PAVEMENT MATERIALS AND CONSTRUCTION BTCE16F6330

PAVEMENT MATERIALS
UNIT - 3
Bituminous Mixes: Mechanical properties, dense and open textured mixes,
flexibility and brittleness, bituminous mix, design methods using Rothfutch’s
Method and specification using different criteria- voids in mineral aggregates,
voids in total mix, density, flow, stability, percentage voids filled with bitumen.
Numerical examples

Requirements of Bituminous Mixes

The aim of mix design is to obtain an economical blend or mix using proper
gradation of coarse aggregates, fine aggregates, filler and adequate amount of
bituminous binder to fulfil the desirable properties of mix.
Mechanical/Desirable Properties
Desirable properties of a good bituminous mix are:
a) Stability
b) Durability
c) Flexibility
d) Skid resistance
e) Workability

a) Stability
Stability is the resistance of the paving mix to deformation under the load. It is
the stress to which specified strain is produced (load at which specified
deformation). Depending upon the specification or field condition, it is influenced
by density of the mix or percentage voids in the compacted mix or viscosity of
bituminous binder. If the voids are less, stability will be more and strength will
be more. But there must be minimum voids which would provide space on
necessary densification which takes place under the traffic movement and
expansion of bitumen at high temperature in the atmosphere. If there are no
sufficient voids, the bituminous binder bleeds over the surface and causes
skidding.

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b) Durability
It is the resistance of the mix against weathering and abrasive actions. Due to
weathering bituminous mix gets harden which is due to loss of volatiles and
oxidation. The tensile strain is induced due to heavy wheel loads and excessive
strain may be developed which may cause cracks or plastic failure.

c) Flexibility
It is the property of the mix that measures the level bending strength.

d) Skid Resistance
It is the resistance of the finished pavement against skidding which depends
upon the surface texture and bitumen content of mix. If the bitumen content is
more, the surface of the pavement is smoothen or slippery. Therefore the
bitumen content must be optimum to have better skid resistance.

e) Workability
It is the ease with which the mix can be laid and compacted to maximum density.
It is the function of gradation of aggregates, their shape and texture, bitumen
content and its type.

Requirements of Bituminous mixes

Stability
Stability is defined as the resistance of the paving mix to deformation under
traffic load. Two examples of failure are (i) shoving - a transverse rigid
deformation which occurs at areas subject to severe acceleration and (ii) grooving
- longitudinal ridging due to channelization of traffic. Stability depends on the
inter-particle friction, primarily of the aggregates and the cohesion offered by the
bitumen. Sufficient binder must be available to coat all the particles at the same
time should offer enough liquid friction. However, the stability decreases when
the binder content is high and when the particles are kept apart.

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Durability
Durability is defined as the resistance of the mix against weathering and abrasive
actions. Weathering causes hardening due to loss of volatiles in the bitumen.
Abrasion is due to wheel loads which causes tensile strains. Typical examples of
failure are (i) pot-holes, - deterioration of pavements locally and (ii) stripping, lost
of binder from the aggregates and aggregates are exposed. Disintegration is
minimized by high binder content since they cause the mix to be air and
waterproof and the bitumen film is more resistant to hardening.

Flexibility
Flexibility is a measure of the level of bending strength needed to counteract
traffic load and prevent cracking of surface. Fracture is the cracks formed on the
surface (hairline-cracks, alligator cracks), main reasons are shrinkage and
brittleness of the binder. Shrinkage cracks are due to volume change in the
binder due to aging. Brittleness is due to repeated bending of the surface due to
traffic loads. Higher bitumen content will give better flexibility and less fracture.

Skid Resistance
It is the resistance of the finished pavement against skidding which depends on
the surface texture and bitumen content. It is an important factor in high speed
traffic. Normally, an open graded coarse surface texture is desirable.

Workability
Workability is the ease with which the mix can be laid and compacted, and
formed to the required condition and shape. This depends on the gradation of
aggregates, their shape and texture, bitumen content and its type. Angular, flaky
and elongated aggregates workability. On the other hand, rounded aggregates
improve workability.

Desirable Properties

The desirable properties of a bituminous mix can be summarized as follows:

• Stability to meet traffic demand
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• Bitumen content to ensure proper binding and water proofing

• Voids to accommodate compaction due to traffic
• Flexibility to meet traffic loads, especially in cold season
• Sufficient workability for construction
• Economical mix

Aim of Mix Design Method

Any mix design methods should aim at determining the properties of aggregates
and bituminous material and combination of both which would give a mix having
the following properties:
a) Sufficient stability to satisfy the service requirements of the pavement and
the traffic conditions, without undue displacements.
b) Sufficient bitumen to ensure a durable pavement by coating the aggregate
and bonding them together and also by water-proofing the mix.
c) Sufficient voids in the compacted mix as to provide a reservoir space for a
slight amount of additional compaction due to traffic and to avoid flushing,
bleeding and loss of stability.
d) Sufficient flexibility even in the coldest season to prevent cracking due to
repeated application of traffic loads.
e) Sufficient workability while placing and compacting the mix.
f) The mix should be the most economical one that would produce a stable,
durable and skid resistant pavement.

Objectives of Mix Design

The objective of the mix design is to produce a bituminous mix by
proportionating various components so as to have:
• Sufficient bitumen to ensure a durable pavement
• Sufficient strength to resist shear deformation under traffic at higher
temperature
• Sufficient air voids in the compacted bitumen to allow for additional
compaction by traffic
• Sufficient workability to permit easy placement without segregation

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• Sufficient flexibility to avoid premature cracking due to repeated bending

by traffic, and sufficient flexibility at low temperature to prevent shrinkage
cracks.

Constituents of a Mix
• Coarse aggregates: offer compressive and shear strength and shows good
interlocking properties. E.g.: Granite

• Fine aggregates: Fills the voids in the coarse aggregate and stiffens the
binder. E.g. Sand, Rock dust

• Filler: Fills the voids, stiffens the binder and offers permeability. E.g. Rock
dust, cement, lime

• Binder: Fills the voids, cause particle adhesion and offers impermeability.
E.g. Bitumen, Asphalt, Tar

Types of Mix

• Well-graded mix: Dense mix, bituminous concrete has good proportion of

all constituents and are called dense bituminous macadam, offers good
compressive strength and some tensile strength

• Gap-graded mix: Some large coarse aggregates are missing and has good
fatigue and tensile strength.

• Open-graded mix: Fine aggregate and filler are missing, it is porous and
offers good friction, low strength and for high speed.

• Unbounded: Binder is absent and behaves under loads as if its

components were not linked together, though good interlocking exists. Very
low tensile strength and needs kerb protection.

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Design of Bituminous Mixes/ Steps in Mix Design Method

The following steps may be followed for a rational design of a bituminous mix.
a) Selection of Aggregate
Aggregates having sufficient strength, hardness, toughness, soundness are
selected. Crushed aggregates and sharp sands produce a mix of higher stability
compare to natural gravel and rounded sands.

b) Selection of Aggregate Grading

The density and stability of the mix depend on the gradation or grain size
distribution of aggregate. Generally densely textured aggregate (well graded) is
specified instead of open texture (poorly graded or gap graded). To attain higher
stability, higher maximum size aggregate is selected. However the max size of
aggregate used depends on compacted thickness of particular layer. Therefore
gradation or max size is specified by the designer or user such as IRC. For a
proposed 40 mm thick bituminous concrete layer or bituminous concrete coarse.
The specified gradation of aggregate mix is shown in following table:
Percent passing, by
Sieve size, mm weight
Grade 1 Grade 2
20 - 100
12.5 100 80-100
10.0 80-100 70-90
4.75 55-75 50-70
2.36 35-50 35-50
0.6 18-29 18-29
0.3 13-23 13-23
0.15 8-16 8-16
0.075 4-10 4-10
Binder content,
percent by weight of 5-7.5 5-7.5
mix

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If the available gradation is not satisfying the specification or specified gradation

proper blending of different grades is to be adopted for this purpose, either by
the method of trials or Rothfutch’s method.

c) Determination of Specific Gravity

The specific gravity of aggregate mix is represented as bulk specific gravity or
apparent specific gravity or effective specific gravity of mix. If the overall volume
of the aggregate mix is considered, the bulk specific gravity is obtained in the
apparent or effective specific gravity. The volume of capillary which are filled by
the water on 21 hours of soaking or immersion is excluded. When the different
aggregate are mixed to obtain required gradation, the specific gravity of combined
mixture denoted as ‘Ga’ is determined using equation:

100
Ga = -----------------------------------------------------
W1/G1 + W2/G2 + W3/G3 + W4/G4 +.....
Where,
W1, W2, W3, W4, .... = percent by weight of aggregates
G1, G2, G3, G4, ..... = specific gravity of each material used in mix
In the above equation, the total weight of aggregate mix is considered which will
be in the numerator then this equation gets modified.
W1 + W2 + W3 +.....
Ga = ------------------------------------------
W1/a1 + W2/a2 + W3/a3 +.....
Where,
W1, W2, W3 ... = actual weight of component used in the mix.
d) Proportioning of Aggregates
As a first step the design grading is selected based on the type of construction,
thickness of the layer and its specification if any. Then the available aggregate
are analyzed for gradation. Using the graphical method suggested by Rothfutch’s

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or method of trial. The required method of each component is to be determined

to satisfy the design gradation.

e) Preparation of Specimen or Sample

The preparation of specimen depends on the stability test method employed.
Hence the size of the specimen, compaction and other specification should be
followed as specified in the stability test method. The stability test methods
which are in common use for the design mix are Marshall, Hubbard-Field and
Hveem. Hence after deciding the test methods, the specimens are molded as per
specification.

f) Determination of Specific Gravity of Compacted Specimen

Knowing specific gravity of aggregate mix ‘Ga’ and that of bituminous binder ‘Gb’,
the theoretical maximum specific gravity of the sample or specimen is
determined using the equation:
100
Gt = --------------------------------------
(100 – Wb)/Ga + Wb/Gb

g) Stability Tests on Compacted Specimens

One of the stability tests is carried out based on the design method selected.

h) Selection of Optimum Bitumen Content

The optimum bitumen content is selected based on the test method adopted and
the design requirements considered.

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Proportioning of Aggregates:-

After selecting the aggregates and their gradation, proportioning of aggregates

has to be done and following are the common methods of proportioning of
aggregates:

1. Trial and error procedure: Vary the proportion of materials until the
required aggregate gradation is achieved.

2. Graphical Methods: Two graphical methods in common use for

proportioning of aggregates are Triangular chart method and Rothfutch’s
method. The former is used when only three materials are to be mixed.

Proportioning of Aggregates by Rothfutch’s Method with the help of a

graph:-

1. On a graph paper with Y-axis representing percent passing and X-axis

representing particle size.
2. A diagonal line is drawn from point corresponding to 100% passing to a
point corresponding to 0 % passing.
3. The different particle sizes are marked on X-axis corresponding to the
mean value of percentage fines taken on Y-axis, making use of desired
gradation (or) suitable gradation equation.
4. The particle size scale on X-axis is such that the desired gradation is
straight line which has drawn first.
5. Now in this chart the grain size distribution curves of the materials to be
mixed are plotted suppose 3 materials A, B & C are to be mixed then the
grain size distribution curves are plotted and the balancing straight lines
of A, B and C are obtained.
6. The opposite ends of the balancing straight lines of A & B are joined;
similarly for lines B & C are joined.
7. The points where these lines meet desired gradation line represents the
proportions in which materials A, B, & C are to be mixed.
8. The Graph is as shown below figure

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Marshall Stability Test

Bruce Marshall, formerly Bituminous Engineer with Mississippi State Highway
Department formulated Marshall Method for designing bituminous mixes.
In the Marshall test, the resistance to plastic deformation of cylindrical specimen
of bituminous mixture is measured when the specimen is loaded at the periphery
at a rate of 5cm per minute. This test procedure is used in designing and
evaluating bituminous mixes. There two major features of the Marshall method
of designing the mixes namely,
i. density – voids analysis
ii. Stability – flow tests

The Marshall stability of the mix is defined as the maximum load carried by a
compacted specimen at a standard test temperature of 60° C. The flow is
measured as the deformation in units of 0.25 mm between no load and maximum
load carried by the specimen during stability test. In this test an attempt is made
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to obtain Optimum Bitumen Content (OBC) for the type of aggregate mix and
traffic intensity.
Aim
To determine the Marshall stability and Optimum bitumen content of the given
mix.
Apparatus
a) Mould assembly: cylindrical mould of 10.16cm diameter and 6.35 cm
height, with a base plate and collar.
b) Sample extractor
c) Compaction pedestal and hammer, weight 4.54 kg with 45.7 cm height of
fall. d) Proving ring
e) Breaking head, to apply a load on its periphery perpendicular to its axis
in a loading machine of 5 tons capacity at a rate of 5 cm per minute.
f) Loading machine
g) Flow meter (dial gauge)

Procedure
a) Select the aggregate gradation from the specified ranges in the table. ( IRC
or MOST )
b) Take approximately 1200g of aggregate and filler, if any, and heat to a
temperature of 175 to 190°C.
c) Heat the compaction mould assembly and the rammer to a temperature of
138 to 149° C.
d) Heat the given bitumen to a temperature of 121 to 145°C.
e) Add the required quantity of trial bitumen content (say 3.5 % by weight of
mineral aggregate) and thoroughly mix using a trowel, maintaining a mixing
temperature of 154 to 160° C.
f) Keep the pre-heated mould and collar on the compaction pedestal.
g) Transfer the mix in the pre-heated mould and compact it 75 times using
the specified rammer.
h) Invert the specimen and again compact 75 times.
i) Repeat the procedure with specimens having other trial bitumen contents.

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j) Allow the specimens to cool in air for a few hours.

k) Now extract the specimens from the moulds using the sample extractor.
l) Measure the mean diameter and height of the specimens.
m) Find the weight of specimens in air and then in water.
n) Keep the specimens in a water bath maintained at a temperature of 60° C
for about 40 minutes.
o) Keep the specimen in the breaking head assembly in the Marshall
apparatus.
p) Set the proving ring dial and flow dial to zero.
q) Load the specimen until it fails and record the load applied and flow
readings at failure.
r) Repeat the process for other specimens.
Results
Marshall Stability of given mix at bitumen content -------- % = -------------
-
Optimum bitumen content for the given mix = --------------- %
Observations
The Marshall Test properties of any specimen can be calculated using the
following formulae:
Properties of the mix The properties that are of interest include the theoretical
specific gravity Gt, the bulk specific gravity of the mix Gm, percent air voids Vv,
percent volume of bitumen Vb, percent void in mixed aggregate VMA and percent

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Marshall test setup voids filled with bitumen VFB. These calculations are
discussed next. To understand these calculation a phase diag

1. Theoretical specific gravity of the mix Gt

Theoretical specific gravity Gt is the specific gravity without considering air voids
where, W1 is the weight of coarse aggregate in the total mix, W2 is the weight of
fine aggregate in the total mix, W3 is the weight of filler in the total mix, Wb is
the weight of bitumen in the total mix, G1 is the apparent specific gravity of
coarse aggregate, G2 is the apparent specific gravity of fine aggregate, G3 is the
apparent specific gravity of filler and Gb is the apparent specific gravity of
bitumen,

………… eq (1)

2. Bulk specific gravity of mix Gm The bulk specific gravity or the actual
specific gravity of the mix Gm is the specific gravity considering air voids
and is found by

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……….. eq (2)

where, Wm is the weight of mix in air, Ww is the weight of mix in water, Note
that Wm − Ww gives the volume of the mix. Sometimes to get accurate bulk
specific gravity, the specimen is coated with thin film of paraffin wax, when
weight is taken in the water. This, however requires to consider the weight and
volume of wax in the calculations.

3. Air voids percent Vv

Air voids Vv is the percent of air voids by volume in the specimen and is given
by:

……… eq(3)
Where Gt is the theoretical specific gravity of the mix, given by equation eq (1)
and Gm is the bulk or actual specific gravity of the mix given by equation eq (2)
4. Percent volume of bitumen Vb
The volume of bitumen Vb is the percent of volume of bitumen to the total volume
and given by:

…….. eq(4)

where, W1 is the weight of coarse aggregate in the total mix, W2 is the weight of
fine aggregate in the total mix, W3 is the weight of filler in the total mix, Wb is
the weight of bitumen in the total mix, Gb is the apparent specific gravity of
bitumen, and Gm is the bulk specific gravity of mix given by equation (2)

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5. Voids in mineral aggregate VMA

Voids in mineral aggregate V MA is the volume of voids in the aggregates, and
is the sum of air voids and volume of bitumen, and is calculated from
VMA = Vv + Vb
where, Vv is the percent air voids in the mix, given by equation eq(3). and Vb is
percent bitumen content in the mix, given by equation (4).

6. Voids filled with bitumen VFB

Voids filled with bitumen V FB is the voids in the mineral aggregate frame work
filled with the bitumen, and is calculated as: VFB = Vb × 100
VMA
Where, Vb is percent bitumen content in the mix, given by equation and VMA is
the percent voids in the mineral aggregate, given by equation.
7. Determine Marshall Stability and flow
Marshall Stability of a test specimen is the maximum load required to produce
failure when the specimen is preheated to a prescribed temperature placed in a
special test head and the load is applied at a constant strain (5 cm per minute).
While the stability test is in progress dial gauge is used to measure the vertical
deformation of the specimen. The deformation at the failure point expressed in
units of 0.25 mm is called the Marshall Flow value of the specimen.

8. Apply stability correction

It is possible while making the specimen the thickness slightly vary from the
standard specification of 63.5 mm. Therefore, measured stability values need to
be corrected to those which would have been obtained if the specimens had been
exactly 63.5 mm. This is done by multiplying each measured stability value by
an appropriated correlation factors as given in Table below.

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Prepare graphical plots The average value of the above properties are determined
for each mix with different bitumen content and the following graphical plots are
prepared:
1. Binder content versus corrected Marshall stability
2. Binder content versus Marshall flow
3. Binder content versus percentage of void (Vv) in the total mix
4. Binder content versus voids filled with bitumen (V FB)
5. Binder content versus unit weight or bulk specific gravity (Gm)
Determine optimum bitumen content
Determine the optimum binder content for the mix design by taking average
value of the following three bitumen contents found form the graphs obtained in
the previous step.
1. Binder content corresponding to maximum stability
2. Binder content corresponding to maximum bulk specific gravity (Gm)
3. Binder content corresponding to the median of designed limits of percent air
voids (Vv) in the total mix (i.e. 4%)
The stability value, flow value, and V FB are checked with Marshall mix design
specification chart given in Table below. Mixes with very high stability value and
low flow value are not desirable as the pavements constructed with such mixes
are likely to develop cracks due to heavy moving loads.

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Observations
The Marshall Test properties of any specimen can be calculated using the
following formulae:
1) Bulk Density of Compacted Specimen (Gm)

in gm/cc
2) Theoretical Density of Specimen (Gt)

in gm/cc

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3) Volume of Air Voids (Vv)

Vv= Gt - Gm x 100 %
Gt
4) Volume of Bitumen (Vb)

OR
Vb = Gb x W4 %
G4
Where, W4 = % wt. of bitumen
G4 = Sp. Gravity of bitumen
NOTE : To find out Vb we can use any formula

5) Voids in Mineral Aggregate (VMA)

VMA = Vv + Vb %
6) Voids Filled with Bitumen (VFB)
VFB = 100 Vb x 100 %
VMA
7) Determination of Marshall Stability
Marshall Stability = Proving ring dial gauge reading x Correction factor for
thickness of specimen x Proving ring dial gauge constant.

NOTE: To obtain OBC, plot the graphs as shown and find the bitumen content
at which there is maximum stability, maximum bulk density and 5 % voids.
Take the average of these three bitumen contents as OBC.

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Numerical example - 1
The specific gravities and weight proportions for aggregate and bitumen are as
under for the preparation of Marshall mix design. The volume and weight of one
Marshall specimen was found to be 475 cc and 1100 gm. Assuming absorption
of bitumen in aggregate is zero, find Vv, Vb, V MA and V FB;

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Numerical example – 2
The results of Marshall Test for five specimen is given below. Find the optimum
bitumen content of the mix.

Solution: Plot the graphs and find bitumen content corresponding to

1. Max stability = 5 percent bitumen content.
2. Max Gm = 5 percent bitumen content.
3. 4% percent air void = 3 percent bitumen content.
The optimum bitumen extent is the average of above = 4.33 percent

IMPORTANT QUESTIONS
1. Explain the constituents of a bituminous mix.
2. Explain in detail flexibility and brittleness.
3. List and explain the desirable properties of a bituminous mix.
4. Explain the procedure of determining the optimum bitumen content, for a
bituminous mix, by the Marshall test.
5. List various tests conducted on bitumen and write a detailed explanatory
note on the following tests i) Ductility test ii) Flash and fire point test iii)
Specific gravity test iv) Softening point test
6. Explain proportioning of materials by Rothfutch’s method with the help of
a graph.
7. Explain aim and objective of bituminous mix design?
8. Define open graded, well graded mixes?

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