CHAPTER 4

Digital Transmission
Solutions to Review Questions and Exercises

Review Questions
1. The three different techniques described in this chapter are line coding, block
coding, and scrambling.
2. A data element is the smallest entity that can represent a piece of information (a
bit). A signal element is the shortest unit of a digital signal. Data elements are
what we need to send; signal elements are what we can send. Data elements are
being carried; signal elements are the carriers.
3. The data rate defines the number of data elements (bits) sent in 1s. The unit is bits
per second (bps). The signal rate is the number of signal elements sent in 1s. The
unit is the baud.
4. In decoding a digital signal, the incoming signal power is evaluated against the
baseline (a running average of the received signal power). A long string of 0s or
1s can cause baseline wandering (a drift in the baseline) and make it difficult for
the receiver to decode correctly.
5. When the voltage level in a digital signal is constant for a while, the spectrum
creates very low frequencies, called DC components, that present problems for a
system that cannot pass low frequencies.
6. A self-synchronizing digital signal includes timing information in the data being
transmitted. This can be achieved if there are transitions in the signal that alert the
receiver to the beginning, middle, or end of the pulse.
7. In this chapter, we introduced unipolar, polar, bipolar, multilevel, and
multitransition coding.
8. Block coding provides redundancy to ensure synchronization and to provide
inherent error detecting. In general, block coding changes a block of m bits into a
block of n bits, where n is larger than m.
9. Scrambling, as discussed in this chapter, is a technique that substitutes long
zerolevel pulses with a combination of other levels without increasing the number
of bits.

1
 10. Both PCM and DM use sampling to convert an analog signal to a digital signal.
PCM finds the value of the signal amplitude for each sample; DM finds the change
between two consecutive samples.
11. In parallel transmission we send data several bits at a time. In serial transmission
we send data one bit at a time.
12. We mentioned synchronous, asynchronous, and isochronous. In both
synchronous and asynchronous transmissions, a bit stream is divided into
independent frames. In synchronous transmission, the bytes inside each frame are
synchronized; in asynchronous transmission, the bytes inside each frame are also
independent. In isochronous transmission, there is no independency at all. All bits
in the whole stream must be synchronized.

Exercises
13. We use the formula s = c × N × (1/r) for each case. We let c = 1/2.
a. r = 1 → s = (1/2) × (1 Mbps) × 1/1 = 500 kbaud
b. r = 1/2 → s = (1/2) × (1 Mbps) × 1/(1/2) = 1 Mbaud
c. r = 2 → s = (1/2) × (1 Mbps) × 1/2 = 250 Kbaud
d. r = 4/3 → s = (1/2) × (1 Mbps) × 1/(4/3) = 375 Kbaud
14. The number of bits is calculated as (0.2 /100) × (1 Mbps) = 2000 bits
15. See Figure 4.1. Bandwidth is proportional to (3/8)N which is within the range in Table 4.1 (B = 0 to
N) for the NRZ-L scheme.

Figure 4.1 Solution to Exercise 15

16. See Figure 4.2. Bandwidth is proportional to (4.25/8)N which is within the range in Table 4.1 (B = 0
to N) for the NRZ-I scheme.
17. See Figure 4.3. Bandwidth is proportional to (12.5 / 8) N which is within the range in Table 4.1 (B =
N to B = 2N) for the Manchester scheme.
18. See Figure 4.4. B is proportional to (12/8) N which is within the range in Table 4.1 (B = N to 2N) for
the differential Manchester scheme.
 3

Figure 4.2 Solution to Exercise 16

Figure 4.3 Solution to Exercise 17

Figure 4.4 Solution to Exercise 18

19. See Figure 4.5. B is proportional to (5.25 / 16) N which is inside range in Table 4.1 (B = 0 to N/2) for
2B/1Q.

Figure 4.5 Solution to Exercise 19

20. See Figure 4.6. B is proportional to (5.25/8) × N which is inside the range in Table
4.1 (B = 0 to N/2) for MLT-3.

Figure 4.6 Solution to Exercise 20

21. The data stream can be found as
a. NRZ-I: 10011001.
b. Differential Manchester: 11000100.
c. AMI: 01110001.
22. The data rate is 100 Kbps. For each case, we first need to calculate the value f / N. We then use Figure
4.6 in the text to find P (energy per Hz). All calculations are approximations.
5

a. f /N = 0/100 =0 → P = 1.0
b. f /N = 50/100 = 1/2 → P = 0.5
c. f /N = 100/100 = 1 → P = 0.0
d. f /N = 150/100 = 1.5 → P = 0.2
23. The data rate is 100 Kbps. For each case, we first need to calculate the value f/N. We then use Figure
4.8 in the text to find P (energy per Hz). All calculations are approximations.
a. f /N = 0/100 =0 → P = 0.0
b. f /N = 50/100 = 1/2 → P = 0.3
c. f /N = 100/100 = 1 → P = 0.4
d. f /N = 150/100 = 1.5 → P = 0.0 24.
a. The output stream is 01010 11110 11110 11110 11110 01001.
b. The maximum length of consecutive 0s in the input stream is 21.
c. The maximum length of consecutive 0s in the output stream is 2.
25. In 5B/6B, we have 25 = 32 data sequences and 26 = 64 code sequences. The number of unused code
sequences is 64 − 32 = 32. In 3B/4B, we have 23 = 8 data sequences and 24 = 16 code sequences. The
number of unused code sequences is 16 − 8 = 8.
26. See Figure 4.7. Since we specified that the last non-zero signal is positive, the first bit in our sequence
is positive.

Figure 4.7 Solution to Exercise 26

 a.
B8ZS
1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
B V

V B

1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

B V

V
b.
HDB

27.
a. In a low-pass signal, the minimum frequency 0. Therefore, we have fmax = 0 + 200 = 200
KHz. → fs = 2 × 200,000 = 400,000 samples/s
b. In a bandpass signal, the maximum frequency is equal to the minimum frequency plus the
bandwidth. Therefore, we have
fmax = 100 + 200 = 300 KHz. → fs = 2 × 300,000 = 600,000 samples /s
28.
a. In a lowpass signal, the minimum frequency is 0. Therefore, we can say
fmax = 0 + 200 = 200 KHz → fs = 2 × 200,000 = 400,000 samples/s
The number of bits per sample and the bit rate are
nb = log21024 = 10 bits/sample N = 400 KHz × 10 = 4 Mbps

b. The value of nb = 10. We can easily calculate the value of SNRdB

SNRdB = 6.02 × nb + 1.76 = 61.96

c. The value of nb = 10. The minimum bandwidth can be calculated as

BPCM = nb × Banalog = 10 × 200 KHz = 2 MHz

29. The maximum data rate can be calculated as

Nmax = 2 × B × nb = 2 × 200 KHz × log24 = 800 kbps

30. We can first calculate the sampling rate (fs) and the number of bits per sample (nb)
fmax = 0 + 4 = 4 KHz → fs = 2 × 4 = 8000 sample/s We then calculate the

number of bits per sample.

 → nb = 30000 / 8000 = 3.75
We need to use the next integer nb = 4. The value of SNRdB is

SNRdB = 6.02 × nb + 1.72 = 25.8

31. We can calculate the data rate for each scheme:
a. NRZ → N = 2 × B = 2 × 1 MHz = 2 Mbps
b. Manchester → N = 1 × B = 1 × 1 MHz = 1 Mbps
c. MLT-3 → N = 3 × B = 3 × 1 MHz = 3 Mbps
d. 2B1Q → N = 4 × B = 4 × 1 MHz = 4 Mbps
32.
a. For synchronous transmission, we have 1000 × 8 = 8000 bits.
b. For asynchronous transmission, we have 1000 × 10 = 10000 bits. Note that we assume only one stop bit
and one start bit. Some systems send more start bits.
c. For case a, the redundancy is 0%. For case b, we send 2000 extra for 8000 required bits. The
redundancy is 25%.

CHAPTER 5

Analog Transmission
Solutions to Review Questions and Exercises

Review Questions
1. Normally, analog transmission refers to the transmission of analog signals using a
band-pass channel. Baseband digital or analog signals are converted to a complex
analog signal with a range of frequencies suitable for the channel.
2. A carrier is a single-frequency signal that has one of its characteristics (amplitude,
frequency, or phase) changed to represent the baseband signal.
3. The process of changing one of the characteristics of an analog signal based on the
information in digital data is called digital-to-analog conversion. It is also called
modulation of a digital signal. The baseband digital signal representing the digital
data modulates the carrier to create a broadband analog signal.
4.
a. ASK changes the amplitude of the carrier.
b. FSK changes the frequency of the carrier.
c. PSK changes the phase of the carrier.
 d. QAM changes both the amplitude and the phase of the carrier.
5. We can say that the most susceptible technique is ASK because the amplitude is
more affected by noise than the phase or frequency.
6. A constellation diagram can help us define the amplitude and phase of a signal
element, particularly when we are using two carriers. The diagram is useful when
we are dealing with multilevel ASK, PSK, or QAM. In a constellation diagram, a
signal element type is represented as a dot. The bit or combination of bits it can
carry is often written next to it.The diagram has two axes. The horizontal X axis is
related to the in-phase carrier; the vertical Y axis is related to the quadrature carrier.
7. The two components of a signal are called I and Q. The I component, called
inphase, is shown on the horizontal axis; the Q component, called quadrature, is
shown on the vertical axis.
8. The process of changing one of the characteristics of an analog signal to represent
the instantaneous amplitude of a baseband signal is called analog-to-analog con-

1
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version. It is also called the modulation of an analog signal; the baseband analog signal
modulates the carrier to create a broadband analog signal.
9.
a. AM changes the amplitude of the carrier
b. FM changes the frequency of the carrier
c. PM changes the phase of the carrier
10. We can say that the most susceptible technique is AM because the amplitude is more affected
by noise than the phase or frequency.

Exercises
11. We use the formula S = (1/r) × N, but first we need to calculate the value of r for each case.

a. r = log22 = 1 → S = (1/1) × (2000 bps) = 2000 baud

b. r = log22 = 1 → S = (1/1) × (4000 bps) = 4000 baud
c. r = log24 = 2 → S = (1/2) × (6000 bps) = 3000 baud
d. r = log264 =6 → S = (1/6) × (36,000 bps) = 6000 baud

12. We use the formula N = r × S, but first we need to calculate the value of r for each case.

a. r = log22 = 1 → N = (1) × (1000 bps) = 1000 bps

b. r = log22 = 1 → N = (1) × (1000 bps) = 1000 bps
c. r = log22 = 1 → N = (1) × (1000 bps) = 1000 bps
d. r = log216 =4 → N = (4) × (1000 bps) = 4000 bps

13. We use the formula r = log2L to calculate the value of r for each case.
a. log24 =2
b. log28 =3
c. log24 =2
d. log2128 =7
14. See Figure 5.1.
a. We have two signal elements with peak amplitudes 1 and 3. The phase of both signal
elements are the same, which we assume to be 0 degrees.
b. We have two signal elements with the same peak amplitude of 2. However, there must be
180 degrees difference between the two phases. We assume one phase to be 0 and the other
180 degrees.
c. We have four signal elements with the same peak amplitude of 3. However, there must be
90 degrees difference between each phase. We assume the first phase to be at 45, the second
at 135, the third at 225, and the fourth at 315 degrees. Note that this is one out of many
configurations. The phases can be at
3 Figure 5.1 Solution to Exercise 14
 a. ASK b. BPSK
Q Q

I I
1 3 –2 2

Q Q
3 3

3 3 1 1
I I
3 3 1 1

3 3
c. QPSK d. 8-QAM

0, 90, 180, and 270. As long as the differences are 90 degrees, the solution is satisfactory.
d. We have four phases, which we select to be the same as the previous case. For each phase, however, we have
two amplitudes, 1 and 3 as shown in the figure. Note that this is one out of many configurations. The phases
can be at 0, 90, 180, and 270. As long as the differences are 90 degrees, the solution is satisfactory.
15. See Figure 5.2

Figure 5.2 Solution to Exercise 15

a. b.
Q Q

I I
2 3 –3 3

Q Q

2 2

I I
–2 2

–2 –2

c. d.

a. This is ASK. There are two peak amplitudes both with the same phase (0 degrees). The
values of the peak amplitudes are A1 = 2 (the distance between
4

the first dot and the origin) and A2= 3 (the distance between the second dot and the origin).
b. This is BPSK, There is only one peak amplitude (3). The distance between each dot and the
origin is 3. However, we have two phases, 0 and 180 degrees.
c. This can be either QPSK (one amplitude, four phases) or 4-QAM (one amplitude and four
phases). The amplitude is the distance between a point and the origin, which is (2 2 + 22)1/2 =
2.83.
d. This is also BPSK. The peak amplitude is 2, but this time the phases are 90 and 270 degrees.
 16. The number of points define the number of levels, L. The number of bits per baud is the value
of r. Therefore, we use the formula r = log2L for each case.

a. log22 =1
b. log24 =2
c. log216 = 4
d. log21024 = 10

17. We use the formula B = (1 + d) × (1/r) × N, but first we need to calculate the value of r for
each case.

a. r = 1 → B= (1 + 1) × (1/1) × (4000 bps) = 8000 Hz

b. r = 1 → B = (1 + 1) × (1/1) × (4000 bps) + 4 KHz = 8000 Hz
c. r = 2 → B = (1 + 1) × (1/2) × (4000 bps) = 2000 Hz
d. r = 4 → B = (1 + 1) × (1/4) × (4000 bps) = 1000 Hz

18. We use the formula N = [1/(1 + d)] × r × B, but first we need to calculate the
value of r for each case. a. r = log22 = 1 → N= [1/(1 + 0)] × 1 × (4 KHz) = 4 kbps b. r = log24=2
→ N = [1/(1 + 0)] × 2 × (4 KHz) = 8 kbps c. r = log216= 4 → N = [1/(1 + 0)] × 4 × (4
KHz) = 16 kbps d. r = log264= 6 → N = [1/(1 + 0)] × 6 × (4 KHz) = 24 kbps

19.
First, we calculate the bandwidth for each channel = (1 MHz) / 10 = 100 KHz. We then find
the value of r for each channel:
B = (1 + d) × (1/r) × (N) → r = N / B → r = (1 Mbps/100 KHz) = 10
We can then calculate the number of levels: L = 2 r = 210 = 1024. This means that that we need
a 1024-QAM technique to achieve this data rate.
20. We can use the formula: N = [1/(1 + d)] × r × B = 1 × 6 × 6 MHz = 36 Mbps

21.

a. BAM = 2 × B = 2 × 5 = 10 KHz
5

b. BFM = 2 × (1 + β) × B = 2 × (1 + 5) × 5 = 60 KHz
c. BPM = 2 × (1 + β) × B = 2 × (1 + 1) × 5 = 20 KHz

22. We calculate the number of channels, not the number of coexisting stations.

a. n = (1700 - 530) KHz / 10 KHz = 117

n = (108 - 88) MHz / 200 KHz = 100