers TW, Gelfand DH (1991) Reverse transcription and DNA amplification by a Thermus
thermophilus DNA polymerase. Biochemistry; 30: 7661-7666
3. Aatsinki JT, Lakkakorpi JT, Pietila EM, Rajaniemi HJ (1994) A coupled one-step reverse
transcription peR procedure of generation of full-length open reading frames. Bio-
Techniques; 16:282-288
Chapter 2.5
Nonradioactive Determination of PCR-Products
by Using a DIG Labeled DNA Probe (Dot Blot)
TH.KOHLER

Dot and slot hybridization is a nucleic acid analysis technique in which an excess
of labeled probe is hybridized to a target that has been immobilized on a solid
support. Currently nucleic acid hybridizations are most frequently performed by
radioactive detection methods particularly by using the 32P-Iabeling of nucleic
acids as the preferred technique [1,2]. Different nonradioactive methods e.g.
using probes labeled with biotin [3] or digoxigenin-dUTP (DIG) [4] have been
introduced as possible alternatives to radioactive assays enabling even higher
sensitivity than 32p_ based hybridizations [4].
Nonradioactive hybridization protocols may also combined with previously
performed quantitative RT-PCR allowing the detection of synthesized PCR
fragments e.g. as described for quantitation of Hepatitis C virus RNA [3].
Whereas dot or slot blot assays were mostly adapted to measurement of various
mRNAs by Northern hybridization [1,2] these techniques may be also used for
quantitation of PCR fragments derived from genomic DNA [5] or
RT-PCR [3,6]. Here we describe a simple DIG-based Dot blot protocol which
allows both statements about specificity of synthesized PCR products and
semiquantitative efforts in determination of the amplification efficiency of a
convenient PCR reaction as prerequisite for quantitation of absolute numbers of
target molecules of interest.
A synthetic oligonucleotide probe labeled with digoxigenin-dUTP (DIG) at
the 5' end is used for the experiment (for in vitro labeling of DNA-probes with
DIG-dUTP see chapter 2.5). After hybridization of the DIG-probe to the target
DNA the hybrids can be detected by a subsequent enzyme-linked immunoassay
using anti-digoxigenin alkaline phosphatase-antibody conjugates followed by a
simple colorimetric detection.

• Nonradioactive detection of PCR-products by Southern hybridization using a
DIG-labeled oligonucleotide-probe
• Determination of exponential phase and amplification efficiency of a PCR reac-
tion as a prerequisite for quantitative PCR using internal or external standards
86 2.5 Nonradioactive Determination of PCR-Products
2.5.2.1 Preparation of Dot Blots
Materials:
1) GB 003 filter paper sheets (102 x 133 mm, Schleicher & Schull)
2) Nytran-Plus nylon membrane, 0.45 flm, positively charged or BA 85 nitro-
cellulose membrane (Schleicher & Schull)
3) Minifold Dot-Blot apparatus SRC 96D (Schleicher & Schull)
4) Vacuum unit
5) 2 x SSC buffer (prepared from the 20 x stock solution, see appendix)
6) DNA sample buffer (SB): 20 mmolll Tris/HCI, 1 mmolll EDTA; pH 7.6 (20°C)
7) Neutralization buffer(NB): 1.0 molll Tris/HCI, 1.5 molll NaCl; pH 7.5 (20°C)
8) DNA dilution buffer (DB): 10 mmolll Tris/HCI, 1 mmolll EDTA; pH 8.0
(20°C), 50 flg/ml salmon sperm DNA .
9) A-DNA, 20 ng/fll (Boehringer Mannheim)
10) Boehringer positive control (B+): linearized and DIG labeled pBR328-DNA,
100 ng/fll, further diluted 1: 100 with DNA-DB
11) 1 molll NaOH
12) UV Stratalinker 2400 (Stratagene)
13) IsoTherm-System 3880, white Iso-Racks: 0-4 °c (Eppendorf) or ice
Protocol 1: Dot Blot
Sample Preparation
Blot the desired and denatured PCR-samples in duplicate pure, diluted 1: 10 and
1: 100 with DNA dilution buffer, respectively. To test the reliability of the system
spot in addition two known concentrations of DIG-labeled DNA (positive
control). Proceed as summarized in Table 2.5-1.
Preparation of Dilutions
Add 1 volume PCR sample or control to 9 volumes of DNA-SB and denature for
10 min at 95°C. Cool rapidly to 4°C using white Iso-Racks or ice, bring down
condensation by a brief spin. Add an equal volume of 1 molJl NaO H and incubate
20 min at room temperature, neutralize with 4 volumes of neutralizing buffer
and mix gently (Table 2.5-1).
When all samples including the controls are ready for application pipette 495 fll
sample aliquots in duplicate to the desired sample wells of the filtration manifold
(operate quickly to prevent renaturation!).
Preparation of the Minifold Apparatus

The Minifold filtration apparatus was designed to accept a large number of
samples and to deposit the nucleic acids onto blot filters in a fixed pattern to
allow the results to be quantitated by scanning densitometry.
Table 2.5-1
PCRsamples Controls
[fll J pure 1: 10 1: 100 blank B+ B+ 1: 10 A-DNA
PCR-sample 10 10
control-DNA 10
DNA-DB 9 4 4
DNA-SB 90 90 90 100 45 45 90
incubate 10 min at 94 DC, rapidly transfer to ice
1 mol!! NaOH 100 100 100 100 50 50 100
leave at room temperature for 20 min, transfer to ice
neutralization buffer 800 800 800 800 400 400 800
l. Wet a piece of filter paper in 20 X sse and place it on the filter support plate
on the vacuum filtrate chamber ensuring that the cut -off corners leave the
registration pins exposed.
2. Prepare nitrocellulose membranes (e.g. BA 85) by presoaking in water and
then 20 x SSe. Nitrocellulose membranes must be dried before loading with
DNA. Nylon membranes can be used without any pretreatment [7]. Place the
membrane on the filter paper sheet matching up to the cut-off corners.
3. Place the sample well plate on the top and clamp the whole Minifold together.
4. Apply the chilled samples quickly.
6. Apply gentle suction to the minifold, continue suction of all the fluid for
about 5 min.
7. Remove the filter from the minifold, and allow to dry completely at room
temperature.
8. Fix DNA by exposing the side of the membrane carrying the DNA to ultra-
violet irradiation (254 nm) of 0.12 J/cm 2 in an UV-linker (e.g. Stratalinker
2400, Stratagene), alternatively a normal transilluminator may be used. For
fixation of nucleic acids to nitrocellulose baking at 120 De for 15 - 30 min is
recommended [7].
>>Ultraviolet radiation is dangerous, especially to the eyes. To minimize expo-
sure make sure that the UV source is adequately shielded and the face is protec-
ted by a safety mask that blocks UV light efficiently.«
The filter is now ready to use for Southern hybridization or can be alternatively
stored dried and dust-free for several days. After crosslinking cut the filters if
desired with a sterile razor blade or scissor.
88 2.5 Nonradioactive Determination of peR-products
2.5.2.2 Hybridization of the Blots with a DIG-labeled Probe
Materials:
1) Hybridization solution: 5 x SSC (from a 20 x stock solution!), 0.5 % (w/v)

blocking reagent (Boehringer DIG-labeling and detection kit), 0.1 % (w/v)
lauroyl sarcosine (Fluka AG), 0.02 % (w/v) SDS (Serva)
2) Washing buffer 1: 2 x sse, 0.1 % (w/v) SDS
3) Washing buffer 2: 0.5 x SSC, 0.1 % (w/v) SDS
4) 5'-DIG labeled ssDNA probe:
Sequence: 5' GCTGGTTGCA GGCCTCCATT TATAATG 3'
5) 50 ml centrifuge tubes (Greiner)
6) Hybridization oven e.g. Hybaid "Mini" (distributed by MWG Biotech)
Protocol2: Southern Hybridization
1. Adjust the hybridization oven to 53 ° C 1 - 2 h before starting the

experiment.
2. Label the blot filter to allow proper recoding.
3. Label a 50-ml-centrifuge tube and place the filters carefully in the tube with
the side of the membrane carrying the DNA to the inner room.
4. Add 5 ml of the hybridization solution, which has been prewarmed to 53°C,
close the tubes tightly, drill a small hole in the middle of the screw cap (for
pressure compensation).
5. Fasten the centrifuge tubes in the intended supports, start rotation, and
incubate for 1 h at 53°C.
6. Before finishing prehybridization, denature the DIG probe for 10 min at
95°C using a thermomixer (this step is not absolutely necessary when using
short single-stranded oligonucleotide probes), cool rapidly on ice to
prevent renaturation.
7. After performing prehybridization, remove tubes from the oven and replace
the solution with 5 ml prewarmed hybridization solution, add 16111
denatured probe to give a final concentration of about 40 ng per ml.
8. Hybridize over night at 53°C under constant rotation.
9. Discard the hybridization solution.
10. Replace the perforated screw cap with a new one, wash the membrane
2 x 5 min with 10 ml washing buffer 1 at room temperature with constant
rotation.
11. Wash the filters meticulously for 2 x 15 min with 10 ml washing buffer 2 at
53°C (hybridization oven).
12. Use blots immediately for detection of DNA hybrids or store air-dried for
several days.
Note: The adequate hybridization temperature for a used probe reflecting its
length and base composition can be calculated according to the following
formulae [8]:
• For probes longer than - 50 nucleotides:

Tm = 81.5 + 16.6 (log M) + 0.41 (%GfC) - (500fn) - 0.62 (% formamide)
• For hybrids between oligonucleotides (14 - 20 bp) and immobilized DNA:
Td = 4 (G + C) + 2 (A + T)
where M is the cation concentration in the hybridization solution (molll), n is
the probe length (bases), A, C, G, T are the nucleotides, Tm the melting
temperature, and Td the temperature at which 50% of the short duplexes
dissociate.
2.5.2.3 Detection of DNA-DNA Hybrids
Materials:
1) Buffer 1: 100 mmolll Tris/HCI, 150 mmolll NaCl; pH 7.5 (20°C)

2) Buffer 2: 0.5% (wlv) blocking reagent (Boehringer) dissolved in buffer 1
(prepare at least 1 h before use and dissolve at hybridization temperature!)
3) Buffer 3: 100 mmolll TrisIHCI, 100 mmolll NaCl, 50 mmolll MgCI2 ; pH 9.5
(20°C)
4) NBT (nitro blue tetrazolium) solution: 75 mglml in dimethylformamide
5) X-phosphate (5-bromo-4-chloro-3-indolylphosphate, toluidin-salt): 50 mglml
in dimethylformamide
6) TE-buffer, see appendix
7) Staining solution (prepare freshly!, all components are contained in the
Boehringer kit but are also available separately from different companies) and
staining dish
Protocol3: Detection of Hybridized Probe with the Alkaline Phosphatase Coupled

Anti-Digoxigenin Antibody
Perform all following steps at room temperature under constant shaking, with
the exeption of color development.
1. Wash blot membrane briefly (1 min) with 15 ml buffer 1.
2. Block with 10 ml buffer 2 (containing the blocking reagent) for 30 min.
3. Wash briefly with 15 ml buffer 1.
4. Incubate with antibody conjugate: add 2 III conjugate to 10 ml buffer 1 (i. e.
dilution of 1: 5000) for 30 min.
5. Discard the antibody solution and wash 2 x 10 min with 15 ml buffer 1.
6. Equilibrate for 2 min in 10 ml of buffer 3.
90 2.5 Nonradioactive Determination of peR-products
7. Prepare 30 ml color solution by mixing the following solutions:

• 135 f.LI nitroblue tetrazolium salt
• 105 f.LI X-phosphate
• 30 ml buffer 3
8. Remove blot membranes from the tube, transfer to the staining dish and
incubate in the dark with the color solution.
9. If clearly visible dots are recognizable (at least 2 hours are necessary,
extending the time to as long as 24 - 48 h is possible) stop the colorimetric
reaction with TE-buffer, rinse with destilled water and allow to air dry.
Validation
Measure the color intensity of each dot (a representative dot blot is shown in
Figure 3.5-1, Panel A) e.g. by densitometric scanning using a laser scanner GT
6000 (Epson) and validate the signal intensities e. g. by the Gelimage-Software
(Pharmacia). The results obtained may be used to determine the efficiency and
exponential rate of the amplification process. Plot the 10glO of the dot areas
against the number of cycles (Figure 3.5-1, Panel B). Calculate the efficiency of
the reaction from the slope of the regression straight line and determine the
beginning of the plateau phase.
a b
logOD
1.5 , - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ,
1 2 3 4
a 10
0.5
~
b
00
c
:::/
d ·05 /
e
f
9
14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34
h
Cycles n
Fig.2.S-i. Detection of peR amplified mdr-1 DNA fragments by using a DIG labeled
oligonucleotide probe. a mdr-1 cDNA amplified by 40 cycles and dotted pure (a), 1: 10 (b),
1: 100 (c), 1: 10 3 (d), 1: 10 4 (e) and 1: 105 diluted (f); blank (g) and Boehringer (+ )-control (h)
1 pg and 0.1 pg. Lane 1/2: 40 ng labeled probe per ml, lane 3/4: 20 ng probe per m!. b Kinetic
analysis of GAPDH amplification reaction using the Dot blot technique and densitometric
scanning
References 91
References
1. Nooter K, Sonneveld P, Janssen A, Oostrum R, Boersma T, Herweijer H et al. (1990)
Expression of the mdr3 gene in prolymphocytic leukemia: Association with cyclosporin-
A-induced increase in drug accumulation. Int J Cancer; 45:626-631
2. Gekeler V, Frese G, Noller A, Handgretinger R, Wilisch A, Schmidt H et al. (1992) Mdrll
P-glycoprotein, topoisomerase, and glutathione-S-transferase p gene expression in primary
and relapsed state adult and childhood leukemias. Br J Cancer; 66: 507 - 517
3. RUster B, Zeuzem S, Roth WK (1995) Quantification of Hepatitis C virus RNA by competitive
reverse transcription and polymerase chain reaction using a modified hepatitis C virus RNA
transcript. Anal Biochem; 224: 597 - 600
4. Engler-Blum G, Meier M, Frank J, MUller GA (1993) Reduction of background problems in
nonradioactive Northern and Southern blot analyses enables higher sensitivity than
32P-based hybridizations. Anal Biochem; 210: 235 - 244
5. Saiki RK, Bugawan TL, Horn GT, Mullis KB, Erlich HA (1986) Analysis of enzymatically
amplified l3-globin and HLA-DQa DNA with allele-specific oligonucleotide probes. Nature;
324: 163-166
6. Murphy Jr GM, Jia X-C, Yu ACH, Lee YL, Tinklenberg JR, Eng LF (1993) Reverse transcription
and polymerase chain reaction technique for quantification of mRNA in primary astrocyte
cultures. J Neurosci Res; 35: 643 - 651
7. Holtke H-J, Seibl R, Burg J, Schmitz GG, Walter T, KrUger R et al. (1992) The digoxigenin:
anti-digoxigenin (DIG) system. In: Kessler C (ed.) Nonradioactive labeling and detection of
biomolecules. Springer, Berlin Heidelberg New York, pp. 36 - 56
8. Wahl GM, Berger, SL, Kimmel AR (1987) Molecular hybridization of immobilized nucleic
acids: Theoretical concepts and practical considerations. In: Methods in Enzymology, Vol.
152. Academic Press, New York, pp. 399 -407
Chapter 2.6
Nonradioactive Northern Blot Hybridization
with DIG-Labeled DNA Probes
A.-K. ROST
2.6.1 Principle and Application of Nonradioactive Northern

Blot Hybridization
The originally method of Northern blotting described by Alwine et al. [1]
represents a standard tool for determining the size and the amount of a specific
transcript within preparations of total or poly (A+) RNA.
First RNA is separated using denaturing agarose gel electrophoresis and is
thereafter transferred to a membrane filter. Then the mRNA species of interest
is detected by hybridization with a specific DNA or RNA probe.
For quantitative and qualitative evaluation of a target transcript for each
sample, a simultaneous hybridization with a probe specific for a housekeeping
gene should be performed.
Northern blot hybridization provides a qualitative component to RNA
analysis and enables one to check the integrity of the RNA sample. A further
advantage of this procedure is that RNA is relatively stable when adsorbed to a
solid support [4].
Northern blot hybridization is commonly performed with radioactive-
labeled probes. Methods for preparation and application of such probes are well-
established but they are limited by cost and hazards associated with radioisotope
use and the half-life of the isotope.
Digoxigenin (DIG) based protocols represent a nonradioactive and highly
sensitive alternative to labeling with isotopes [2,3].
DNA or RNA probes are labeled with DIG-II-dUTP/UTP where dUTP/UTP
is linked via an II-atom spacer arm to the steroid-hapten DIG. After hybridiza-
tion of the DIG-probe to the target RNA on the membrane, the hybrids can be
detected by a subsequent enzyme-linked immunoassay using DIG-specific anti-
bodies coupled to alkaline phosphatase. The colorimetric, enzyme-catalyzed
detection is performed by using X-phosphate and NBT; Lumigen PPD or CSPD
is used as chemiluminescent substrate for alkaline phosphatase.
The method allows the detection of 0.1 pg of homologous RNA within
1-16 h using the colorimetric reaction or detection of 0.03 pg homologous RNA
within 15-60 min using the chemiluminescent reaction.
';f
Preparation of PCR template
(cDNA or genomic DNA) 1- Primer design ··1 -1 01i90 Vers 5.0; Gene Bank! EMBL
N
0-
~
~
" PCR of specific
/ Test of specificity by: ~
* agarose gel electrophoresis o·
~
,/ I DNA-fragments I "'- ~
* restriction analysis ~.
Incorporation of DIG - Amplification without in- ....~

dUTP during amplification corporation of DIG -dUTP ~::l
~ [
* by separation through agarose gel ~
0-
[PUfific~tiO~·· ~fPcR ~dUC~ I * by chromatography ....
I e;
Separation of labeled ~.
o
~ ::l
products from un- :5.
* Random-primed labeling
incorporated dNTP ~
DIG DNA labeling -I * Nick Translation t:l
Ci
~
/ &
~
8-
[North;':-n bk,t hybridization 1 t:l
~
" ~ ~
~
[Imm~o~al detection J
Fig.2.6-1. Generation of DIG-labeled DNA probes by peR
2.6.2 Preparation of DIG- Labeled DNA Probes 95
2.6.2 Preparation of DIG-Labeled DNA Probes by Using

PCR-Generated DNA-Fragments
DIG-labeled RNA probes, synthesized by in vitro transcription of plasmid
vectors, and plasmid derived cDNA probes, labeled with DIG-ll-dUTP by
random priming have become well-established for nonradioactive Northern
blot hybridization [5,6].
Although with such probes highly sensitive Northern blotting for qualitative
and semiquantitative evaluation of target mRNA can be performed, the time-
consuming preparation of plasmid vectors is a decided disadvantage of this
method.
An alternative technique is the generation of DIG-labeled DNA probes by
peR using genomic DNA or reverse transcribed RNA as a template. Two
different methods are applicable for synthesizing PeR-generated dsDNA probes
(Figure 2.6-1).
First, labeling of PeR-products with DIG can be performed directly during
amplification. In this case, the labeling is achieved by application of an 5' end-
labeled primer or by incorporation of DIG-ll-dUTP during peR [7,8].
In addition, PeR-products can be labeled with DIG after amplification and
this is described in the following protocol. First, large numbers of specific DNA
target molecules are synthesized by peR. Thereafter, DIG-ll-dUTP is incorpo-
rated into purified dsDNA fragments by the subsequently described random-
primed labeling or by nick translation.
Hybridization with probes generated by this protocol results in excellent
Northern blots with low background and high sensitivity comparable with
sensitivity obtained by using 32P-Iabeled probes if the RNA-DNA hybrids are
detected by chemiluminescent reaction [9].
Labeling after amplification is recommended for PeR-products greater than
300 bp in length but for smaller probes the incorporation of DIG-ll-dUTP
during peR should be used [8].
Advantages of the generation of DNA probes by peR include: i) No need to
clone the DNA template into a plasmid vector. Therefore the preparation is
simple and rapid; specific probes can be synthesized within 1 to 2 days. ii) This
method allows high flexibility in probe sequence selection, independent of
restriction enzyme site location. iii) The DNA probes are potentially more stable
than RNA probes.
2.6.2.1 Synthesis of DNA Fragments by PCR
peR amplification to generate DNA probes should be performed by an

optimized standard protocol (see chapter 2.3) using sequence-specific primers.
The amount of DNA synthesized by up to two 50 fil-standard peR reactions is
sufficient to perform the labeling reaction.
96 2.6 Nonradioactive Northern Blot Hybridization with DIG-Labeled DNA Probes
2.6.2.2 Purification of DNA Fragments
DNA fragments can be purified from contamination by electrophoretic

separation through a TAE agarose gel.
After ethidium bromide staining, DNA bands can be localized by trans-
illumination and the DNA of interest can be cut out from the gel. Then the DNA
fragments can be extracted by standard protocols [Ill or by applying a special
preparation kit available from some manufacturers.
We recommend the use of Sephaglas Band Prep Kit (Pharmacia). This
procedure gives reproducible yields of about 80 - 90 % and the procedure may be
completed within 30 min. The resulting DNA is ready to use for subsequent
enzymatic manipulation.
Before the labeling reaction, purification of PCR products from contamina-
tion including primer-dimers, primers and nonspecific products is required to
reduce background signals in Northern blot hybridization.
Another way to purify PCR-products contaminated only by primer-dimers
and primers is separation by spin-column chromatography, e.g. by using Micro-
Spin Colums (Pharmacia) or by Wizard PCR Preps DNA Purification System
(Promega).
Materials:
1) PCR-samples
2) Electrophoresis equipment: see chapter 2.3
3) Sephaglas BandPrep Kit (Pharmacia)
Components:
• Sephaglas BP: Sephaglas BP suspended in a sodium iodide solution
buffered with Tris/HCl.
• Gel Solubilizer: Sodium iodide solution buffered with Tris/HCl.
• Elution buffer: 10 mmol/l Tris/HCl (pH 8.0), 1 mmolll EDTA.
• Wash buffer: Buffered salt solution containing ethanol.
Protocol 1: Purification of peR Fragments
The following procedure is designed for extraction of up to 1 Ilg of DNA from an

agarose gel slice weighing up to 250 mg. The volumes and weights in this
protocol can be directly scaled up for slices weighing more than this or
containing more DNA.
1. Separate the pooled PCR mixture containing the amplified DNA fragment by
agarose gel electrophoresis (see chapter 2.3).
2. Localize the DNA bands by transillumination. Excise the DNA band of
interest and transfer it into a 1.5 ml microfuge tube. Cut the DNA band as
close as possible. Determine the weight of the agarose slice.
2.6.2 Preparation of DIG-Labeled DNA Probes 97
Note: A 750 mg plug is the largest that can be extracted in a 1.5 ml microfuge tube.
3. Gel solubilization:
Add 250 fll of gel solubilizer (250 fll minimum, or 1111 for each mg of agarose),
vortex vigorously, and incubate the tube at 60°C for 5 -10 min until the
agarose slice is dissolved. Cool the solution to room temperature.
4. DNA binding:
Vortex the flask containing the Sephaglas BP to yield a uniform suspension,
add 5 fll of the suspension for each estimated Ilg of DNA to the dissolved gel,
vortex and incubate 5 min at room temperature with continuous shaking.
Centrifuge at high speed for 1 min in a microfuge, and remove the
supernatant without disturbing the pellet.
5. DNA purification:
Add 40 fll of wash buffer (or 8 x the volume of added Sephaglas BP).
Resuspend the pellet completely by vortexing and spin at high speed for
1 min in a microfuge. Remove the supernatant, taking care not to disturb the
pellet. Repeat this step twice.
6. Drying:
Invert the tube and place it on a paper towel on the bench top. Allow the pellet
to air-dry for 10 min.
Never dry under vacuum!
7. DNA recovery:
Add 10 fll of elution buffer or sterile water (10 fll minimum or 0.5 volumes
of added Sephaglas), vortex gently to resuspend the pellet and incubate for
5 min at room temperature with periodic agitation. Centrifuge at high speed
for 1 min in a microfuge. Carefully remove the supernatant and place it into
a new microfuge tube. Repeat this elution step once more to obtain a better
yield of DNA.
8. Estimate the concentration of purified DNA by spectrophotometry (see
chapter 2.1) and examine the quality by agarose gel electrophoresis of an
aliquot of preparation (see chapter 2.3).
Trouble Shooting:
Recovering the DNA at 60°C is recommended to increase the DNA yield.

The purified DNA can used directly for the labeling reaction without further
purification, but be sure that the matrix is thoroughly washed and air-dried before
DNA elution. Contaminations with iodide or ethanol in the final elution step may
lower the DNA recovery and inhibit enzymes used for subsequent reactions.
2.6.2.3 DIG-Labeling of DNA-Fragments by Random Priming
Random priming [12] is used to generate probes from denatured, closed circular
DNA or denatured, linear dsDNA but completely linearized DNA is more
efficiently labeled than circular DNA.
This method allows labeling of 10 ng up to 3 flg of DNA per standard

reaction. The yield of labeled DNA is a function of the amount and purity of the
DNA template and the duration of incubation at 37°C (Table 2.6.-1).
The labeling reaction occurs within 1 h and results in incorporation of DIG-
Il-dUTP every 20 - 25 nucleotides into the newly synthesized DNA.
Table 2.6-1. Amount of synthesized DNA in dependence on amount of template DNA and on
duration of incubation
Amount of template DNA lOng 30 ng 100 ng 300 ng 1000 ng 3000 ng

per labeling reaction
Amount of synthesized DIG-

labeled DNA
- after 1 hour- IS ng 30 ng 60ng 120 ng 260ng 530 ng
- after 20 hours- SOng 120 ng 260ng 500 ng 780 ng 890 ng
The size of the DIG-labeled DNA fragments obtained by random primed

DNA labeling depends on the amount and size of the template DNA, e. g. using
linear pBR328 DNA as template the size of labeled probes is in the range of
200 - 2000 bp with a peak around 700 bp.
The labeled DNA can be stored frozen at - 20°C indefinitely.
(Source: Boehringer data sheet for DIG-labeling and detection Kit)
Materials:
1) DNA template: purified PCR products; dissolved in a maximum volume of

15 pi DEPC-treated H2 0.
It is possible to vary the amount of DNA template from 10 ng-3 pg (see above).
We recommend the use of about 500 - 800 ng per reaction.
2) Hexanucleotide mixture, 10 conc.; 62.5 A260 U/ml random hexanucleotides,
dissolved in 500 mmolll Tris-HCI, 100 mmolll MgCl 2, i mmolll DTT, 2 mglml
BSA; pH 7.2 (20°C); (Boehringer, Mannheim)
3) DIG DNA labeling mixture, 10 x conc.; i mmolll dATp, dCTP and dGTp,
0.65 mmolll dTTp, 0.35 mmolll DIG-ii-dUTP; pH 7.5 (20°C); (Boehringer,
Mannheim)
4) Klenow enzyme labeling grade, 2 U/pl
5) DEPC-treated H2 0
6) EDTA, 0.2 moUI; pH 8.0 (20°C)
7) LiCI, 4 molll
8) Ethanol, 100% and 75% (vlv); (-20°C)
9) TE-buffer (see appendix)
2.6.2 Preparation of DIG-Labeled DNA Probes 99
Protocol2: DIG-labeling of dsDNA
Pipette the DNA template into a sterile microfuge tube and denature for 10 min
at 95°C, Thereafter chill quickly on ice. Complete denaturation is essential for
efficient labeling when using ds DNA.
Add the following reagents to the chilled microfuge tube:
2 fil hexanucleotide mixture and 2 fil DIG DNA labeling mixture; bring the
volume up to 19 fil with DEPC-treated H 20, add 1 fil Klenow enzyme.
Mix the sample well by vortexing, centrifuged briefly and incubated over
night at 37°C,
At the end of incubation, add 2 fil EDTA to stop the labeling reaction.
1. Precipitate the labeled DNA with 2.5 fil LiCI (0.1 volume) and 75 III prechilled
(-20°C) 100% ethanol (2.5 volume). Mix well byvortexing and leave the tube
for at least 30 min at - 70°C or 2 h at - 20°C,
2. Centrifuge at 14000 g for 15 min at 4°C and discard the supernatant.
3. Wash the pellet with about 500 III cold 75% ethanol, centrifuge again for
5 min.
4. Decant the 75% ethanol and dry on air or under vacuum (avoid complete
dryness because this impedes resuspension).
5. Dissolve at 37°C in 50 fil TE buffer for about 30 min.
6. The probe can be stored at - 20°C for up to one year.
2.6.2.4 Estimating the Yield of DIG-Labeled DNA
Before a newly synthesized DNA probe is used for Northern blot hybridiza-
tion it is recommendable to estimate the yield of DIG-labeled DNA and
confirm the success of labeling reaction by comparison with a labeled control
DNA.
Materials:
1) Labeled control DNA; linearized pBR328 DNA, labeled with DIG

according to standard protocol, containing 1 flg template DNA and
approximate 260 ng synthesized labeled DNA per 50)11. (Boehringer,
Mannheim)
2) DIG-labeled DNA probe
3) DNA-dilution buffer (50 flglml herring sperm DNA, 10 mmolll TrisIHCI,
1 mmolll EDTA; pH 8.0 (20°C))
4) Nylon membrane, positively charged (Boehringer, Mannheim)
All reagents and solutions necessary for colorimetric or chemiluminescent
detection are summarized in section 2.6.5.
Protocol 3: Yield of DIG-DNA Labeling
Perform all dilution steps by using DNA-dilution buffer.

1. Dilute the control DNA 1: 5 to a final concentration of 1 ng/Jll.
2. Use an aliquot of labeled probe and dilute to an equal concentration. The
ratio of dilution should be estimated by using Table 2.6.-1.
3. Prepare lO-fold serial dilutions from both DNAs to obtain the following final
concentrations: 100 pg/JlI; 10 pg/JlI; 1 pg/JlI; 0.1 pg/JlI; 0.01 pg/Jll.
4. Spot 1 JlI of each dilution onto a membrane.
5. Fix the DNA onto the membrane by UV-crosslinking and baking (see section
2.6.3.2).
6. Detect the "Spots" corresponding to colorimetric or chemiluminescent
detection protocol (see section 2.6.5)
7. Compare the spot intensities of probe and control dilutions and estimate the
concentration of labeled probe.
Trouble Shooting:
If the DNA probe is not labeled efficiently, increase the time of labeling reaction
(up to 20 h) and be sure to denature the DNA template completely prior to
labeling.
Depending on the used purification method, it may be necessary to repurify
the DNA by pheno1!chloroform extraction and ethanol precipitation (see
chapter 1.3).
2.6.3 Preparation of Northern Blots
2.6.3.1 RNA Electrophoresis Through Denaturing Agarose Gels

Containing Formaldehyde
Before RNA is transferred to the solid support for Northern blot hybridization
the RNA samples have to be size-fractionated by agarose gel electrophoresis.
This method is also applied to determine the integrity of RNA samples which
should be examined by other techniques e. g. by PCR.
Electrophoretic separation of RNA requires denaturating conditions to
guarantee the migration of RNA molecules only with respect to their molecular
weights, because nondenatured RNA frequently develop secondary structures.
Such "hairpins" influence the electrophoretic behavior of RNA molecules
decisively.
Several denaturants are applicable for agarose gels, including formaldehyde
[13,14] glyoxa1!DMSO [15], and methylmercuric hydroxide [16].
Because of its extreme toxicity, methyl-mercuric hydroxide is not recom-
mended for routine use [4].
2.6.3 Preparation of Northern Blots 101
We prefer the application of formaldehyde as a denaturing agent. The shorter

running time of formaldehyde gels compared to glyoxal gels is advantageous.
Moreover, recirculation of the running buffer, necessary for glyoxal/DMSO-
technique, is not required.
However, Northern blots prepared from formaldehyde denatured RNA
samples appear a little less sharp in comparison to RNA samples which have
been fractionated through gels containing glyoxallDMSO [11].
>>To prevent contamination with RNAse, always use gloves, autoclaved
pipettes, and vessels. All buffers and solutions must be treated with DEPC (see
appendix)!«
Materials:
1) RNA-samples:
Dissolve a defined quantity of RNA (total cellular or poly (A+) RNA) in
DEPC- treated H2 0. (The volume should not exceed 4.5 pi per sample when
using the following standard protocol.)
Up to 20 pg total RNA can be separated per lane. For examination of low
abundance mRNAs the application of 2 - 5 pg poly (A +) RNA is
recommended.
2) 1 % agarose gel containing formaldehyde
Preparation of the gel: (The volumes given are suitable for preparation of a
7 x 8 cm minigel, 0.5 cm thick.)
Boil 0.5 g agarose in 36.7 ml DEPC-treated H2 0. Cool the gel to 60 DC, and add
5 milO MOPS and 8.3 m137% formaldehyde (1/6 ratio). Mix well and pour
it onto the gel bed. Allow the gel to set for at least 30 min.
3) Running buffer: 1 x MOPS; prepared from a lOx MOPS stock solution using
DEPC- treated H20 (see appendix)
4) 100 % formam ide
5) 37% (v/v) formaldehyde; pH> 4 is essential
>>Formaldehyde vapor is toxic. Solutions containing formaldehyde should be
prepared under a chemical hood and electrophoresis tanks containing
formaldehyde solutions should be kept covered whenever possible.«
6) 10 x MOPS buffer (see appendix)
7) Formaldehyde gel-loading buffer (50 % (v/v) glycerol; 1 mmolll EDTA, pH 8.0
(20 DC); 0.5 % (w/v) bromophenol blue; DEPC-treated)
8) Ethidium bromide (1 mg/ml)
>>Ethidium bromide is a powerful mutagen. Gloves should be used when
working with solutions containing this dye. <<
10) Electrophoresis chamber (Treat the apparatus for at least one hour with 0.1 N
NaOH and rinse with DEPC-H20 before using)
11) Power supply
Protocol4: Denaturing RNA Electrophoresis
Sample Preparation
1. Prepare each sample for electrophoresis by using the following pipetting
scheme (reagent in fll per sample):
• dissolved RNA * 4.5
• 100% formamide 10.0
• 37% formaldehyde 3.5
• 10 x MOPS 2.0
• ethidium bromide 0.5
2. Mix the samples well by vortexing and centrifuge for 5 to 10 s. Incubate at
65°C for 15 min and chill thereafter on ice. After cooling centrifuge for 5 to
10 s to deposit all fluid at the bottom of tube and place on ice immediately.
3. Add 2111 of gel-loading buffer to each sample, after vortexing centrifuge
briefly and chill on ice.
Sample Application and Electrophoresis:

1. Prerun the gel at 5 Vfcm for 5 min. Load the samples onto the gel. The gel
should not be submerged in running buffer during loading to avoid spillage
of RNA.
2. Run the gel at 15 Vf cm for 5 min. If samples have entered the gel for 2 - 3 mm
submerge the gel with running buffer and continue electrophoresis at 5 Vfcm
(2 - 3 h; bromphenol blue has then migrated halfway down the gel).
Analysis
1. After electrophoresis ethidium bromide stained RNA samples may be
examined by ultraviolet illumination and documented by photography (see
chapter 2.3).
2. The separated RNA can now be estimated for its integrity:
By application of eucaryotic total RNA the 18S and the 28S rRNA should
appear as two sharp bands whereby the intensity of 28S rRNA band is twice
as high as that from 18S rRNA; the 5S and the 5.8S rRNA bands are
manifested on leading edge of gel together with tRNA. The significantly
lighter smear between, above and below rRNA represents the mRNA
components of an intact sample. (Figure 2.6-2)
Trouble Shooting:
If rRNA does not appear as sharp bands either the gel solutions were not mixed
adequately or the pH of the formaldehyde was too low. Another explanation
* If the sample volume is < 4.5 fil use DEPC-treated H20 to bring to final volume.
,,
288 188
(4.7kb)(1.9kb)
lane 1 -
2-
3-
4-
5-
6-
Fig.2.6-2. Electrophoresis of total RNA samples isolated from human skin fibroblasts through
1 % agarose gel containing formaldehyde.
lane: 1 - 15 [lg; 2 - 10 [lg; 3 - 7.5 [lg; 4 - 5 [lg; 5 - 2.5 [lg; 6 - 1 [lg RNA loaded
could be that the sample volume loaded into each slot was too high (for a
slot 5 x 1 mm we recommend not to exceed a maximum sample volume of
30 fll).
As an alternative to the protocol described, RNA samples can also be stained
after electrophoresis. Cut the lanes to be stained from the gel, and incubate in a
solution containing 0.5 mg ethidium bromide/ml in 0.1 molll ammonium
acetate for 30 - 45 min [11].
2.6.3.2 Capillary Transfer of Denatured RNA to a Nylon Membrane
In addition to vacuum transfer and electroblotting, capillary transfer is a wide-

spread method for absorbing electrophoretic ally separated RNA from agarose
gels to membrane filters. By this technique, buffer is drawn from a reservoir up
through the gel into a stack of dry absorbent material. In this way, the RNA is
eluted from the gel by the resulting stream of buffer and is deposited on a piece
of membrane filter, which is placed on top of the gel. A weight applied to the top
of the absorbent material guarantees the required tight connection between the
several layers of transfer system (Figure 2.6-3).
Materials:
1) Nylon membrane, positively charged (Boehringer, Mannheim)

Cut a piece of membrane so that it is 2 - 3 mm smaller in both dimensions than
the gel.
Whatman 3 MM paper nylon membrane;

paper towels positively charged
glass plate gel
~ 1~--5-00-g---w-ei~g~ht----~
I ~r--I~' _sup_port ~'~(lj

Whatman 3 MM paper transfer buffer (20xSSC)
Fig. 2.6-3. Principle of capillary transfer of nucleic acids from agarose gels to solid supports
Note: Nylon membranes are preferred because they show significantly higher
binding capacity and mechanical resistance than nitrocellulose. In addition,
these membranes enable chemiluminescent detection of DIG-labeled nucleic
acid molecules and a repeated hybridization without loss of signal.
2) 3 MM paper (Whatman) and paper towels
3) Transfer buffer: 20 x SSC (see appendix)
4) DEPC-treated H20
5) Dish (as buffer tank) and gel support (Treat both for at least 1 h with 0.1 N
NaOH and rinse with DEPC-H2 0 before using.)
6) glass plate; 500 g weight
7) UV-Stratalinker 2400 (Stratagene) or 302-nm light emitting transilluminator
8) Thermostat, 120°C
ProtocolS: Capillary Transfer
1. Remove formaldehyde from gel by soaking in DEPC-treated H20

for 20 min. Thereafter discard the H20 and soak the gel in 20 x SSC
for 45 min. (Both solutions should be changed two to four times during
incubation.)
2. Place the gel support within the dish. Fill with 20 x SSe. The level should
reach the top of the support.
3. Prepare a piece of 3 MM paper that is longer and wider than the gel. (This
piece of paper will act as contact between gel and buffer reservoir.) Wet the
piece of paper with 20 x SSC and place it on the support in such a way that
both ends hang into the buffer reservoir, avoid getting air bubbles between
paper and support.
4. Place the gel on the 3 MM paper and smooth out all air bubbles.
5. Add 1 to 2 ml20 x sse to the surface of the gel and place the dry membrane
on the gel. Mark the membrane asymmetrically for proper recoding after
transfer. (Make sure that all air bubbles were removed between membrane
and gel. Do not move the membrane following application on gel.)
6. Surround the gel with Parafilm to prevent direct flow of liquid from
reservoir to absorbent material.
7. Cut 3 - 8 pieces of 3 MM paper and a stack of paper towels (5 - 8 cm high).
Both should be 2 - 3 mm smaller in both dimensions than the membrane to
avoid an incomplete transfer.
8. Wet a piece of 3 MM paper with 20 x sse and put it on the membrane. Place
the additional pieces of 3 MM paper and the paper towels on the top of the
membrane.
9. Put a glass plate and a 500 g weight on the top of the stack. Allow transfer of
RNA to proceed at 4°e overnight (about 16-18 hours).
10. If the transfer is finished, carefully peel the membrane from the gel. Soak
the membrane briefly in 5 x SSC to remove any agarose pieces, and put the
membrane onto a sheet of 3 MM paper.
11. Immobilize the RNA on the damp membrane by UV-crosslinking and
baking at 120 0 e for 30 min .
• By application of a calibrated UV-light source (e.g. Stratalinker, Strata-
gene) an UV-exposure of 120 mJ/cm2 (function: "Autocrosslinking") is
recommended. Immobilization with a 302-nm light emitting trans-
illuminator is performed by an exposure time of 3 min .
• For immobilization of RNA to a filter membrane the instructions of
manufacturer should be followed.
The membrane can be used directly for hybridization or stored for later use.
Trouble Shooting:
It is also possible to perform capillary transfer at room temperature for 4 h, but

an overnight transfer is more efficient.
To avoid incomplete transfer by capillary elution, the subsequent instruc-
tions should be followed:
• The gel should consist of a maximum of 1.2 % agarose and should not exceed
0.5 mm thickness.
• The top weight should be in accordance with gel size to avoid a gel collapse
(500 g for a minigel and a maximum of 1250 g for 20 x 20 cm gels).
• The presence of ethidium bromide may result in a reduced transfer efficiency
[4, 12]. Therefore the RNA samples should be prepared in duplicate for
visualization by ethidium bromide staining.
2.6.4 Northern Blot Hybridization with DIG-Labeled DNA Probes

One of the major problems in applying nonradioactive labeling and detection in
Northern blot analysis is the limited sensitivity caused by a nonspecific back-
ground.
Background signals are influenced decisively by hybridization conditions
(temperature and time as well as composition of prehybridization and hybridi-
zation solution). For DNA-RNA hybrids, the protocol published by Church and
Gilbert [17] is often recommended [7], but a significant suppression of
unspecific signals in connection with increasing sensitivity is achieved by a
modification of this protocol according to Engler- Blum et al. [5]. This method is
characterized by a general hybridization temperature of 68°C and a modified
composition of hybridization solution. BSA is replaced by 0.5 % (w/v) blocking
reagent and the SDS concentration is increased to 20% (w/v).
Materials:
1) DIG-labeled DNA probe; dissolved in TE-buffer; pH B.O (20°C) (For prepara-

tion see section 2.6.2).
2) Prehybridization solution: 0.25 molll Na2HP04 (use a 1 molll stock solution,
pH 7.2 (20 DC), see appendix); 1 mmolll EDTA; 20 % (w/v) SDS; 0.5 % (w/v)
blocking reagent; prepare solution with DEPC-treated H20 and autoclave it.
Store the solution at 4 DC or - 20 DC subsequently.
Use 20 ml of prehybridization solution per 100 cm 2 of membrane.
3) The hybridization solution consists of prehybridization solution and the
denatured DNA-probe. We recommend a probe concentration of about
50 ng/ml hybridization solution. Use 2.5 ml of hybridization solution per
100 cm 2 of membrane.
4) Washing buffer: 20 mmolll Na2HP04 (use a 1 molll stock solution, pH 7.2
(20 DC), see appendix) 1 mmolll EDTA; 1 % (w/v) SDS
5) Hybridization oven (e.g. Mini oven, Hybaid Co.)
Protocol6: Hybridization
1. Perform all the following steps in sterile 50 ml plastic tubes. The given
volumes are calculated for a membrane size of 100 cm2• Alter the volumes
according to the used membrane size.
2. Warm up the hybridization oven and prehybridization solution to 68 ac.
Because of the high SDS content, allow the solution to incubate 2 - 3 h.
3. Add 20 ml of prewarmed prehybridization solution to the membrane and
incubate at 68 DC in the hybridization oven for one hour.
4. After prehybridization replace the solution with 2.5 ml prehybridization
solution and add the denatured probe. Incubate the membrane at 68 DC over-
night (for at least 16 hours).
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2.6.5 Immunological Detection of DNA-RNA Hybrids 107
Double stranded DNA probes must be denatured before use!

Incubate the DNA probe at 95°C for 10 min and chill quickly on ice.
>>Do not allow the membrane to dry between prehybridization and hybridiza-
tion!«
5. Discard the hybridization solution and wash the membrane for 3 x 20 min at
65°C with 20 ml of washing buffer. It is important to preheat the washing
solution to 65°C!
This rigorous washing results in the removal of all the unbound probe from
the membrane.
The DNA-RNA hybrids can be now detected immediately or alternatively the
membranes can, after air drying, be stored for later detection.
Note: The decanted hybridization solution can be reused for further hybridizati-
ons. The solution can be stored at - 20°C for up to one year. For reuse, denature
the probe at 68 °C for 10 min and add the solution as previously described.
2.6.5 Immunological Detection of DNA-RNA Hybrids

DIG-labeling enables the visualization of the DNA-RNA hybrids by formation
of insoluble color precipitate directly on the membrane, or by chemilumin-
escence.
Materials:
1) Buffer A: 100 mmolll maleic acid, 150 mmolll NaCI; pH 7.5 (20°C)
2) Buffer B: 1 % (w/v) blocking reagent (Boehringer, Mannheim) in buffer A;
prepared from a stock solution containing 10% (w/v) blocking reagent in
buffer A (autoclave the stock solution and store it at 4°C)
3) Buffer C: 100 mmolll Tris/HCI, 100 mmolll NaCl, 50 mmolll MgCI2; pH 9.5
(20°C)
5) Anti-DIG-AP conjugate; polyclonal sheep anti-digoxigenin Fab-fragments,
conjugated with alkaline phosphatase, 750 Ulml; store at 4 dc. (Boehringer,
Mannheim)
The following additional materials are required for colorimetric detection:
6) NBT solution; 75 mg/ml in 70% (v/v) DMFA; store at -20°C.
7) X-phosphate solution; 50 mg/ml toluidium salt in 100% (v/v) DMFA; store at
-20°C.
8) TE-buffer (see appendix)
The following additional materials are required for chemiluminescent detection:
9) Buffer ATween: 100 mmolll maleic acid, 150 mmolll NaCl; pH 7.5 (20°C); 0.3 %
(v/v) Tween 20
10) One of the following chemiluminescent substrates:

• Lumigen PPD; 10 mg/ml disodium salt, (23.5 mmolll)
• CSPD; 11.6 mg/ml disodium salt, (25 mmolll)
Both substrates should be stored at 4°C, protected from light.
11) X-ray film (e.g. Hyperfilm ECL, Amersham)
Protocol7: Colorimetric or Chemiluminescent Detection
Perform the following incubations at room temperature in a 50 ml sterile plastic

tube or carry out the experiment in a tray or bag. Except for the color reaction,
all incubation steps require shaking or mixing. The given volumes are calculated
for a membrane size of 100 cm 2• Alter the volumes according to your membrane
size.
Colorimetric Detection with NBT and X-Phosphate

1. Transfer the membrane into a new tube and wash briefly with DEPC-treated
H20 and then with 20 ml of buffer A for 1 min.
2. Incubate with 20 ml of buffer B for 45 min.
3. Dilute anti-DIG-AP conjugate 1:5000 to a final concentration of 150 mU/ml
in buffer B.
4. Discard the solution and incubate with 15 ml of freshly prepared antibody-
solution for 30 min.
5. Transfer the membrane to a new tube to avoid increasing background signals
caused by antibodies bound to the tube wall.
6. Wash 2 x 15 min with 20 ml of buffer A to remove unbound antibody.
7. Pour off buffer A and equilibrate with 20 ml of buffer C for 2-5 min.
8. Prepare color solution: Add 45 ill NBT solution and 35 ill X-phosphate
solution to 10 ml buffer C.
Incubate the membrane with prepared color solution at room temperature in a
sealed plastic bag or in a tray protected from light.
The color precipitation starts within a few minutes and the reaction is usually
complete within 12-16 h. Do not shake or mix while color is developing!
When the desired bands are detected, stop the reaction by washing for 5 min
with 20 ml of TE-buffer and with H20 for 1 min.
Membranes thereafter may be dried at room temperature. Color fades upon
drying but can be revitalized by wetting with buffer D. The membrane can be
stored over a long period in a bag in TE-buffer with retention of the color.
Chemiluminescent Detection with Lumigen PPD or CSPD

Note: This kind of detection can be only performed by using nylon membranes.
Nitrocellulose causes a drastic decrease in sensitivity (Boehringer Mannheim
data sheet for CSPD).
1. Transfer the membrane into a new tube and wash briefly with DEPC-treated
H20 and thereafter with of 20 ml buffer ATween for 1 min.
2.6.5 Immunological Detection of DNA-RNA Hybrids 109
2. Incubate with 20 ml of buffer B for 45 min.

3. Dilute anti-DIG conjugate 1: 10000 to a final concentration of 75 mU/ml in
buffer B.
4. Pour off the solution and incubate with 15 ml of freshly prepared antibody-
solution for 30 min.
5. Transfer the membrane to a new tube to avoid an increasing of background
caused by antibodies bound to tube wall.
6. Wash 2 x 15 min with 20 ml of buffer ATween to remove unbound antibody.
7. Discard the solution and equilibrate with 20 ml of buffer C for 2-5 min.
8. Prepare 5-10 ml substrate solution; dilute Lumigen PPD or CSPD stock
solution 1: 100 in buffer C (sterile diluted substrate can be stored at 4°C
protected from light and may be reused for up to two times).
9. Put the membrane into a sterile dish and distribute the substrate solution
over the surface.
10. Incubate the membrane at room temperature for 5 min. The incubation
could be performed alternatively between two polyethylene sheets. Place
the membrane between the sheets and add approximately 0.5 ml of sub-
strate solution per 100 cm2 of membrane onto the surface of membrane.
Make sure that all air bubbles are removed between the top sheet and the
membrane. Perform the incubation.
11. Let excess liquid drip off the membrane, lay the back surface down on a
sheet of 3 MM paper for a few seconds but do not allow to dry completely.
12. Seal the damp membrane in a plastic bag avoiding air bubbles.
13. Preincubate at 37°C for 5-15 min.
14. Expose for 15-60 min to X-ray film at room temperature. The time of
exposure can be further increased depending on the strength of specific
signals and the background. Luminescence continues for at least 24 h,
whereby multiple exposures may be taken. The signal intensity increase
during the first hours.
Trouble shooting:
For quantitative Northern blot analysis chemiluminescent detection is recom-

mended due to its higher sensitivity. It has been stated that, for colorimetric
systems, the activity of alkaline phosphatase is inhibited as the color precipitate
is formed and deposited on filter. This enzyme inhibition would result in
unreliable data [18].
If the sensitivity is too low:
• Estimate the labeling efficiency according to the protocol in section 2.6.2.4.
Use longer PCR products for generation of probes.
• Increase concentration of probe during hybridization and/or prolong the
hybridization time.
• Increase the antibody conjugate concentration and/or the substrate reaction
time.
• By application of chemiluminescent detection, increase the time of pre-

incubation at 37°C and/or the exposure to X-ray film.
If the background is to high:
• Check the purity of the DNA fragments used for labeling reaction.
• Completely remove the formaldehyde from the gel after electrophoresis.
• Increase the concentration of the blocking reagent up to 5 % for both the
hybridization and immunological detection step.
• Take care that membranes do not overlap during washing.
To avoid both pitfalls, optimize the washing conditions (time, temperature,

content of buffers) for your particular problem.
2.6.6 Analysis of Northern Blots
2.6.6.1 Evaluation of mRNA Size
Calculate the size of a detected mRNA species against a in parallel run RNA
molecular weight marker (external standard) or against the 18 and 28 S rRNA
species of the sample (internal standard).
Measure the distance from the loading well to each of the bands on the
photographed gel.
Plot 10gIO of marker size against the distance migrated. Use the resulting
curve to calculate the size of the detected RNA species.
Trouble Shooting:
Ethidium bromide retards the electrophoretic mobility of nucleic acids by about

15% [4].
If the molecular weight marker used, in contrast to the sample, is electro-
phoretically separated in presence of this dye, this fact must be considered for
the calculation of molecular weights.
We recommend using DIG-labeled RNA molecular weight markers
(Boehringer, Mannheim). These markers become visible automatically during
detection and enables a direct size-calculation of a specific RNA on membrane.
They may also serve as a check for successful transfer.
2.6.6.2 Semiquantitative Evaluation of Steady-State Levels of Specific mRNA
Target RNA expression levels can be measured following scanning densitometry

of chemiluminescent or colorimetric detected DNA-RNA-hybrids.
2.6.6 Analysis of Northern Blots III
a
GAPDH Collagenase I
o 1 5 10 o 5 10 TNFa. lng/mil
- 1.4kb
-- 2.2kb
b
Collagenasel mANA level [% control culture]
100 200 300 400 500 600 700
o
:§.
011/)
oS
[t 0
Z
I-
Fig.2.6-4. Nonradioactive Northern blot hybridization with DIG-labeled dsDNA probes gene-
rated by PCR: a Human Collagenase I and GAPDH specific probes were prepared according
to the method described above (see section 2.6.2.). cDNA from human skin fibroblasts RNA was
applied as template for amplification. For Collagenase I, sense primer was: 5' AGGTATTG
AGGGGAT GCT 3' (635-653 bp) and antisense primer was 5' GGTAGAAGGGATTTGTGCG 3'
(978-996 bp) (21), predicted PCR product size: 362 bpj for GAPDH primers see chapter 1.2,
predicted PCR product size: 300 bp.
Human skin fibroblasts were incubated with various concentrations of human recombinant
TNF a (I -10 ng/ml culture) for 24 h. 13 f.lg total RNA was analyzed by Northern blot hybridiza-
tion with DNA probe specific for Collagenase I. To normalize the values obtained after
hybridization the relative amount of the housekeeping gene GAPDH was determined parallel in
each RNA sample. RNA-DNA hybrids were colorimetric ally detected (duration of incubation:
16 h). b Relative Collagenase I mRNA levels were determined by scanning densitometry using
the Epson GT-6000 scanner in combination with Gelimage software, Vers.1.3 (Pharmacia) after
colorimetric detection. The values were corrected for GAPDH mRNA levels in the same RNA
preparations and expressed in relation to control culture incubated in parallel without TNF a
To normalize the densitometric values the simultaneous hybridization of

each sample with a "housekeeping gene" specific probe (see chapter 1.1.) is
necessary.
The application of the described nonradioactive Northern blot hybridiza-
tion can be demonstrated ideally by the determination of Collagenase-I-mRNA-
steady-state-Ievels of human skin fibroblasts incubated with recombinant TNF a
(Figure 2.6-4).
2.6.7 Stripping and Reprobing of Northern Blots After

Nonradioactive Detection
The application of nylon membranes for Northern blot hybridization enables
the removal of hybridized probes following detection by extremely rigorous
washing.
Thus one membrane can be screened for expression of various mRNA
species using different probes of interest. This technique is very useful because
the preparation of Northern blots is time-consuming and relatively large
amounts of RNA are needed.
From colorimetrically stained membranes the color precipitate must be
removed first followed by removal the probe. A less intense treatment is
required after chemiluminescent detection.
Membranes can be reprobed up to ten times.
>>The membrane must keep wet for reprobing after detection! It is
significantly more difficult to remove the hybridized probe from membranes,
that have been allowed to dry completely.«
Materials:
1) Probe-stripping solution: 50% (vlv) formamide; 1 % (wlv) SDS; 50 mmolll

Tris/HCI; pH 8.0 (20°C); prepare the solution with DEPC-treated H2 0. Store
the solution at 4 dc. Use about 20 ml of solution per 100 cm 2 of membrane.
2) 2 x SSC; prepared form a 20 x SSC stock solution by using DEPC-treated H2 0
(see appendix)
In addition DMFA is required for stripping membranes after colorimetric
detection.
Protocol8: Reprobing of Northern Blots
All the following incubations require shaking or mixing.
Stripping Membrane After Colorimetric Detection

1. Warm up about 100 ml DMFA to 50-60°C in a water bath under a hood.
»DMFA is volatile and can ignited above 67 °C!«
2. Removal of color precipitate:
Incubate membrane in prewarmed DMFA at 50-60°C until the blue color
precipitate is removed completely. Frequently changing the DMFA solution
will increase the speed of reaction.
3. Transfer the membrane to a new plastic tube, and wash thoroughly with
DEPC-treated H2 0 at room temperature.
References 113
4. Removal of probe using a modified method according to Gebeyhu et al. [20 l:

Incubate the membrane for 2 x 30 min in about 20 ml prewarmed probe-
stripping solution at 68°C. Discard the solution, and wash the membrane
with DEPC-treated H20 and thereafter twice with 2 x SSC.
Stripping Membrane After Chemiluminescent Detection

1. Rinse the membrane thoroughly with DEPC-treated H20 at room
temperature.
2. Remove the probe as described above (see step 4).
The membranes can now be used for prehybridization and hybridization
with another probe or can be stored in 2 x SSC in a sealed plastic bag for later
applications.
References
1. Alwine JC, Kemp DJ, Stark GR (1977) Method for detection of specific RNAs in agarose gels
by transfer to diazobenzyloxymethyl-paper and hybridization with DNA probes. Proc Nat!
Acad Sci USA; 74:5350
2. Kessler C, Holtke HJ, Seibl R, Burg J, Muhlegger J (1990) Nonradioactive labeling and
detection of nucleic acids: I. A novel DNA labeling and detection system based on
digoxigenin:anti-digoxigenin ELISA principle (digoxigenin system). Mol Gen Hoppe-
Seyler; 371 :917-927
3. Holtke HJ, Seibl R, Burg J, Muhlegger J, Kessler C (1990) Nonradioactive labeling and detec-
tion of nucleic acids: II. Optimization of the digoxigenin system. Mol Gen Hoppe-Seyler;
371:929-938
4. Farrel RE Jr (1993) RNA Methodologies. Academic Press, San Diego, New York, Boston,
London, Sydney, Tokyo, Toronto
5. Engler-Blum G, Meier M, Frank J, Muller G (1992) Reduction of background problems in
nonradioactive Northern an d Southern hybridization blot analysis enables higher sensit-
ivity than 32P-based hybridization. Anal Biochem; 2lO: 235 - 244
6. Holtke H-J, Kessler Ch (1990) Non-radioactive labeling of RNA transcripts in vitro with the
hapten digoxigenin (DIG); hybridization and ELISA-based detection. Nucl Acids Res; 18:
5843-5851
7. Kessler C (ed) (1992) Nonradioactive labeling and detection of biomolecules. Springer,
Berlin, Heidelberg, New York, pp. 206 - 211
8. Yamaguchi K, Zhang D, Byrn RA (1994) Modified nonradioactive method for Northern blot
analysis. Anal Biochem; 218: 343 - 346
9. Sato M, Murao K, Mizobuchi M Takahara J (1993) Quantitative and sensitive Northern blot
hybridization using PCR-generated DNA probes labeled with Digoxigenin by nick trans-
lation. BioTechniques; 15 :880 - 882
11. Sambrook J, Fritsch EF, Maniatis T (1989) Molecular cloning: A Laboratory Manual. Cold
Spring Harbor Laboratory Press New York. second edition
12. Feinberg AP, Vogelstein B (1983) A technique for radiolabeling DNA restriction endo-
nuclease fragments to high specificity. Anal Biochem; 132: 6-13
13. Rave N, Crkvenjakov R, Boedtker H (1979) Identification of pro collagen mRNAs
transferred to diazobenzyloxymethyl paper from formaldehyde gels. Nucl Acids Res; 6: 3559
14. Lehrbach H, Diamond D, Wozney JM, Boedtker H (1977) RNA molecular weight determina-
tions by electrophoresis under denaturing conditions critical reexamination. Biochemistry;
16:4743
15. Mc Master GK, Carmichael GC (1977) Analysis of single- and double-stranded nucleic acids
on polyacrylamide and agarose gels and acridine orange. Proc Natl Acad Sci U.S.A., 74: 835
16. Bailey JM, Davidson N (1976) Methylmercury as reversible denaturing agent for agarose gel
electrophoresis. Anal Biochem; 70: 75
17. Church GM, Gilbert W (1984) Genomic sequencing. Proc Nat! Acad Sci U.S.A.;
81:1991-1995
18. Pitta A, Considine K, Braman J (1990) FLASH chemiluminescent system for sensitive non-
radioactive detection of nucleic acids. Strategies in Molecular Biology; 3: 33
19. Goldberg GI, Wilhelm SM, Kronberger A, Bauer EA, Grant GA, Eisen AZ (1986) Human
fibroblast collagenase: complete primary structure and homology to an oncogene trans-
formation induced rat protein. JBioi Chern; 261 :6600-6605
20. Gebeyehu G, Rao PY, SooChan P, Simms DA, Klevan L (1987) Novel biotinylated nucleotide-
analogs for labeling and colorimetric detection of DNA. Nucl Acids Res; 15: 4531- 4534
Part 3
Semiquantitative and Quantitative Protocols
for Measurement
of Nucleic Acids by PCR
Chapter 3.1
Quantitation of mRNA by the ELOSA Technique
Using External Standards
D. LAsSNER
3.1.1 Principle of the ELOSA Technique
In most studies, PCR applications have been coupled with either a gel electro-
phoresis step or liquid/solid support hybridization (see chapter 2.5). Many
detection methods are very time consuming or their sensitivity is too low [1].
The ELOSA (Enzyme Linked Oligonucleotide Sorbents Assay) combines
both sensitivity and specificity of a probe hybridization technique with rapid
and simple methods of detecting and quantifying PCR products in various
microplate formats [2]. This assay is mainly comparable to the ELISA technique
which is an essential detection method in clinical diagnostics. The specific
recognition step is performed by hybridization of amplified DNA fragments
with a probe.
PCR could realize its full potential in clinical laboratory with ELOSA. This
technique increases the throughput of clinical samples with rapid turnover.
ELOSA only needs commercial available chemicals and does not require radio-
active isotopes to increase sensitivity [4]. Results can be achieved in less than 4 h,
whereas conventional hybridization methods with comparable specificity and
sensitivity need up to three days [2].
ELOSA is a four-step method:
1) Immobilization of a probe or PCR-amplified DNA fragment in a microwell
2) Denaturation of double stranded DNA to get two single-strands
3) Hybridization of probe to the complementary single-strand
4) Colorimetric detection of hybrids (probe/DNA)
The combination of polymerase chain reaction and detection of achieved
products by ELOSA is called PCR-ELOSA [2,3]. The specificity of PCR-ELOSA
is given by an amplification with gene specific primers followed by a hybridi-
zation step using a probe which detects intrinsically generated PCR
products. Sensitivity depends on exponential accumulation of newly synthe-
sized DNA.
The procedure of detection is shown schematically in Figure 3.1-1.
118 3.1 Quantitation of mRNA by the ELOSA Technique Using External Standards
- -----
---- ---
B
"-
-t
D - 1- - -
------
Amplification
- - -
D
~
Adsorption
~ ~j
;;
, L
D Denaturation
Hybridization
2 TMB+
Absorption
04-- - - 2 TMB* + 2 H2 0
at 450 nm
Fig.3.1-1. Principle of PCR-ELOSA: PCR product is generated by amplification with specific

primers (one is biotinylated) and coupled to a streptavidin-coated microtiter plate. Single-
stranded DNA fragments are achieved by denaturation with NaOH. A labeled probe is hybridized
to the complementary sequence followed by colorimetrically detection of the DNA/probe
hybrids by using anti-DIG-antibody-POD-conjugates and subsequent reaction with chromogen
TMB
The linkage of two very sensitive and variable detection methods increase
the applications of this technique in research and clinical diagnostics. PCR-
ELOSA is suitable for qualitative detection of amplification products or for
quantitation of DNA [4] or mRNA [3]
3.1.2 Quantitation of mRNAs by PCR-ELOSA with

External RNA Standards
Competitive RT-PCR using internal standards (see chapter 3.4) is the most
sensitive and accurate method of mRNA quantitation [5]. Most of the described
quantitative protocols are based on simple comparison of the amount of specific
mRNA versus a reference nucleic acid amplified by the same way. The results
achieved may be indicated as "arbitrary units" [6].
A similar approach is the parallel amplification of serial dilutions of definite
amounts of RNA standards and the unknown sample followed by detection of
synthesized PCR products by ELOSA. RNA standards can be designed as
described in chapter 1.2 and 1.3.
DNA fragments detected by the ELOSA technique are prepared by previously
performed PCR amplification. Specificity of the PCR process strongly influences
the quantitation performed by the subsequent hybridization step. Simultaneous
processing of multiple samples ensures comparable results. The microplate
format of detection offers the possibility of fast and reliable analysis of up to 96
samples to get numeric data [3].
In Table 3.1-1 advantages and disadvantages of the ELOSA assay and the well
established HPLC method [7] are compared.
Table 3.1-1. Comparison of PCR-ELOSA and HPLC quantitation of PCR products
Method HPLC ELOSA
Sensitivity 200-400 pg 10-20 pg
Detection of amount and size amount and specific sequence
Accuracy ±4% ± 10%
Turnover of samples:
analysis 15-30 min Isample 1- 5 h/96 samples
automatization possible Yes Yes

The amounts of accumulated product from amplifications with Taq or rTth DNA
polymerase (chapter 2.4) are determined by the ELOSA technique. Knowing the
initial concentration of mdrl-RNA (cRNA standards) and the absorbance after
colorimetric detection of the PCR product, the sample mdr 1-mRNA content can
be calculated.
The cRNA standards should be as handled as the samples containing
unknown amounts of the mRNA of interest. The RT reaction should be
performed by specific priming (see chapter 2.2) and the whole sample should be
used in following single-tube RT-PCR.A prerequisite of detection is the use of a
biotinylated upstream primer for amplification (chapter 2.4).
All measurements should be performed in the exponential phase of PCR
amplification. Therefore, the number of cycles representing the linear phase of
reaction should be known before starting the experiment (see chapters 1.1
and 1.2).
3.1.3.1 Quantitation of mdr-1 mRNA by PCR-ELOSA
RT-PCR is performed as described in chapters 2.2 and 2.4 using parallel

amplified standard dilutions of definite amounts of mdr-l cRNA for calibration
of the assay (see chapter 1.3). The amplification kinetics of the cRNA standards
may be followed starting with cycle 12. The plateau phase is reached at cycle 30.
Therefore the amplification process is usually stopped between cycle 24 and 26
to get reliable results.
PCR samples are firstly roughly examined by agarose gel electrophoresis as
described (see section 2.3.2.2). The samples are diluted 1: 80 in the first step of
examination by ELOSA. Samples that are only weakly amplified and therefore
not visible in ethidium bromide stained gels are diluted 1: 20 as mentioned
below.
The first step of ELOSA is coupling of a biotinylated PCR product to a
streptavidin-coated microwell plate. By addition of NaOH to the adsorbed
dsDNA fragments the DNA strand containing the non-biotinylated primer is
removed. The microplate adsorbed ssDNA can now be detected using a strand-
complementary DIG labeled probe by colorimetric detection.
The following protocol has been established for simple handling. The use of
microplate washer and pipeUor increase reproducibility of the assay.
Materials:
1) Phosphate-buffered saline (PBS): see appendix

• Solution A: PBS with 0.1 % Tween 20
• Solution B: PBS with 2.0 % Tween 20
2) Hybridization buffer 20 x SSPE (pH 7.0)
• 175.3 g NaCl
• 27.6 g NaH2P04 * H20
• 7.4 g EDTA-Na2 * 2H20
• Aqua dest. add 1 I
3) Wash buffer (Phosphate-buffer; pH 6.4)
• 1.045 g NaH2P04 * H20
• 2.40 g Na2HP04 * 12 H20
• 7.60g NaCl
• Aqua dest. add 1 1
4) Detection solutions
• Solution C:
Prepare a solution of 8.9 g citric acid * H20 in 160 ml aqua dest. Adjust
pH value of 5.0 by addition of 4N KOH and fill up to 200 ml with aqua dest.
Add 200 {II of H20 2 (30 %, v/v).
• Solution D: TMB chromogen
Dissolve 4.8 mg TMB (Boehringer, Mannheim) in 780 {II DMFA
• Mix 1 vol. solution D + 9 vol. solution C immediately before use.
5) Denaturation solution: 0.25 molll NaOH
6) Stop solution G: 2N HCI
7) Anti-DIG-POD conjugate (Boehringer, Mannheim)
8) Streptavidin-coated microwell plate strips (DuPont)
9) DIG-labeled mdr-l.probe (0.4 ng/lOO {II 0.5 SSPE-B.)
10) Combipette and combitips (Eppendorf)
11) Microplate reader (e.g. Anthos)
12) Microplate washer (e.g. Denley Wellwash)
13) Incubator (3rC and 50°C) with shaking table
Protocol 7: Quantitation of the mdr-7 peR Product by ELOSA
1. Dilute 10 Jll of each PCR sample depending on the predicted DNA amount
(1: 20 or 1: 80) in solution A.
2. Pipette 100 Jll of dilution from each PCR sample to the respective well on the
microwell plate strip and incubate at 37°C for 60 min.
3. Remove all solution from the wells by rapid inversion of the strip holder
and shaking down vigorously.
4. Wash the strips 3 times with 300 Jll wash buffer (microplate washer).
5. Wash once with 200 Jll solution A.
6. Pipette 100 III denaturation solution to each well and incubate for 10 min at
room temperature.
>>Do not exceed this time< <
7. Wash immediately 3 times with 300 Jll wash buffer (microplate washer).
8. Pipette 200 Jll solution B and incubate for 15 min at room temperature.
9. Wash 6 times with 300 Jll wash buffer (microplate washer).
10. Pipette 100 Jll DIG-labeled probe to each well and incubate at 50°C for 1 h.
11. Wash 6 times with 300 Jll wash buffer (microplate washer).
12. Add 100 Jll anti-DIG-POD conjugate to each well and incubate at 37°C for
15 min.
13. Prepare detection solution by mixing solution C and solution D.
14. Wash all wells 6 times with 300 Jll wash buffer (microplate washer).
15. Pipette 100 Jll detection solution to each well, shield the plate from light and
incubate at 37°C for 15 min on a shaking table.
16. Stop reaction by adding 100 Jll stop solution.
17. Read the absorbance of each well at A45o •
log (A 450 * 1 000)

5 .-------------------------------------------~--------~
calibration · - t o ' ,
g. r,aph
,.. :
4
O L-~~~~~~~~~~~~~~--~~~~~~~~~~
0,001 0,01 0,1 10 100
pg cRNA standard
Fig.3.1-2. Plot of measured absorbance versus cRNA content to obtain the calibration graph
Water blanks and PCR blanks (samples without RNA) should be treated
simultaneously. Calculate the results by subtracting the blank from the corre-
sponding sample values. Plot the logarithm of absorbances obtained from the
standard dilution series versus Log of the cRNA amount introduced into the PCR
mixture. Analyze the exponential phase of amplification by linear regression and
use the resulting graph for calibration of results derived from the analyzed sam-
ple. Calculate sample mdr-l mRNA content by comparison of absorbance in the
logarithmic form with the calibration graph as shown in Figure 3.1-2.
Trouble Shooting:
Using microplate assays, it is necessary to remove all solutions needed for enzy-
matic reaction or washing steps as completely as possible. The most critical step
is incubation with antibody-conjugate which, when nonspecifically adsorbed to
the well, strongly influences the blank absorbance. But in general, increased
background signals can be eliminated by subtraction of blank absorbance from
sample absorbance.
Do not exceed the time necessary for the denaturation step with NaOH.
Excessively long alkaline treatment leads to partial loss of immobilized ssDNA
from the microplate. Be sure that the biotin -linkage of the primer is stable under
the selected conditions.
References 123
3.1.3.2 Sensitivity and Reproducibility of the Assay
The excellent reproducibility of the assay is demonstrated by an interassay

coefficient of about 15% for detection of mdr-1 mRNA. The intraassay
coefficient was shown to be below 12 %. These results correspond well with
comparable data achieved with commercially available ELOSA kits [4,8].
When stored at - 20°C the cRNA dilution series were stable for at least two
months, indicated by obtaining nearly identical calibration curves. In contrast,
solutions used for RT-PCR and for ELOSA detection should be freshly pre-
pared.
References
1. White TJ, Madej R, Persing DH (1992) The polymerase chain reaction: clinical application.
Adv Clin Chern; 29: 161-196
2. Adler K, Buzby P, Bobrow M, Erickson T (1992) Rapid DNA detection using a fluorescein-
antifluorescein-based (FAF) ELOSA. DuPont Biotech Update; 7: 13 -15
3. Alard P, Lantz 0, Sebagh M, Calvo CF, Weill D, Chavanel G, Senik A, Charpentier B (1993)
A versatile ELISA-PCR assay for mRNA quantitation from a few cells. Biotechniques; 15:
730-737
4. Jalava T, Lehtovaara P, Kallio A, Ranki M, Soderlund H (1993) Quantification of Hepatitis B
virus DNA by competitive amplification and hybridization on microplates. Biotechniques;
15:l34-l39
differential PCR with antisense competitors. Biotechniques; 17: 934 - 942
6. Burger H, Nooter K, Zaman GJR, Sonneveld P, van Wingerden KE, Oostrum RG, Stoter G
(1994) Expression of the multidrug resistance-associated protein (MRP) in acute and
chronic leukemias. Leukemia; 8: 990 - 997
7. Katz ED, Dong MW (1990) Rapid analysis and purification of polymerase chain reaction
products by high-performance liquid chromatography. Biotechniques; 8: 546- 555
8. Handbook Amplicor "Chlamydia trachomatis test", Hoffmann-La Roche 1993
Chapter 3.2
Semiquantitative Detection of Viral DNA, e. g. for (MV,
by Using the DNA Enzyme Immunoassay (DEIA)
B. PUSTOWOIT
3.2.1 CMV Infection in Human Beings

Cytomegalovirus, consisting of a unique double-stranded DNA genome 240 kb
in length, is a member of the Herpes virus family. Herpes viruses are ubiquitous
agents which infect humans and can cause high morbidity and mortality [1].
Specifically, productive CMV infection has been associated with retinopathy,
hepatitis, gastroenteritis, pneumonia and 10% of infectious mononucleosis
cases. About 0.5 to 2.5 % of infants are congenitally infected. The clinical
manifestation of CMV infection is a significant problem in cases of immuno-
compromised individuals such as AIDS patients and recipients of organ and
bone-marrow transplants. CMV pneumonitis is a serious complication in trans-
plant recipients and patients with AIDS. CMV infects an estimated 95 % of all
AIDS patients. Early detection of CMV is crucial since patients may now be
treated with ganciclovir [19].
3.2.2 Applications of Quantitative PCR in

Cytomegalovirus Pathogenesis
The concept of modulations in viral load during reactivation of a latent CMV
infection can be envisaged as a series of peaks and troughs of viral load over time.
Two extremes of assay for CMV can be envisaged; an assay that will not
detect the virus in the clinical sample 0. e.less sensitive that the peak of the virus
load) and an assay that is so sensitive that it detects the virus at all stages of
infections (i. e. sensitive enough to detect latent virus loads).
However, the load is limited by the ultimate level of sensitivity. This can be
an application of quantitative PCR methods to view modulation in cytomegalo-
viral load.
3.2.3 Definition of CMV Infection
1. Viremia being CMV detected from blood or blood cells by culture.

2. Antigenemia being CMV antigen detected by monoclonal antibodies from
leukocytes.
126 3.2 Semiquantitative Detection of Viral DNA
3. PCR based techniques should define the clinical specimen as well as the type
ofPCR used.
4. CMV disease should require symptoms and/or signs from the affected
organ together with CMV detected from that organ. In many situations, in
particular in HIV patients, the absence of other explanations is also a
requirement [20].
3.2.4 Diagnosis of Cytomegalovirus Infection
There are numerous methods and approaches to diagnose CMV infection in

patients and normal individuals. Each of them has its advantages and disadvant-
ages. The optimal method frequently depends on the nature of the clinical
samples collected and the clinical manifestation at the time a specimen is
collected.
Therefore other measurements such as detecting CMV in urine by PCR or
culture isolation is justified.
In Figure 3.2-1 the cytopathic effect of cytomegalovirus on humane
fibroblasts is demonstrated.
The virus has changed the morphology of the cells so that they have become
spherical. Such a cytopathic effect is really seen only after 3 or 5 days of cultiva-
tion. The result of this cultivation shows very clearly that in the patient material
there was enough virus for growing in cell culture. The test is the so called
"golden standard" for CMV diagnosis.
The superb sensitivity and specificity of PCR makes it one of the best
methods in the clinical laboratory for detection in a great variety of clinical
samples. Using this method, very small quantities of viral DNA are detectable.
Fig.3.2-1. Typically cytopathic effect (CPE) from CMV in human lung fibroblasts
3.2.4 Diagnosis of Cytomegalovirus Infection 127
One of the seriously complication of CMV infection is interstitial pneumonia.

In this case Bronchial alveolar lavage fluid (BAL) must be investigated.
PCR has been found to be the most sensitive method for detection of CMV
in BAL fluid. A result was obtained within 5 h and no processing of samples was
required. Ericsson et al. [2] showed, that from 52 investigated clinical samples, 15
patients proved positive by conventional virus isolation and further 7 patients
were positive by PCR only. The authors believe, that a negative CMV PCR has a
high negative predictive value. None of the 30 patients CMV negative by PCR
developed CMV pneumonia within the following 2 months.
The study focuses on the problem of evaluation the specificity of a positive
PCR test when concomitant virus isolation is negative. This discrepancy between
the methods might be explained either by contamination or by detection of
incomplete or non-viable virus particles by the PCR method. Control tests did
not indicate false-positive tests when we ourselves used the PCR method for
CMV. Loss of infectivity because of unfavorable conditions during transporta-
tion or storage cannot be excluded, although we did optimize the handling of the
samples.
Prosch et al. [3] described the monitoring of patients by centrifugation and
PCR for cytomegalovirus after organ transplantation. PCR was more sensitive in
an earlier phase of infection when the virus detection in the cell culture was still
negative.
PCR technology has also been involved in the prenatal diagnosis of
pregnancies which are at risk for congenital cytomegalovirus infection [4]. In an
intrauterine CMV infection, the fetus would excrete CMV via urine into the
amniotic fluid. The amniotic fluid therefore seems a logical choice of bodily fluid
for the prenatal diagnosis of CMV transmission [5]. The virus can be found by
culture or PCR in this material. Fetal blood taken by cordocentesis could
represent an alternative pathological material. At present there is not enough
evidence to predict fetal outcome, therefore the question "Is the fetal infection
going to be damaging?" remains unanswered.
Each year in the United States, approximately 40000 infants are infected
congenitally with cytomegalovirus [6]. Of these, 10% are born symptomatic, and
up to 95 % will have neurologic sequelae. CMV is rarely isolated from the
cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) [7]. Atkins et al. [8] used the PCR on CSF from infants
with congenital infection with CMV to determine if CMV DNA could be
amplified and detected, and they correlated its presence with CNS disease.
The CMV show tropism to very different organs with different clinically
pictures in the patients. One of the complications often found after bone marrow
transplantation is enteritis/colitis. In this case the patient material must be taken
using an invasive method. Some investigators are now trying to determine the
CMV-DNA directly in stool. The results from Michel et al. [9] indicate that a lack
of evidence from HCMV-DNA in stool samples excluded a gastrointestinal
infection in the patient and a positive result is a sign of a HCMV-infection of the
ileum.
PCR in aqueous humor is currently the only methodological approach to an
etiological diagnosis of HCMV retinitis, peR results are consistently conclusive
and can be reliably used for the local monitoring of the efficacy of antiviral
treatment.
A highly efficient single cell PCR method has been developed, using a FACS-
based automated cell disposition unit, which sorts single cells directly into PCR
reaction tubes. The test system allows the determination of the percentage of
cell-specific viral DNA [10].
3.2.5.1 Preparation of Samples for peR - Principal Difficulties
The PCR technique can be used to detect both virus-specific DNA or mRNA. For
viral-RNA detection, an additional reverse transcription step is needed to
generate either single-stranded or double-stranded DNA for a template. This
involves the addition of oligo (dT) and reverse transcriptase to synthesize
complementary DNA for subsequent amplification [11].
Rapid and efficient purification procedures are necessary in order to
guarantee high efficiency in subsequent enzymatic reactions.
It was shown that which clinically symptoms caused by a CMV infection
determined which patient material was taken.
Total DNA for PCR can be purified from different cells, body fluids,
peripheral blood cells and stool. The consistence of the patient material is very
important for the preparation of patient materials. Peripheral blood cells are the
most common clinical samples encountered for CMV detection.
This is the reason for our presenting quantitative PCR here as the technique
for this patient material.
The preparation (here described for EDTA or heparin blood) was taken from
Boom et al. [12].
Materials:
1) Lysis buffer for the erythrocytes:

60 g succrose + 1 g MgC12 X 6H20 + 0.6 g Tris + S ml Triton X 100, add water
until 400 ml is reached, bring the pH to 7.S using HCl and add the rest of water
untilSOO ml
2) buffer L2:
120 g Guanidinthiocyanate (GuSCN) in 100 ml Tris/HCl pH 6.4
3) buffer L6:
buffer L2 + 22 ml 0.2 M EDTA pH B.O + 2.6 g Triton X 100
Protocol 1: Sample Preparation from Blood
1. Add 900 fll erythrocyte lysis buffer to 200 fll of the blood sample from the
patient.
2. Mix and centrifuge for 30 s at high speed.

3. Wash the pellet twice with 900 III lysis buffer L2.
4. Add 900 III lysis buffer L6.
5. Add 100 III fractionated silica.
6. Mix, wait for 10 min at 21 °C, mix again, centrifuge for 10 s.
7. Wash the pellet twice with ethanol 70% and once with acetone.
8. Dry for 10 min at 56 °C (vacuum).
9. Add 100 III of 10 mmolll Tris/HCl, 1 mmolll EDTA (pH 8.0).
10. Mix, incubate for 10 min at 56 0c.
11. Mix, centrifuge (2 min, 13000 rpm).
12. Take the supernatant, clear by short centrifuging and use aliquots of the
supernatant for PCR.
»Washing procedure: it is important that the silica pellet is com-
pletely resuspended in the washing solutions. In the first wash, the pellet
can be very tight and it may take up to 1 min to resuspend such pellets by
vortexing.< <
3.2.5.2 Detection of Human Cytomegalovirus Using PCR
Materials:
1) Primers:
The oligonucleotide primers were synthesized with an Applied Biosystems
DNA Synthesizer. The sequences were (5' to 3'): AGACCTTCATGCAGATCC
(up-stream) and GGTGCT CACGCACATTGATC (down-stream) for the
primer set complementary to the lEI gene [13,14].
2) Reagents and equipment necessary to perform a standard PCR reaction (see
chapter 2.3.)
Protocol2: CMV-PCR
• Mastermix (calculated for 10 samples, prepared cold):

• 330 III ddHzO
• 50 III Taq buffer (10 x)
• 50 III dNTP's (1 mmolll)
• 20 III of each described lEI-primer
• 3 III Taq polymerase (5 UIIli)
• Add 5 III of prepared patient sample or controls to 45 III of the master mix.
• Place the cold PCR samples into the 95 °C preheated thermo cycler (GeneAmp
9600) and amplify by the following protocol:
l.linearise and 2. amplify 3. final 4. store till

denature 40 cycles extension further use
3' - 95°C 30" - 55°C 15' - 72 °C endless 4°C

30" - 72 °C
20" - 94°C
• After PCR the samples have been denaturated for 15 min at 95°C, they can be
used for the DEIA.
3.2.5.3 DEIA: DNA Enzyme Immunoassay
We recommend using the technique as reported by Mantero et al. [15). The DNA
Enzyme Immunoassay (DEIA) can be used to reveal specific DNA sequences
over a wide range of concentrations and molecular sizes. It is particularly suit-
able in the specific detection of amplified DNA by any documented technique.
Principle of the Assay
The DNA Enzyme Immunoassay is based on the hybridization of amplified DNA

with an oligonucleotid probe, coated on the wall of the microtiter plate wells
with an avidin-biotin bond. The probe is designed to identify a region of the IEI
gene, which codes the major immediate early antigen of HCMV [16). This gene
region has been selected from the preserved areas between different strains and
viral isolates.
The hybrid of the probe and the DNA being examined is revealed in an
original way by using an anti-DNA monoclonal antibody. This antibody only
reacts with double-stranded DNA and not with the single-stranded DNA. When
the denatured PCR products are dispensed into the wells, the probe binds to the
complementary sequence in positive samples; on the other hand if the sample is
negative, it will not contain the sequence under examination, and the hybrid
(double-strand molecular species) will not form.
After incubation and subsequent clearing of the sample, the addition of the
double stranded anti-DNA antibody identifies the wells where hybridization has
taken place (antibody binding, positive reaction) and the wells where the probe
has not bound the DNA which has remained in the single strand form (no anti-
body binding, negative reaction). The addition of an enzyme tracer (anti mouse
IgG labeled with peroxidase) will reveal the DNA/antibody bond.
Test Procedure
For the determination the test kit GEN -ETI -K HCMV, Sorin Biomedica, Italy was
used.
Protocol3: Detection of Amplified CMV DNA Fragments by DEIA
1. Dispense 100 fll hybridization buffer in each well.

2. Dispense 20 fll negative control, positive controls and denatured samples.
3. Incubate for 1 h at 50°C.
4. At the end of the first incubation, prepare the Anti-DS-DNA solution.
5. Wash the strips 3 times with washing buffer.
6. Dispense 100 fll diluted Anti-DS-DNA solution in all the wells except for the
blank.
7. Incubate for 1 h at room temperature.
8. Prepare the enzyme tracer solution at the end of the second incubation.
10. Dispense 100 fll diluted enzyme tracer solution into all the wells except for
the blank.
11. Incubate for 1 h at room temperature.
12. Prepare the chromogene/substrate at the end of the third incubation.
14. Dispense 100 fll chromogene/substrate into all the wells.
15. Incubate for 30 min at room temperature in the dark.
16. Dispense 200 fll stop solution into all the wells.
bp
2072----
1500----
1 2 3 4 5
DEIA-result: o 1.143 0.383 0.03
Fig.3.2-2. Agarose gel electrophoresis of PCR amplified CMV DNA fragments. 1-100 bp DNA
Ladder, 2 - cell culture without CMV (negative control), 3 - CMV-infected cell culture, un-
diluted, 4 - CMV-infected cell culture, 1: 10 diluted, 5 - CMV-infected cell culture 1: 100 diluted;
last row: extinction values obtained by DEIA assay
Calculation of Results
Reset the instrument with the blank, read the O.D. at 450 nm (reference wave-
length is 630 nm). If an ETI- SYTEM READER with ETI-SYSTEM SOFTWARE
(Sorin) is used, all the calculations are performed automatically.
Interpretation
The absorbance values obtained for the samples should be compared with an
analytical cut -off value, which discriminates the positive specific hybridization
from the negative one. From the evaluation of the analytical sensitivity and
specificity, the suggested cut -off is calculated as average O. D. relative to the
negative control plus 0.150 (Ncx + 0.150 O.D.). In Figure 3.2-2 typical patterns
for agarose gel electrophoresis compared to O.D. for a dilution series are given.
3.2.6 limitation of PCR for the Diagnosis of CMV Infection

All diagnostic tools in CMV diagnostics must be focused on finding out
clinically significant results. Prosch et al. [17] showed that with CMV primary
infections in patients with bone marrow transplantation, the HCMV-DNA-PCR
from PBL was found to be positive one or two weeks earlier than cell culture. On
the other hand, in latently infected patients, only after a delay of 2 - 5 weeks was
an antigenemia noticeable. In this case, even the HCMV-DNA-PCR as the
method giving the earliest results did not give positive results. The extreme
sensitivity of PCR reaction can be achieved during identification of CMV in
clinically asymptomatic patients. The evidence of HCMV- DNA from periphery
mononuclear cells and granulocytes does not correlate with viremia specially in
patients with ganciclovir-therapy.
On the other hand the standardization of HCMV-DNA-PCR is not yet well
developed.
The best correlation between DNA-emia, virus isolation and illness was
found with detection of the virus in the plasma of the patients [18]
References
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cytomegalovirus DNA. Virology; 89: 643 - 649
2. Eriksson B-M, Brytting M, Zweygberg-Wirgart B, Hillerdal G, Olding-Stenkvist E, Linde A
(1993) Diagnosis of Cytomegalovirus in Bronchoalveolar Lavage by Polymerase Chain
Reaction, in comparison with virus isolation and detection of viral antigen. Scand J Infect
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3. Prosch S, Kimel V, Dawydowa I, Kruger D (1992) Monitoring of patients for cytome-
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246-251
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5. Landini MP (1994) Recent anvances in cytomegalovirus infection and ist diagnosis. Abbott
Symposium, Langen, 17 October 1994, oral presentation
6. Demmler GJ (1991) Infectious Diseases Society of America and Center for Disease Control:
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7. Jamison RM, Hathorn AW (1978) Isolation of cytomegalovirus from cerebrospinal fluid of
a congenitally infected infant. Am J Dis Child; 132: 63 - 64
8. Atkins JT, Demmler GJ, Williamson WD, McDonald JM, Allison SI, Buffone GJ (1994)
Polymerase chain reaction to detect cytomegalovirus DNA in the cerebrospinal fluid of
neonates with congenital infection. J Inf Disease; 169: 1334-1337
9. Michel D, Marre E, Roczkos D, Mertens T. PCR aus Stuhlproben zum AusschluB von
Zytomegalievirus- verursachten Enteritiden bei immundefizienten Patienten. Fruhjahrs-
tagung der Gesellschaft fUr Virologie, GieBen 15. -18.3.1995
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Virologie, GieBen, 15. -18.3.1995
11. Huang E-S, Kowalik TF (1993) Diagnosis of human cytomegalovirus infection: laboratory
approaches In: Becker Y, Darai G, Huang E-S (eds.). Molecular aspects of human
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12. Boom R, Sol CIA, Salimans MMM, Jansen CL, Wertheim-Van Dillen P, van der Noordaa .3
(1990) Rapid and simple method for purification of nucleic acids. J Clin Microbiol; 28:
495-503
13. Stenberg RM, Thomsen DR, Stinski MF (1984) Structural analysis of the major immediate
early gene of human cytomegalovirus. J Virol; 49: 190 -199
14. Akrigg A, Wilkinson G, Oram, JD (1985) The structure of the major immediate early gene
of human cytomegalovirus strain AD 169. Virus Res; 2: 107 -127
15. Mantero G, Zonaro A, Albertini A, Bertolo P, Primi D (1991) DNA Enzyme Immunoassay:
general method for detecting products of polymerase chain reaction. Clin Chern; 37: 3
16. Zipeto A, Silini E, Parea M, Percivalle E, Zavattoni M, Di Matteo A, Milanesi G (1990)
Identification of human cytomegalovirus isolated by the polymerase chain reaction. Micro-
biologica; 13: 297 - 304
17. Prosch S, Schielke E, Meisel H, Einhaupl KM, Kruger DH. Diagnostischer Wert der HCMV
PCR bei Knochenmarktransplantierten und Patienten mit HCMV Meningitis/Encephalitis.
Friihjahrstagung der Gesellschaft fUr Virologie, Gie1~en 15. -18.3.1995
18. Hamprecht K, Sorg G, SteinmaBl M, Grebenstein A, Doller G, Jahn G. Diagnostische Wertig-
keit des qualitativen HCMV-DNA-Nachweises aus peripheren mononuklearen Zellen,
Granulozyten und zellfreiem Plasma immunsupprimierter Patienten uber nPCR.
Fruhjahrstagung der Gesellschaft fUr Virologie, GieBen 15. -18.3.1995
19. Emery VC (1993) Cytomegalovirus pathogenesis: Application of PCR. Michelson S, Plotkin
SA (eds.) In: Multidisciplinary approach to understanding cytomegalovirus disease
Excerpta Medica, International Congress Series 1032, Amsterdam, New York, London,
Tokyo, pp. 63 -75
20. Ljungman P, Griffiths P (1993) Definitions of cytomegalovirus infection and disease in
multidisciplinary approach to understanding cytomegalovirus disease. Michelson S,
Plotkin SA. Excerpta Medica International Series 1032, Amsterdam, New York, London,
Tokyo, pp. 87 - 93
Chapter 3.3
HPLC - Analysis of Nucleic Acids
H. REMKE and TH. KOHLER
High-performance-liquid-chromatography (HPLC) was developed for the

detection of small organic compounds and proteins. Many different column
materials have been developed for these analyses in relation to particle size,
linker size or charge. These materials represent the stationary phase within a
column responsible for retardation of substances contained in the samples
according to their size and charge measurable by the specific retention times.
The mobile phase is represented by the elution buffer which is pumped under
high pressure through the stainless-steel-column.
Recently HPLC has also been employed for the purification and quantitation
of nucleic acids, e.g. for plasm ids [1] and PCR products [2,3]. Nucleic acids can
be analyzed by the "reversed phase" (RP) technique or by use of anion exchange
columns [1-3].
A reliable HPLC method has been described for the purification and
quantitation of double stranded DNA by use of very small non porous particles
of anion exchangers. The DNA-fragments may be obtained by the polymerase
chain reaction (PCR) or from enzymatic cleavage of nucleic acid duplexes [4]. In
combination with RT/PCR the HPLC-method represents a reliable and powerful
tool for quantitative studies on gene expression [3].
We use this method to analyze DNA fragments derived from competitive
PCR-reactions. The main advantage is its ability to distinguish clearly between
the main and side products and the calculation of the exact product ratios
necessary for quantitation of absolute mRNA copy numbers [4].
Separation and Quantitation of PCR Products Derived from Competitive PCR

Reactions, e. g. for Detection of MRP-mRNA.
Materials:
1) peR amplified MRP-DNAfragments (see chapter 3.4)

2) pBR322-Hae III-digest (Sigma)
136 3.3 HPLC - Analysis of Nucleic Acids
3) TSK DEAE-NPR column (TosoHaas): 4.6 mm ID, Length: 35 mm

Stationary phase:
• Hydrophilic DEAE linked anion exchanger.
• Capacity: > 0.15 meq/ml
• Particle size: 2.5 flm diameter
• pH-range: 2 to 12
• pKa of anionic groups: 11.2
4) Guard column (Perkin-Elmer): 4.6 mm ID, Length: 5 mm
5) HPLC-system (Jasco):
• Model PU-980 Intelligent HPLC pump with Low Pressure Gradient Former
and Degasser
• Model UV-975 UV/VIS Detector
• Model AS-950 Intelligent sampler
6) Mobile phase:
• Buffer A: 25 mmolll Tris/HCl, 1 molll NaCl; pH 9.0,
• Buffer B: 25 mmolll Tris/HCl; pH 7.0
Protocol 1
Each quantitation experiment should begin with a run of pBR322-Hae III-

digest-standard to prove the column separation quality and reproducibility
(Figure 3.3-1 a).
a
MRP5\SIGMAI Start: 22. Aug. 94 08:48
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b
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.....
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le.8
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e.89
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. 39 •
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9.
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OUl 58.9 uu
6 ..
..
u
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.:
... ...
u l
."
~
~
.~ 38.9
c ...
~
ze.9
I! ~ -:
..·
i
18.9
5.89 18.89 15.89 ze.89

9..
8.89
\JU~
5.89 18.89 15.89
· ze.89 .h
Fig. 3.3-1. Quantitation of DNA by anion-exchange HPLC. a HPLC separation of 20 fll of pBR322 DNA-
HaeIlI digest (50 mg/ml, Sigma Chemicals). b Detection of amplified MRP fragments. cDNA derived from
100 ng of total RNA isolated from the CCRF ADR5000 cell line was co amplified with decreasing amounts of
added competitor fragment. (1) 250 fg, (2) 25 fg, (3) 12.5 fg, (4) 5 fg, (5) 2.5 fg, (6) 1 fg standard per tube were
used
Following equilibration 20 III aliquots of PCR reaction mIxes (see

chapter 3.4.) were applied to the column.
The mobile phase was of binary composition consisting of buffers A and B.
The following gradient program was employed:
1. Equilibration of the column with 25 % A in B
2. 25 - 45 % A in B: linear gradient up to 0.5 min
3. 45-50% A in B: linear gradient up to 4.5 min
4. 50 - 62 % A in B: linear gradient up to 15 min
5. 62 -100 % A in B: linear gradient up to 22 min
6. 100 - 25 % A in B: linear gradient up to 24 min
7. 25% A in B: Equilibration
HPLC operating conditions:
• Operative Pressure: 80-100 bar (maximum back pressure: 200 bar)

• Flow rate: 1 mllmin
• Temperature: Room temperature
• UV-detection: 260 nm
Separation time of each run: 25 min
The program used is able to separate DNA-fragments between - 20 - 2000 bp.
According to the gradient used, DNA fragments differing by approx. 3 bp can be
distinguished (Figure 3.3-1 a).
Note: Using PCR samples prepared without a mineral oil overlay and using a
guard column, it is unnecessary to extract the reaction mixture for DNA with
water-saturated chloroform as recommended in Ref. [3]. After 10-15 runs,
column cleaning is recommended with 3 x 50 III 0.2 molll NaOH. Only bidestil-
led water and sterile filtered buffers should be used.
To get reproducible results use a column oven (with microprocessor
controlled Peltier elemert for optional cooling and heating).
Validation
Estimate the peak integrals (mV * S) by using the respective chromatographic

software (e. g. NINA Chromato-Graphic-System, Nuclear Interface GmbH,
Munster, Germany). Plot the 10glO of product ratio (competitor products to
amplified specific DNA) as a function oflog lO of amount of the competitor added
to the PCR reaction (see chapter 1.1).
3.3.2.1 Benefits of HPLC Analysis of PCR Products
1. Quantitative analysis
Because of the proportionality between the UV absorption signal and e. g. the
concentration of a used reference DNA sample, peR products can be
gel
G. M. Rothe
Electrophoresis
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many carefully worked out electrophoresis
and more than 140 staining protocols.
This book is a "must" for every enzyme
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From the contents: Extraction of Enzymes resolution
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determined according to their peak integrals. Thus nucleic acids can be

quantified by HPLC without loss or further specific detection methods. As
examples, the quantitation can be performed for amplified HIV-l DNA, HBV
DNA or after RT-reaction for viral RNA and cellular mRNA, respectively,
from biologicallysates.
2. Monitoring
HPLC can be used to follow up both selection of optimal PCR conditions
and reaction kinetics so that the exponential phase of the reaction can be
estimated because this is a crucial factor in most PCR quantitation strategies.
The monitoring is performed by subjecting aliquots of a PCR sample ampli-
fied for different cycles to HPLC analysis. In this way, the number of PCR
cycles where the target DNA is exponentially amplified can be distinguished
from the point where the reaction reaches the plateau phase (see chapter 1. I}.
3. Preparative HPLC
HPLC can be used for the purification oflarger DNA aliquots (e.g. primers).
Chromatographically separated DNA can be collected using a fraction
collector followed by simple precipitation of DNA. The isolated DNA can be
concentrated and desalted further by dialysis or additional column
chromatography for further applications. Purified DNA may serve as a target
for sequencing reactions or in the case ofbiotinylated or digoxigenin-labeled
probes for hybridization or in the case of small oligonucleotides for capillary
electrophoresis and further separation with higher resolution.
4. High yield without loss
Because separation and quantitation are performed in a one step process no
substantial loss of or any change in the DNA determined occurs. These
advantages in the determination and quantitation of DNA makes HPLC suit-
able as a reference method in relation to other proofs and quantitation
methods for nucleic acids (e.g. gel electrophoresis, Northern or Southern
blotting, silver and ethidium bromide staining, autoradiography).
5. Determination without processing of DNA
Quantitative DNA-detection by HPLC is performed by UV-absorbance at
260 nm and requires no further processing of samples (e. g. hybridization
with labeled probes). Product yield can be determined from a calibration
curve generated by separation of commercially available DNA mass
standards (e.g. distributed by Gibco).
6. Specificity, sensitivity and precision
Artifacts (e. g. nonspecific PCR products) are recognized immediately
according to the well-defined retention times of analyzed DNA mainly
depending on charge and therefore on the predicted molecular weights.
The detection limit is mainly determined by the sensitivity of the UV-VIS
detector and is about 0.2 to 0.4 ng of DNA per peak. Thus UV detection of
DNA is much more sensitive than staining of DNA bands within agarose gels
after electrophoresis by ethidium bromide but nearly as sensitive as silver
staining or conventional hybridization techniques. Higher sensitivity may be
achieved with a laser fluorescence measurement after addition of inter-
calating fluorescence dyes to samples containing DNA (e.g. Hoechst 33258,
Hoechst AG or YO-PRO-l, Molecular Probes, Eugene, USA) before the HPLC

run is started [2,6].
The precision of the HPLC assay (for intra- and interassay estimations) is
about 4% [2].
3.3.2.2 Drawbacks of HPLC Analysis
1. Time consuming technique

Whereas 48 to 96 samples may be amplified by one PCR run in 1 - 2 hours (a
similar number of samples can be analyzed by electrophoresis, blotting or
the ELOSA technique, respectively) with HPLC one sample only can be
analyzed per run. Without an auto-sampler, the analysis capacity is limited to
about 15-20 runs a day.
2. Expensiveness
Because of the high costs of HPLC apparatus, materials and working time
HPLC analyses are much more expensive then electrophoresis, blotting,
auto radiographic or immunochemical methods.
3. Limited life of columns
The life expectancy for anion exchange columns is limited to a maximum of
400 - 500 runs. This is due to low pore size of the column material and some
waste may accumulate onto the column leading to poor results (e.g. asym-
metric peaks). To prevent early aging of the column, the guard column
should be changed after approx. lOO runs.
Note: A quantitative DNA-determination can be performed alternatively with

capillary electrophoresis (CE) especially for separation and analysis of primers
or short PCR products (20 - 300 bp).
CE separations occur in a narrow capillary tube (50-100 mm ID) filled with
buffer containing 1 % hydroxyethyl cellulose or polyacrylamide. Separation of
DNA is performed by an entanglement process in a single-step voltage gradient
(150-400 V/cm). A linear relationship exists between molecular weight and
migration time.
To the DNA sample a fluorescent intercalating dye is always added for laser-
induced fluorescence detection at 520 nm in a Beckman PlACE 2050 capillary
electrophoresis instrument with a Laser module 488 argon ion laser. Data are
recorded on Waters Millennium 2010 software (Millipore, Bedford, USA) by com-
paring size and separation in relation to internal standards used in each run
located mostly on both sites of the oligonucleotides of interest. To overcome some
drawbacks of separation of oligonucleotides by HPLC with CE-analysis, single
base resolution can be obtained on 60-cm columns. Using shorter capillaries a 3 bp
resolution in the lOO-400 bp region is obtained within 10 min [5]. The highest
precision and resolution of small oligonucleotides has been achieved with con-
stant voltage separations at 170 VI cm and run times of 20 min approximately. Like
HPLC the CE separation can also be used for quantitation of PCR products [6).
References 141
Trouble Shooting
For long-time storage, the HPLC-column must be protected from the growth of
microorganisms by incorporating a bacteriostat such as 0.05% (w/v) NaN 3 into
buffer B or 20 % acetonitrile in water. Column problems due to clogging will
result in increased column back pressure. Partial clogging of the frit can result in
tailing peaks due to uneven sample distribution. Simple backflushing with half
of the normal flow rate is often successful in cleaning the top frit. Additionally
one should take a look at the trouble shooting guides on the data sheets dis-
tributed with the column.
References
1. Henninger H -P, Hofmann R, Grewe M, Schulze-Specking A, Decker K (1993) Purification and
quantitative analysis of nucleic acids by anion-exchange high-performance liquid chromato-
graphy. BioI Chern Hoppe-Seyle; 374:625-634
2. Katz ED, Bloch W, Wages J (1992) HPLC Quantitation and identification of DNA amplified by
the polymerase chain reaction. Amplifications; 8: 1O-l3
3. Gaus H, Lipford GB, Wagner H, Heeg K (1993) Quantitative analysis of lymphokine-mRNA
expression by a nonradioactive method using PCR and anion exchange chromatography.
J Immunol Methods; 158:229-236
differential PCR with antisense competitors. Bio Techniques; 17: 934 - 942
5. Butler JM, McCord BR, Jung JM, Allen RO (1994) Rapid Analysis of the Short Tandem Repeat
HUMTHO 1 by Capillary Electrophoresis. BioTechniques; 17: 1062 -1070
6. Butler JM, McCord BR, Jung JM, Wilson MR, Budowle B,Allen RO (1994) Quantitation of PCR
products by capillary electrophoresis using laser fluorescence. J Chromatogr; 658: 271- 280
Chapter 3.4
Quantitation of Absolute Numbers of mRNA Copies
in a eDNA Sample by Competitive PCR
TH.KoHLER

In this chapter a competitive PCR assay using an internal DNA standard is
described. Competitive PCR is a quantitative adaptation of the PCR method in
which a known number of copies of an exogenous synthesized and added DNA
(or RNA) is amplified together with the sample in the same PCR tube (see
chapter 1.1).
The full procedure starting with standard generation, standard calibration
and finally performing competitive PCR and detection of synthesized DNA as a
requirement to measure absolute mRNA levels is described as an example for the
determination of MRP gene expression. However, the technology described here
may be adapted to the measurement of any other mRNA of interest.
MRP gene overexpression was shown to be associated with complications
occurring with chemotherapy of tumors. The successful treatment of tumors
with cytostatics is often hindered by primary or acquired resistance of the tumor
cells to cytotoxic drugs. Besides the well known mechanism mediated by expres-
sion/overexpression of the MDR-1 gene (see chapter 2.3), recently a distantly
related protein called "multidrug resistance-associated protein" (MRP) was
described which belongs to the same ATP-binding-cassette superfamily [1] and
that was shown analogously to confer multidrug resistance [1- 3]. Therefore it
may be of great clinical interest to find out if MRP expression could be respons-
ible for the multi drug resistance phenomenon especially in those tumors
resistant to any therapy and lacking MDR-1 expression.
Whereas MDR-1 is expressed in only a few cell types the MRP gene product
was reported to be ubiquitously found [1]. To detect gene overexpression in
small amounts of tissue e.g. found in bone marrow taps or tumor biopsies
qualitative PCR strategies fail to provide sufficient information. Here quantitat-
ive PCR methods clearly offer an essential advance.
As a precondition to performing competitive PCR analysis, a simple and easy
to mimic method to generate suitable competitor fragments by site-directed
mutagenesis (see chapter l.2) is described in this section. Standard calibration
and measurement of the in-vitro synthesized PCR products were performed by
anion-exchange high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC, see chapter
3.3). This highly sensitive method was shown to allow exact standard and PCR
product quantitation devoid of non-specific PCR products and contamination
derived from purification procedures.
144 3.4 Quantitation of Absolute Numbers of mRNA Copies in a eDNA Sample
The competitive PCR method was used to determine absolute levels of MRP
mRNA in the T-lymphoblastoid cell line CCRF CEM and the drug resistant,
MDR-1 expressing variants CCRF ADR5000 and CCRF VCR1000.
• Generation of a dsDNA standard for competitive PCR

• Purification and calibration of the standard DNA fragment by HPLC
• Quantitation of the absolute number of MRP-mRNA copies by competitive
PCR in cDNAs prepared from the two drug-resistant cell lines CCRF ADR5000
and CCRF VCR1000 and the parental line CCRF CEM
3.4.2.1 Generation of an Internal DNA Standard for Competitive PCR
All primers used were designed and checked by using automated analysis soft-
ware as described in chapter 1.2. The competitor fragment was generated by a
simple site-directed mutagenesis protocol [4, 5J. A DNA fragment suitable as
internal standard adapted for a chosen PCR product may be generated by a
simple one-step technique using the (+) standard PCR primer and a linker
primer carrying the original (-) primer sequence on its 5' end (see Figure 1.2-2,
chapter 1.2). This short procedure was shown to be sufficient to generate suitable
standards in a single day [4J if the linker primer used is suitably designed and
does not form loops or other secondary structures with itself.
Materials
1) cDNA from the human drug-resistant cell line CCRF ADR5000

2) Primers:
• (+) primer MRP3 (nt 751 -770) 5' GCTCGTCTTG TCCTGTTTCT 3'
• (-) primer MRP4 (nt 1071-1090) 5'CTCCACCTCC TCATTCGCAT 3'
• linker primer MRP5 (nt 1071-1090/967-986)
• 5' CTCCACCTCC TCATTCGCAT CCTTCTTCCA GTTCTTTACC 3'
3) Reagents and equipment necessary to perform a standard PCR reaction (see
chapter 2.3, Protocol 1 and section 3.4.2.3)
Protocol 7: Generation of a MRP Competitor DNA Fragment
1. Prepare 6 PCR microfuge tubes, each containing:

• 4 fll eDNA
• 2 fll primer MRP3 (about 100 ng per fll)
• 4 fll MRP5 fusion primer (about 100 ng per fll)
• 8 fll dNTP-mix (dUTP)
• 511110 PCR buffer (Perkin-Elmer)

• 2111 UDG (1: 10 diluted with H 20)
• 22111 H 20
2. After initial 10 min denaturation at 94°C and cooling down to 72 °C add 3 III
AmpliTaq polymerase (Perkin-Elmer) according to the "Hot-Start" protocol
(see chapter 2.3)
3. Amplify for 40 cycles using following amplification conditions:
• 94°C, 0:30 min
• 53°C, 0:30 min
• 72 DC, 1:00 min
• final step: 72 DC, 10:00 min
• followed by cooling to 4°C
Note: Because the fusion primer used for standard generation is twice as large as
the (+) standard primer it must be introduced in 2-fold higher quantity into the
PCR reaction mixture to ensure adequate primer concentrations preventing
asymmetric amplification.
Fragments containing dU nucleotides may be used as internal competitors as
well as native DNA with the intention of guaranteeing contamination-free work.
However, despite this certainty, all steps involving standard storage, dilution and
addition to PCR tube should be performed in a separate room distinct from the
room where the PCR reaction takes place.
Specificity of the Competitor Obtained

Test the amplified competitor DNA sequence by subjecting aliquots of the PCR
sample containing the standard (256 bp) fragment to further reamplification
e.g. with the original primers (MRP3 and MRP4) as shown in Figure 3.4-1. The
M 1 2 3 4
Fig.3.4-1. Generation of a competitive MRP-standard according to Celi [4) and Forster [5): In
each PCR reaction the same 5' primer (MRP3) was used. Marker (M): 123 bp ladder (Gibco),
Lane 1: 340 bp fragment amplified with the original (-)-primer (MRP4) and eDNA from the
CCRF ADR5000 cell line, Lane 2: 256 bp fragment amplified with the internaI3'-linker primer
(MRP5) and ADR eDNA as template, Lane 3: 256 bp fragment generated with the 3'-linker
primer and the 340 bp product as template, Lane 4: 256 bp fragment amplified with both
original primers and purified competitor as template
synthetic DNA fragment is demonstrated as exhibiting the desired properties:

84 bp shorter in length than the endogenous derived fragment but carrying the
same primer binding sites as the target sequence.
Additional evidence for the competitor specificity may be obtained by
conventional restriction analysis as described in chapter 2.3 or from a calibra-
tion curve generated by HPLC fractionation of a molecular weight standard
when plotting the bp versus the retention times.
3.4.2.2. Purification and Calibration of the Standard Oligonucleotide
The synthesized standard fragment may be purified by agarose gel electro-

phoresis followed by cutting out the ethidium bromide stained bands and DNA
extraction from the agarose slices. Alternatively a pure competitor product may
be yielded by quantitative HPLC. However, because of the high NaCl-concentra-
tion necessary to eluate the fragment from the ion-exchange resin and the
disadvantageous pH value (about 9.0) the DNA recovery following ethanol
precipitation is very poor. Therefore the gel purification should be strongly
favored. The recovery by this method is about 1- 4 Ilg DNA from 6 PCR reactions
sufficient to perform thousands of competitive PCR reactions.
Protocol2: Purification and Calibration of the MRP Competitor
1. Subject the pooled PCR mixtures containing the amplified MRP standard
fragment (Protocol 1) to electrophoresis through a 1.5 % agarose gel
(7 x 8 cm), pre-stained with ethidium bromide (see section 2.3.2.2). Use
combs forming slots of sufficient capacity. Perform electrophoresis at 100 V
for 45 min.
2. Place the ethidium bromide stained gel on a transilluminator and excise the
DNA bands respective to the 256 bp fragment.
>>Ultraviolet radiation is dangerous, especially to the eyes. To minimize
exposure make sure that the UV source is adequately shielded and the face is
protected by a safety mask that blocks UV light efficiently.«
3. Purify the DNA from the gel slices as described in section 2.5.2.2. When
eluting the DNA from the resin with 50 III sterile water a final concentration
of about 10-20 ng/ill (roughly examined by UV spectroscopy) can be
yielded. Store aliquoted at - 20°C.
4. Accurate standard calibration using HPLC [6]:
Mix 4 III DNA mass ladder (Gibco) containing 5, 10,20,40,60 and 100 ng per
2 III in the 100,200,400,800,1200 and 2000 bp bands, respectively, with 36 III
buffer B (see chapter 3.3.) and apply 20 III of the mixture on a TSK DEAE-
NPR column (TosoHaas) in duplicate. Employ a discontinuous gradient
program and proceed as described in chapter 3.3.
Generate a standard curve as shown in Figure 3.4-2. Chromatography in

parallel an aliquot of purified standard and quantify the standard as accurate
as possible. Make sure that the standard concentration is exactly in the range
determined by the standard curve.
Trouble Shooting
The main prerequisite for the detection of absolute mRNA copies in a given
sample is the exactly known concentration of the initially added standard.
Quantify the used PCR standard as accurately as possible at least in duplicate.
Separation of both mass ladder and purified standard fragment must be per-
formed under identical conditions (i.e. at least on one day using the same charge
of eluent). The standard should be diluted and introduced into the PCR sample
in an appropriate volume (about 2-5 fJl) to avoid pipetting inaccuracies.
3.4.2.3 Quantitation of MRP mRNA by Competitive PCR
In order to roughly estimate the expression of the sought after mRNA species in
the sample, a titration assay has to be initially performed. Titration means that
aliquots of eDNA prepared from total or mRNA have to be mixed with various
dilutions of the internal standard. Following amplification the resulting PCR
products are measured and the 1: 1 molar ratio of target and competitor is
roughly assessed. Depending upon the results of the initial titration assay the
number of dilution series has to be adapted to the particular expression level of
the target mRNA. A dilution series in 1: 2 to 1: 5 steps is recommended.
Materials:
1) cDNA samples (1 fig RNA per 20 fll-reaction mix)

cDNA from the human drug-resistant cell line CCRF ADR5000
cDNA from the human drug-resistant cell line CCRF VCR 1000
cDNA from the parental line CCRF CEM
2) the MRP mastermix sufficient for one PCR reaction (50 fll) contains:
• 8 fll dNTP-mix
• 5 flllO x PCR buffer (Perkin-Elmer)
3) Taq polymerase (Perkin-Elmer), freshly diluted to 0.5 U per fll with H2 0
4) Standard dilutions (1 amol = 10- 18 mol == 171 fg of the MRP standard):
Standard (1): 1.46 amol (250 fg); (2): 0.15 amol (25 fg); (3): 7.31 x 10- 2
amol (12.5 fg); (4): 2.93 xl 0 -2 amol (5 fg); (5): 1.46 x 10- 2 amol (2.5 fg);
(6): 9.75 x 10- 3 amol (1.7 fg); (7): 5.85 x 10- 3 amol (1.0 fg); (8): 2.93 x 10- 3
amol (0.5 fg); (9): 1.46 x 10-3 amol (0.25 fg); (10) 9.75 X 10- 3 amol (0. 12fg)
a :;
00
QtmR4'GIICOST Start: Z~.Dez.~4 87:38
aU ...
.A
Peak integrals (mV*s) I UU11 \~

N
300,------------------------------------------, g
'"
S-"
250
g.
::s
0
....,
200 6:
'"0
150 ~
~
100
g.
(1)
....
'"
0
50
o I 7"
III \3~
(j
o 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 0
DNA amount (ng)

f~11 I II ::s
... '"
i
~ Mil Ie,
I ~
... U>
i
.. i'"
8:89 Z:89 4:. . 6:. 8:89 18:89 lZ:89 14:. 16:. 18:89 Z8:. zz:. .111
Fig.3.4-2. Standard calibration. a Separation of a DNA mass ladder (Gibco) by anion-exchange HPLC using a TSK DEAE-NPR column
(TosoHaas) to generate a calibration curve.
Start: 19.Aug.91 11:99
.~ UUl
2.59
2.99
1.59
1.99
9.59
.... ~_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _~i
9.99
.
5.99 19.99 15.99 .in
Fig. 3.4-2. b Separation of the gel-purified 256 bp MRP standard fragment performed by the
same procedure. The resulting peak integral was compared with the calibration curve to
calculate the accurate concentration
5) Uracil-DNA glycosylase (Boehringer, Mannheim), freshly diluted to 0.1 U per

Ill, see note!
7) GeneAmp 9600 thermal cyder (Perkin-Elmer)
Note: The nature of PCR makes it susceptible to contamination problems.

Contamination with internal PCR standards leads to irreproducible results and
continuous underestimation of the measured RNA transcripts. General
substitution of dTTP with dUTP in generation of standards and PCR products
derived from both target and DNA standards in conjunction with the use of
uracil-DNA glycosylase (UDG) has been demonstrated to selectively prevent
carryover contamination.
Protocol3: Competitive PCR
1. Preparation of the reaction mixture: for maximum reproducibility of results

mix the following solutions (sufficient for 8 amplification reactions):
• 136 f!l mastermix (MRP)
• 16111 diluted UDG
• 16111 cDNA (derived from a standard RT-reaction, see chapter 2.2)
Table 3.4-1. Pipetting scheme for competitive PCR
tube number 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
III III III III III III III III
H2O 24 24 24 24 24 24 24 30
reaction mixture 21 21 21 21 21 21 21
mastermix 17
• after a brief centrifugation place the tubes in the thermal cycler and perform UDG-
sterilization for 15 min at 37°C followed by inactivation of the enzyme by incubation at 94 °C
for 10 min, »do not add the standards prior to UDG-sterilization!«
• perform one PCR cycle (see below) to synthesize the starting ds DNA template, remove the
tubes from the cycler and add the standards at room temperature, usually in a separate room
standard dilution 1 [4] 2
standard dilution 2 (5) 2
standard dilution 7 (I 0) 2
• centrifuge briefly and place the tubes again in the 72 °C hot cycler (»be careful, prevent
burning!«), add Taq-polymerase and run the desired cycle program
Taq-polymerase 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
2. Proceed further as shown in Table 3.4-1

3. Temperature profile of amplification: Run 30-40 cycles (i.e. work in the pla-
teau phase of reaction!) under the following conditions (Cycle parameters):
• 94°C, 0:30 min
• 53°C, 0:30 min
• 72 °C, 1:00 min
• final step: 72 °C, 10:00 min followed by cooling to 4°C
Validation of Competitive PCR Analysis to Determine Absolute Levels of mRNA

After the amplification is completed remove lO-lll-portions from each sample
and pipette into separate tubes. Add 1 III of nondenaturing bromphenol/xylene
cyanolloading buffer (see appendix) mix and centrifuge briefly. Resolve the
a Lane 23456789
f.J9 eDNA 0.1
Standard 146 15 7 .3 3 1.5 1 0 .6 -

-20
(x 10 mol)
b
256 bp
340 bp
Lane 23456789
3
C
Symbols
2 e
• eCRF ADR5000
... CCRF VCR1000
~
0
<0
N
0 eCCRF CEM
Q. 1-
~
"'
0
<0
N
0 0
Q.
ci
OJ
.Q -1
-2
-4 -3,5 -3 -2,5 -2 -1,5 -1 -0,5 0 0,5
log attomoles added per tube
Fig.3.4-3. Quantitation of MRP mRNA for the drug resistant T-lymphoblastoid cell lines CCRF
ADR5000 and CCRF VCRIOOO compared to the parental line CCRF CEM. Simultaneous
amplification of MRP cDNA derived from the ADR a and VCR b variant at different
concentrations of internal standard. c HPLC analysis of the results of a competitive PCR
experiment under plateau conditions (40 cycles). The Log of the ratio of amplified target to
competitor product is graphed as a function of the Log of a known amount of competitor added
to the peR reaction. When the molar ratio of target and competitor is equal to 1 the absolute
target concentration can be read from the X axis
mixture on a 2 % agarose gel as described in chapter 2.3. Following electro-

phoresis through the ethidium bromide stained gel and transillumination,
calculate the relative amounts of PCR-fragments corresponding to the internal
standard (256 bp) and the endogenous product (340 bp) by quantitative densito-
metry using e. g. the ImageMaster evaluation software (Pharmacia Biotech) or
Scan Pack (Biometra) in combination with a CCD-camera, or apply HPLC
analysis (see chapter 3.3).
Calculate the absolute amounts of target product by plotting the Log of the
ratios of target product to standard product versus the initial amounts of the
standard added to the PCR reactions (Figure 3.4-3).
Trouble Shooting
If dsDNA standards are used make sure that the competitive reaction starts with
an endogenous template that is also double stranded. Therefore perform one
PCR cycle before adding the standard. If you do not so, the template can be
underestimated in the range of about 100 % depending on the cycle number
when the PCR process is stopped. An alternative method which does not require
this pre-amplification step is the introduction of single-stranded standards into
the competitive PCR reaction mixtures as recommended and performed by de
Kant et al. [7].
In our experience, the main limitation in performing competitive PCR is the
correct quality and quantity of the introduced competitors. Most suppliers
advise using only freshly prepared standard solutions because in solutions
containing the lowest quantities of the standard, the possibility of unspecific
adsorption to the microfuge tube rises dramatically. However, when constant
remaining quantities of an unrelated DNA are added to the standard dilution we
could find an substantial improved durability in solution. Therefore we
recommend testing, following repeated freezing and thawing, whether the same
standard dilution series yields equal results over a long period when using the
same cDNA as the template.
3.4.2.4 Sensitivity and Reproducibility of the Assay
The sensitivity of competitive RT-PCR is extremely high allowing the detection

of at least 0.0002 MRP mRNA copies per cell without any problems. Employing
this technique we have been able to observe obviously good intraassay
coefficients between 2 - 6 % (determined from 3 - 6 separate amplifications of
GAPDH and collagenase 1 mRNA, respectively) and interassay coefficients of
±2-9% (from 3 separate GAPDH amplification experiments) using confect-
ioned batches of standard dilutions.
References 153
References
1. Cole SPC, Bhardway G, Gerlach JH, Mackie JE, Grant CE, Almquist KC et al. (1992) Over-
expression of a transporter gene in a multidrug-resistant human lung cancer cell line.
Science; 258: 1650-1653
2. Grant CE, Valdimarsson G, Hipfner DR, Almquist KC, Cole SPC, Deeley RG (1994) Over-
expression of multi drug resistance-associated protein (MRP) increases resistance to natural
product drugs. Cancer Res; 54:357-361
3. Hamaguchi K, Godwin AK, Yakushiji M, O'Dwyer PJ, Ozols RF, Hamilton TC (1993) Cross-
resistance to diverse drugs is associated with primary cisplatin resistance in ovarian cancer
cell lines. Cancer Res; 53: 5225 - 5232
4. Celi FS, Zenilman ME, Shuldiner AR (1993) A rapid and versatile method to synthesize
internal standards for competitive PCR. Nucl Acids Res; 21: 1047
5. Forster E. An improved general method to generate internal standards for competitive PCR.
BioTechniques; 16:18-20
6. Kohler T, LaBner D, Rost A-K, Leiblein S, Remke H (in press) Polymerase chain reaction
Symposium "Drug resistance in Leukemia and Lymphoma", March 6-8, 1995 Amsterdam,
differential PCR with antisense competitors. Bio Techniques; 17: 934 - 942
Acknowledgement
We thank Drs. Volker Gekeler, Byk-Gulden GmbH, Konstanz, and Heyke Diddens,
Medical Laser Center, Lubeck, for providing us with the cell lines CCRF CEM,
CCRF ADRSOOO and CCRFVCRIOOO.
Appendix
Buffers and Solutions:
• DEPC-H20:
Treat 1 liter of deionized H20 with 1 ml DEPC at room temperature under constant shaking
for at least 1 hour and autoclave.
• dNTP mixture (Promega, Pharmacia):
12.5 fll dATP, dCTP, dGTP, dTTP (dUTP) from a 100 mmol/l stock solution, diluted to 1000 ~
with H20
• Kanamycin:
Dissolve 50 fig kanamycin /ml LB agar in corresponding volume of DE PC-treated water. For
sterilization of the solution press through a sterile-filter tip using a gauge (0.2 fim pore size)
directly by mixing with the warm agar medium and distribute the agar in sterile Petri dishes
(10 cm diameter, 20 ml agar solution per dish).
• LB medium (liquid medium):
10 g tryptone, 5 g NaCI, 5 g Bacto Yeast extract (DIFCO), add H20 dest. to 1 liter
Prepare the medium and autoclave the solution immediately.
• LB medium (solid medium, for agar plates):
10 g tryptone, 5 g NaCl, 5 gyeast extract (DIFCO), 10 g Bacto-Agar (DIFCO), add H20 dest. to
1 liter
Prepare the medium and autoclave solution immediately. The agar can be poured into
the Petri dishes after autoclaving. Prepare agar containing antibiotics as mentioned in
chapter 1.3.
Cool down the medium (to about 45°C) and add the appropriate antibiotic (kanamycin or
ampicillin) if necessary.
• MOPS-buffer, 10 x conc.:
Dissolve 20.6 g MOPS in 400 ml DEPC-treated H20; adjust to pH 7.0 (20°C) with NaOH; add
8.4 ml 3 molll Na-acetate and 20 ml250 mmolll EDTA, pH 8.0 (20°C); bring to final volume
of 500 ml with DEPC-H 20 and sterilize the solution by filtration through a 0.2-fim filter;
10 x MOPS solution is stored at room temperature, protect from light!)
• Na2HP04-solution (1 mol!1)
The stock solution is composed of 179 g Na2HP04x 12 H20 and 4 m185% H3P0 4 per liter,
pH 7.2 (20°C).
• PCR buffer, 10 x conc. (Perkin-Elmer):
100 mmol/l Tris/HCI, 500 mmolll KCI, 15 mmolll MgCb, 0.01 % (w/v) gelatin; autoclaved;
pH 8.3 (25°C)
• Phosphate-buffered saline (PBS):
4.3 mmolll Na2HP04 * 7 H20, 1.4 mmolll KH 2P0 4, 137 mmolll NaCI, 2.7 mmol/l KCI
• Potassium acetate solution:
Per 200 ml potassium acetate solution mix 120 ml of a 5 mol!l K-acetate solution, 23 ml
glacial acetic acid and 57 ml H20, adjust to pH 4.8.
• Sample loading buffer (4 x conc.):
0.25 % (w/v) bromphenol blue, 0.25 % (w/v) xylene cyanol, 30% (v/v) glycerol in H20)
• SSC buffer, 20 x conc.:
per 1 litre 175.3 g NaCI, 88.2 g sodium citrate; pH 7.0
158 Appendix
• TAE electrophoresis buffer (50 x conc. stock solution):

242 g TrisIHCI, 57.1 ml acetic acid, 37.2 g EDTA ad 1000 ml H 20; pH 7.5
• TBE buffer, 10 x conc.:
108 g Tris; 55 g boric acid add 1000 ml aqua bidest, 0.2 mo1!l EDTA
• TE-buffer:
10 mmol/I Tris/HCI, 1 mmol!l EDTA; pH 8.0 (20°C)
Suppliers of chemicals
• Amersham
USA: Amersham North America, 2636 South Clearbrook Drive, Arlington Heights, IL 60005.
Tel.: 800-323-9750, Fax: 800-228-8735
Europe: Amersham International, Amersham place, Little Chalfont, Buckinghamshire HP7
9NA, u.K.
Tel.: 01494-54400, Fax: 0 1494-542266
• Angewandte Gentechnologie Systeme (AGS)
Europe: Angewandte Gentechnologie Systeme GmbH, Rischerstrasse 12, D-69123 Heidelberg,
Germany.
Tel.: 06221-831023, Fax: 06221-840610
• AT Biochem
USA: 30 Spring Mill Drive, Malvern, PA 19355.
Tel.: 610-889-9300, Fax: 610-889-9304
• Boehringer Mannheim GmbH
USA: Boehringer Mannheim Biochemicals, P. O. Box 50414, Indianapolis, IN 46250.
Tel.: 800-262-1640, Fax: 317-576-2754
Europe: Boehringer Mannheim GmbH, Sandhofer Strasse 116, P. O. Box 310 120,
D-68298 Mannheim, Germany.
Tel.: 0621-759-0, Fax: 0621-759-8509
• Clontech Laboratories
USA: Clontech Laboratories Inc., 4030 Fabian Way, Palo Alto, CA 94303-4607.
Tel.: 415-424-8222, Fax: 800-424-1350
Europe: ITC Biotechnology GmbH, P.O. B. 103026, D-69020 Heidelberg, Germany.
Tel.: 06221-303907, Fax: 06221-3035 11
• Difco
USA: Difco Laboratories, P. O. Box 331058, Detroit, MI 48232-7058.
Tel.: 313-462-8500, Fax: 313-462-8517
Europe: Difco Laboratories GmbH, Ulmer StraGe 160 a, Postfach 10 1486
D-86004 Augsburg, Germany.
Tel.: 0821-443391, Fax: 0821-443891
• DuPont
USA: DuPont Company, 549-3 Albany Street, Boston, MA 02118.
Tel.: 800-551-2121
Europe: DuPont de Nemours GmbH, Diagnostics & Biotechnology, DuPont Strasse 1,
D-61343 Bad Homburg, Germany.
Tel.: 06172-872600, Fax: 06172-872540
• Dynal
USA: Dynal Inc., 475 Northern Boulevard, Great Neck, NY 11021.
Tel.: 800-638-9416, Fax: 516-829-0045
Europe: Dynal International, P. O. Box 158 Skoyen, N -0212 Oslo, Norway.
Tel.: 2-529450, Fax: 2-507015
• Eppendorf Geratebau Netheler and Hinz GmbH
Europe: P. O. Box 650670, D-2000 Hamburg 65, Germany.
Tel.: 040-53801-0, Fax: 040-5380 1556
• Fluka Chemie AG
Europe: Messerschmittstrasse 17, D-89231 Neu-Ulm, Germany.
Tel.: 0731-973-03, Fax: 0731-973-3160
Appendix 159
• Greiner Labortechnik
Europe: Greiner GmbH, MaybachstraBe 2, D-72636 Frickenhausen, Germany.
Tel.: 07022-501-0, Fax: 07022-501-514
• Hoefer Scientific Instruments
USA: 654 Minnesota Street, Box 77387, San Francisco, CA 94107 -0387.
Tel.: 800-227-4750, Fax: 415-821-1081
Europe: Pharmacia Biotech Europe GmbH, Munzinger Strasse 9, D-79111 Freiburg,
Germany.
Tel.: 0761-4903193, Fax: 0761-4903246
• Hoffmann-La Roche AG
Europe: Hoffmann La-Roche AG, Roche Diagnostika, D-79639 Grenzach -Wyhlen,
Germany
Tel.: 07624-14-0, Fax: 07624-2576
• Hybaid
USA: National Labnet Co., 650 Hadley Road, South Plainfield, New Jersey 07080.
Tel.: 291-283-4555, Fax: 201-561-5634
Europe: Waldegrave Road 111-113, Teddington Middlesex, TWll 8LL, U. K.
Tel.: 0181-977-3266, Fax: 0181-977-0170
• Invitrogen Corporation
USA: Invitrogen Corporation, 3985 B Sorrento Valley Blvd., San Diego, CA 92121.
Tel.: 800-955-6288, Fax: 619-597-6201
Europe: Invitrogen BV De Schelp 26,9351 NV Leek, Netherlands.
Tel.: 05945-15175, Fax: 05945-15312
• ITC Biotechnology
USA: Clontech Laboratories Inc., 4030 Fabian Way, Palo Alto, CA 94303.
Tel.: 415-424-8222, Fax: 415-424-1064
Europe: ITC Biotechnology GmbH, P.O.Box 103026, D-69020 Heidelberg, Germany.
Tel.: 06221-303907, Fax: 06221-303511
• Jasco Labor und Datentechnik GmbH
USA: Jasco Inc., 8649 Commerce Drive, Easton, MD 21601-9903.
Tel.: 800-333-5272, Fax: 410-822-7526
Europe: Robert-Bosch-Strasse 11, D-64823 Gross-Umstadt, Germany.
Tel.: 06078-74949, Fax: 06078-74006
• Life Technologies/BRL
USA: Life Technologies/BRL Inc., 8400 Helgermann Court, P.O.Box 6009, Gaithersburg, MD
20884-9980
Tel.: 301-840-8000
Europe: Life Technologies/BRL GmbH, P. O. Box 1212, D-76339 Eggenstein,Germany.
Tel.: 0721-780444, Fax: 0721-780499
• MBI Fermentas
Europe: Fermentas Molecular Biology Instruments, Graiciuno 8, Vilnius 2028, Lithuania.
Tel.: 0122-641279,Fax: 0122-643436
• MWG Biotech
Europe: Anzinger Strasse 7, D-8017 Ebersberg, Germany.
Tel.: 08092-24071, Fax: 08092-21084
• National Biosciences (NBI)
USA: National Biosciences Inc., 3650 Annapolis Lane, Plymouth, MN 55447-5434.
Tel.: 800-747-4362, Fax: 800-369-5118
Europe: MedProbe, Postboks 2640, St. Hanshaugen, N -0131 Oslo, Norway.
Tel.: 2-2200137, Fax: 2-2200189
• Perkin-Elmer Corporation
USA: Perkin- Elmer Cetus, Main Avenue, Norwalk, CT 06856.
Tel.: 800-762-4001, Fax: 203-761-2542
Europe: Perkin Elmer Holding GmbH, European Sales Support Center, Bahnhofstrasse 30,
D-85588 Vaterstetten, Germany.
Tel.: 08106-381-115, Fax: 08106-6697
160 Appendix
• Pharmacia Biotech
USA: Pharmacia Biotech, 800 Centenial Avenue, Piscataway, NJ 08854.
Tel.: 800-526-3593, Fax: 800-329-3593
Europe: Pharmacia Biotech AB, Bjiirngatan 30, S-75182, Uppsala, Sweden.
Tel.: 18165000, Fax: 18143820
• Promega
USA: Promega Corporation, 2800 Woods Hollow Road, Madison, WI, 5371l.
Tel.: 800-356-9526, Fax: 608-277-2516
Europe: Serva, Carl-Benz-Strasse 7, P. O. B. 105260, D-69042 Heidelberg, Germany.
Tel.: 06221-502-0, Fax: 06221-502-188
• Qiagen
USA: Qiagen Inc., 9600 De Soto Avenue, Chatsworth, CA 9131l.
Tel.: 800-426-8157, Fax: 800-718-2056
Europe: Qiagen GmbH, Max-Volmer-Strage 4, D-40724 Hilden, Germany.
Tel.: 02103-892230, Fax: 02103-892233
• Roth
Europe: Carl Roth GmbH + Co., Schoemperlenstrage 1-5, Postfach 211162,
D-76185 Karlsruhe, Germany.
Tel.: 0721-56060, Fax: 0721-560649
• Schleicher & Schull
USA: Schleicher & Schuell Inc., 10 Optical Avenue, Keene, NH 0343l.
Tel.: 603-352-3810, Fax: 603-357-3627
Europe: Schleicher & Schuell GmbH, P. O. Box 4, D-37586 Dassel, Germany.
Tel.: 05561-791-0, Fax: 05564-2309
• Serva Feinbiochemika
Europe: Serva Feinbiochemika GmbH, & Co. KG, P. O. Box 105260, D-69042 Heidelberg,
Germany.
Tel.: 06221-502-0, Fax: 06221-502188
• Sigma
USA: Sigma Chemical Company, P.O. Box 14508, St. Louis, MO 63178-9916.
Tel.: 800-325-3010, Fax: 800-325-5052
Europe: Sigma-Aldrich Chemie GmbH, Griinwa1der Weg 30, D-82041 Deisenhofen, Germany.
Tel.: 0130-5155, Fax: 0130-6490
• Sorin Biomedica
Europe: 13040 Saluggia (V c), Italy
Tel.: 0161-4871, Fax: 0161-487545
• Stratagene
USA: 11099 North Torrey Pines Road, La Jolla, CA 92037.
Tel.: 800-424-5444
Europe: Stratagene GmbH, P.O.Box 105466, D-69044 Heidelberg, Germany.
Tel.: 06221-400634, Fax: 06221-400639
• TosoHaas
USA: 156 Keystone Drive, Montgomeryville, PA 18936.
Tel.: 215-283-5000, Fax: 215-283-9385
Europe: TosoHaas GmbH, Zettachring 6, D-70567 Stuttgart, Germany.
Tel.: 0711-13257-0, Fax: 0711-13257-89
• United States Biochemical (USB)
USA: United States Biochemical Corporation, P. O. Box 22400, Cleveland, OH 44122.
Tel.: 216-765-5000, Fax: 216-464-5075
Europe: United States Biochemical GmbH, Niederstedter Weg II, D-61348 Bad Homburg,
Germany.
Tel.: 0130-855085, Fax: 0130-304755
• Whatman
Europe: Whatman Scientific Ltd., Whatman House, St. Leonard's Road, Maidstone, Kent,
ME16 OKS, U.K.
Tel.: 0 1622-6766-70, Fax: 01622-677-011
Subject Index 161
Subject Index
acute myelogenic leukemia (AML) 71 -, quantitation under plateau conditions 10,22

anion exchange column, TSK DEAE-NPR -, validation of 1l,150
column 136, 146, 140 competitive RT-PCR 152
annealing 43 -, interassay coefficients 152
anti-DIG-antibody-POD-conjugates 118,121 -, sensitivity and reproducibility 152
anti-digoxigenin alkaline phosphatase competitor fragments 15
conjugate 40,47, 89, 107 -, heterologous competitors 16
arbitrary units 119 -, homologous competitors 22
asymmetric amplification, prevention of 145 -, principle of design 20
f)-actin 9, 72 contamination 13,23,74,149
-,mRNA 77 -, with DNase or exonuclease 80
-, specific primers 72 -, with ribonucleases 62
-, prevention by DNase I treatment 13
-, prevention by UV radiation 14
blotting 43, 47, 49 cRNA 10,29,35, 119
-, capillary transfer 104, 105 -, DNA-free cRNA 22
-, direct blotter 40 CSPD 40
-, minifold dot-blot apparatus 86 cytomegalovirus 125
-, ultraviolet irradiation 87 - infection 126
blue/white screening 29 - -, bone marrow transplantation 127
-, streaking 32 - -, congenital cytomegalovirus infection 127
- -, enteritis/colitis 127
- -, interstitial pneumonia 127
capillary electrophoresis 140 - -, organ transplantation 127
carryover 13 - -, retinitis 127
cDNA 7,8,19,21 -, antigenemia 125
cDNA synthesis, with AMV reverse -, disease 126
transcriptase 67 -, limitation of PCR diagnosis 132
chemiluminescent detection 40, 41, 42, 44, -, preparation of samples 128
46, 47, 49, 104, 107, 108 -, primers 129
cloning 16, 27 -, semiquantitative detection of 125
-, cloning strategies 19 -, viremia 125
-, directional cloning 28
-, T/A cloning 29
collagenase I, DNA probe III ddNTP 39,42
-, mRNA level III DEIA, DNA enzyme immunoassay 125, 130
colorimetric detection 93, 107, 108 -, anti-DNA monoclonal antibody 130
competitive PCR 6,10,143,149 -, calculation of results 132
-, efficiency differences 23 -, hybridization 130
-, quantitation of MRP mRNA 147 -, interpretation 132
162 Subject Index
denaturation 43 -, disposal 77
denaturing RNA electrophoresis 100, 102 -, transfer inhibition 105
densitometric scanning 86,90,152 extension 43
detection of PCR products 13 external standards 6, 67, 117
-, densitometric scanning 13 -, external RNA standards 119
-, ELOSA 13 extinction coefficient 63
-,HPLC 13 -,ds-DNA 63
diethylpyrocarbonate (DEPC) 22,56 -, oligonucleotides 63
digoxigenin 85,93 -,RNA 63
DNA labeling 48,94 -, ss-DNA 63
-, with biotin-endlabeled primer 40
-, with DIG-16-dATP 40,46,47,50,51
-, with DIG-11-dUTP 85,94,95, 98 fluorescence dyes 12, 139, 140
-, yield of DIG-labeled DNA 99,100 formaldehyde 101
DNA mass standard 139,146 formam ide 101
-, calibration curve 147,148
DNA molecular weight marker, 100 bp GAPDH 9,23
ladder 75, 76 -, as endogenous internal control 23
-, pBR322-Hae III-digest 136 -,mRNA 23
DNA polymerase 4, 73 -, specific probes 111
-,recombinant 65 gel electrophoresis 75
-, rTth DNA polymerase 65,83,119 -, agarose gel electrophoresis 75, 84, 131, 152
-, sequenase version 2.0 T7 DNA poly- -, denaturing polyacrylamide electro-
merase 47 phoresis 43,47,49
DNA probes 85,88,98,99,106,111 -, electrophoresis apparatus 75
-, double stranded 107 -, polyacryl amide gel electrophoresis of
-, preparation of DIG-labeled DNA restriction fragments 78
probes 88,95,97 gene expression 55, 135
-, probe-stripping 112 gene loci ratios 12
-, single-stranded oligonucleotide probes genomic DNA 55
88,90 -, coding (sense) strand 66
DNA purification 36,96,97 -, template (antisense) strand 66
-, by spin-column chromatography 96 guanidinium thiocyanate 58
-, phenol-chloroform-isoamyl alcohol
extraction 36,38, 100
-, recovery 97 heterodimers 19
DNA standards 8,23,27 housekeeping genes 8, 11, 12, 111
-, dsDNA standards 152 -, as endogenous control 8
-, single-stranded standards 152 -, normalization of densitometric values 111
DNA-DNA hybrids, detection of 89 HPLC 8,119,135,152

DNase I 22,36,37 -, analysis capacity 140
dNTPs 4,73,157 -, analysis of nucleic acids 135
dot blot 86 -, guard column 136, 138
-, operating conditions 138
-, preparative HPLC 139
ELOSA (enzyme-linked oligonucleotide -, quantitative HPLC 146
sorbents assay) 8,82,84,117,119,121,122 hybridization 10,16,75,85,88,93,106
-, calibration graph 122 -, temperature, calculation 89
-, principle of 118 -, dot blot 85
-, sensitivity and reproducibility 123
Escherichia coli 14,19,28,31,32 in vitro transcription 27,35,37
-, competent cells 31 internal standard 6, 8, 10, 11, 13, 20, 22, 27, 144
ethidium bromide n, 102, 105 -, of choice 22
Subject Index 163
internal standard -, MRP-mRNA 135

-, exogenous RNA/DNA 10 -, primers 144
-, standard dilutions 147 MRP competitor DNA fragment 144
internal standard -, purification and calibration 146
-, endogenous mRNA as Internal Control 9 -, specificity of 145
-, generation of 20 multidrug resistance (MDR) 71,143
-, housekeeping gene transcripts 8 -, P-glycoprotein 71
multidrug resistance-associated protein
(MRP) 143
kinetic analysis 5 - 7, 21 multiple cloning sites (MCS) 28,34
Klenowenzyme 19,98,99 multiplex PCR, competitive and differential
RT-PCR (CD-RT-PCR) 12
-, QMF-PCR 12
lacZ promoter binding proteins 16
ligation 29
-, ligation efficiencies 29 nitrocellulose membrane 87, 108
linear regression analysis 4, 23, 122 non -ionic detergents 73
linkers 16 Northern blot analysis 12,93,94
-, poly A+ RNA 57
-, with DIG labeled DNA probes 106
magnetic beads 58 -, capillary transfer 103, 104
-,dynabeads 45,48 -, repro bing 112
-, dynabeads oligo (dT)2s 60 -, sensitivity 109
-, polyATract 60 nylon membrane 43,49, 87, 99, 104, 108, 112
mdr-l 23,34,73,90,119,121,143 -, immobilization of RNA 105
-, cloned mdr-l PCR product 36 -, positively charged 103
-, mdr-l gene expression 72
-,mRNA 120
-, primers 73 PAGE electrophoresis 79
-, standard PCR protocol 73 patient samples, bone marrow 72
melting temperature 89 -, whole blood 72
MgCl 2 4, J3, 98 PCR 3,71
mRNA 55, 101, 110, 139 -, amplification efficiency 3, 70, 90
-, aging 63 -, basic protocol 72
-, monocistronic 56 -, exponential phase 3,7, 81, 139
-, polycistronic 56 -",Hot-Start" technique 74,83
-, splicing 55 -, kinetics of product accumulation
mRNA analysis 6, 62 -, optimization 3
-, A260/ A280 ratio 62 -, "plateau effect" 5
-, absolute numbers of mRNA copies 143 -, reamplification 20
-, evaluation of mRNA size 110 -, side products 4, 13
-, relative initial amounts 9 PCR products 19,27,44, 85
-, semiquantitative evaluation 110 -, as internal controls 19
-, steady-state levels 110 -, biotinylated 120
-, UV spectrophotometry 12 -, ligation 27
mRNA purification 57, 60, 61 -, purification of 42, 96
-, by dynabeads oligo (dT\s 60,61 -, renaturation 39
-, from cell lysate 61 -, sequencing of 39
-, guanidinium thiocyanate 57 Pfu DNA polymerase 16
MRP (Multidrugresistance-associated -, terminal transferase activity 16
protein) 21,23 plasmid DNA 34
-, absolute levels of MRP mRNA 144 poly A+ RNA 13, 56, 62
-, linker primer 144 polyadenylated sequences 16
164 Subject Index
primer 15,73 -, 5S and 5.8 SrRNA 102

-, downstream primers 66,81 RNA molecular weight markers, DIG-labeled
-, for quantitative PCR 16 110
-, kinetics 12 RNA polymerase promoters 16,35
-, G/C content 15 -, lacZ promoter 16, 17
-, linker primer 20, 144 -, SP6 promoter 17
-, overlapping primers 16 -, T3/T7 polymerase promoter 19
-, primer design 94 -, T7 promoter 17
-, primer dimers 15 RNA polymerase, RNA polymerase I 34, 55
-, primer search software 15 -, RNA polymerase II 55
-, secondary structure 15 -, RNA polymerase III 55
-, sequencing primer 48 -, SP6 polymerase 22
-, specific for mRNA 15 -, T7 RNA polymerase 37
-, upstream primers 66, 81 RNA purification, precautions 56
priming 65 RNA standard 8,22,27,119
-, oligo-( dT) priming 65 -, cRNA standard 122
-, random priming 65,95, 97, 98 RNA, carrier RNA 38, 63
-, specific priming 65, 81 -, concentration of RNA 63
-, heterogeneous nuclear RNA (hn RNA) 55,66
-, integrity of 93, 100
qualitative PCR 3, 8 -, secondary structure 65, 68
qualitative RT-PCR 71 -, storage 38, 63
quantitative PCR 3,6,15,125 RNA-DNA hybrids 106,111
-, exponential phase 9, 19 -, immunological detection 107
-, main disadvantage 12 RNase H 65
-, plateau phase 10 RNases 22,60
-, primer dropping method 10 -, contamination with 56
quantitative RT-PCR 12 -, RNase inhibitor 22, 61, 62, 67, 68
-, amplification efficiencies 10 RT reaction 69
-, non-radioisotopic 12 -, efficiency 22
-, normalization of results 11, 12 -, RT-blank 72
-, reconstitution experiments 12 -, with rTth polymerase 69
-, RNA loading of PCR 12 RT -PCR 12, 62
-, sensitivity and reproducibility 12 -, comparative (cRT-PCR) 10
-, coupled RT-PCR 82,65
-, single tube RT-PCR 81,83,120
ratios of target to standard 152 rTth DNA polymerase 68,69,83
restriction endonuclease cleavage 10,35
-, restricted digestion 78
-, restriction sites 18 sequenase 39,47-49
-, restriction endonucleases 16, 28, 34, 77, 78 sequencing 39
reverse transcriptase 65, 81 -, direct 45
-, Avian myeloblastosis virus (AMV) RT 65 -, direct non-isotopic 51
-, inhibitors of 4 -, non-isotopic cyclic 40-42
-, Moloney murine leukemia virus (MMLV) -, non-isotopic solid-phase 44,46 - 48
RT 65 -, sequencing primer 42
-, rTth DNA polymerase 68 silver staining 78
reverse transcription 13 -, of restriction fragments 78
-, with AMV-RT 67 single-stranded DNA, preparation of 44,46,48
-, efficiency 13 site-directed mutagenesis 18,19,144
-, with MMLV reverse transcriptase 13 -, mutation primer 19
ribosomal RNA 60, 102 -, PCR based 19
-,18 and 28 S rRNA 110,102 skin fibroblasts 103, 111
Subject Index 165
Southern hybridization 85, 88 -, thermal inactivation 6

SRY sex-determining region 40,50 TaqStart antibody 75
-,primer 40 thermal cycler 43,48,73,74,149
standard curve 22 titration analysis 6,7, 147
streptavidin alkaline phosphatase conjugate 40 TNF-a III
streptavidin-coated microwell plate 118,120 total RNA 13,21,58, 101, 102
synthetic internal PCR standards 16,17 -, electrophoresis of 103
-, multifunctional standards 16 -, extraction 59
synthetic mRNA or DNA 8 -, isolation of 58
transformation of competent cells 30,31
transillumination 76, 96
T-lymphoblastoid cell line, CCRF ADR5000
21,72,144,151
-, CCRF CEM 144,151 uracil-DNA glycosylase (UDG) 14,73>149
-, CCRF VCRlOoo 144,151 -, specificity for dU-containing DNA 14
T4 DNA ligase 30 -, UDG sterilization 74
T4 polymerase 29 UV absorption signal 138
T7 RNA polymerase 35,37
Taq DNA polymerase 4,27,28,39,41,82,147
-, adenosine overhang 28 vector 27,30
-, fidelity 16 -, pCR II vector 30
-, processibility 4
-, pyrophosphates as inhibitors 6
-, sequencing grade 39,42 X-Gal 31-33

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SPRINGER LABOR MANUAL

Nonradioactive peR Methods

Dirk LaBner PO Dr. habil. Barbara Pustowoit

Die Deutsche Bibliothek - CIP-Einheitsaufnahme

ISBN-13: 978-3-642-79714-9 e-1SBN-13: 978-3-642-79712-5

© Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 1995

Production: PRODUserv Springer Produktions-Gesellschaft, Berlin

SPIN 10493899 52/3020- 543 2 1 0 Printed on acid-free paper

This volume is an attempt to combine all the practical experiences and

Leipzig, August 1995 Th.Kohler

liDS Lithium dodecyl sulphate

AmpliTaqTM, GeneAmpTM 9600 thermal cycler, MicroAmpTM reaction tubes,

In many applications in biomedical research and clinical diagnosis it may be

1.1.1 Theory of Template Amplification by PCR 3

1.2.1 Primer Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

1.2.3 What Should be the Internal Standard of Choice? . . . . . . . . . . 22

2.1.5 Quantitation of Purified mRNA . 62

2.2.1 Theoretical Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65

2.3.1 Theoretical Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71

2.4.1 Theoretical Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81

2.5.1 Theoretical Background 85

2.5.2.1 Preparation of Dot Blots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86

3.1.3 Experimental Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119

3.2.1 CMV Infection in Human Beings 125

Subject Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161

1.1.1 Theory of Template Amplification by PCR

Quantitative peR analysis compared with qualitative peR reaction is more

1.1.1.1 Mathematical Description of the peR Reaction

An optimized amplification protocol is fundamental for quantitation of nucleic

A crucial factor for the reliability of quantitative peR is the amplifica-

log peak area [mV'sl

In practice, equation 2 is utilized in its logarithmic form:

(2.1) Log N = Log No+ n * Log 0 +E)

1.1.1.2 The Plateau Phase of Reaction

Experimentally the kinetics of product accumulation are far from the

Factors that may be responsible for this observation are as follows:

1.1.2 Experimental Approaches to Using PCR

1.1.2.1 Quantitative peR Using External Standards

Quantitation of nucleic acids by PCR assays using external standards is generally

1.1.2.2 Quantitative peR Using Internal Standards

Endogenous mRNA as Internal Control

Both terms combined give Eq. (3).

(3) Nt/Ns=N ot (1 + Et)n/Nos (1 + Es)n or rearranged

The relative initial amounts of target mRNA at a known concentration of

where: As = amount of amplified standard (cpm or OD 26o units)

Competitive PCR Using Exogenous Added RNA/DNA as Internal Control

Competitive PCR is a quantitative adaptation of the PCR method in which a

~ 1 -- At = amount of amplified target

The quantitation may be achieved by simply comparing the relative amounts of

reaction plateau is reached more quickly, non-comparative conditions may occur

1.1.3 Sensitivity and Reproducibility of Quantitative RT -PCR Assays

Reverse transcription here is an important source of variability which may

1.1.4 Methods for Detection and Quantitation of PCR Products

1.1.5 Avoidance of PCR Contamination

1.2.1 Primer Selection

To minimize the effect of possible variations in reverse transcription using

1.2.2 Design and Construction of Synthetic Internal PCR Standards

1.2.2.1 Synthetic Genes Serving as Multifunctional Standards (Multistandards)

Gene (+ )-primer (- )-primer product standard Ref.