The Lake Michigan College

Journal of Psychology

Volume 15
2007
 The Lake Michigan College Journal of Psychology
is sponsored by the
Lake Michigan College Chapter of PSI BETA,
the national honor society in psychology for
community and junior colleges.

Judith M. Buchalski, Editor

The Editor of The Lake Michigan College Journal of Psychology wishes to thank the
following people for their support and efforts in the production of this publication.

Diane Baker
Jill Claeys
Donna Maxson
Mark Kelly
Kathy Phillipi
Dr. W. Chuck Philip
Sandra K. Porter
Karolyn M. Rohloff
Dr. Denise Scameheorn
The Lake Michigan College
Journal of Psychology

Volume XV, 2007

Table of Contents
Attitudes toward Food: Comparison of Addictive Behaviors in Women Recovering from Self-
diagnosed Eating Disorders vs. Women with No History
by Shannin B. Blake.................................................................................................................................................... 1

Attitudes toward Entering Romantic Relationships with People who Have a Physical or
Psychological Problem: Personal Experience, Age, Gender, and Spirituality/Religion as Effectors
by Kimberly A. DeFields............................................................................................................................................ 15

Men’s Attitudes towards Women’s Body Size: History of Eating Disorders as a Factor
by Cody Brown........................................................................................................................................................... 42

Alternative Treatment Methods for AD/HD: From Individual Coping Strategies to Integral
Treatment Approaches
by Carlos Zevallos...................................................................................................................................................... 50

COVER PHOTOGRAPH: Compliments of Mike Johnson

 ATTITUDES TOWARD FOOD:
COMPARISON OF ADDICTIVE BEHAVIORS IN
WOMEN RECOVERING FROM SELF-DIAGNOSED EATING DISODERS
VS. WOMEN WITH NO HISTORY

SHANNIN B. BLAKE
LAKE MICHIGAN COLLEGE

This research compared attitudes toward food in those

individuals who recovered from a self-diagnosed eating
disorder to those individuals with no history of an eating
disorder. The hypotheses tested were: 1) Women who claim
to have struggled with an eating disorder in the past still
show signs of addiction in their attitude toward food, even
though the behavior of the eating disorder is no longer
apparent. 2) Women with a history of anorexia will have the
most negative attitude toward food; women with a history of
bulimia will have a less negative attitude toward food, and
women with a history of binge eating disorder will display
the least negative attitude toward food. Hypothesis 1 was
supported, while hypothesis 2 was not supported.

“Eating disorders are characterized by a persistent pattern of dysfunctional eating or dieting

behavior associated with significant emotional, physical, and interpersonal distress”

(http://www.licensedceu.com/course.php, 2007). Statistics collected in 2000 indicate that about one

percent (1%) of female adolescents in the United States have anorexia nervosa; about one-three

percent (1-3%) of young women have bulimia; around fifty percent (50%) of the women with

anorexia develop patterns of bulimia later on; and around three percent (3%) have binge eating

disorder (Maine, 2000).

These statistics represent a fragment of the problem, since they only include reported eating

disorders. The Academy of Eating Disorders in Maryland suggests that at any given time, ten percent

or more of late adolescent and young adult women report symptoms of eating disorders that may not

satisfy full diagnostic criteria. These women do, however, often manifest personal distress and

impairment through avenues of depression, anxiety, and low self-esteem

(http://www.aedweb.org/eating_disorders/prevalence.cfm, 2007; Abrams, Allen & Gray, 1993).

 Harrison (1997) holds the media responsible for this epidemic of eating disorders. Her

study, surveying 232 women, revealed a strong relationship between media exposure that promotes

or depicts thinness and the rate of bulimia and anorexia. Michael Strober, director of the Eating

Disorder Program at UCLA Neuropsychiatric Institute, has considered other causes, which may

contribute to eating disorders. Since 1996, he and an international team of researchers have been

working to discover a genetic link for eating disorders (Liu, 2007). Strober estimates that more than

fifty percent (50%) of the variance in eating disorders can be accounted for by such genetic links

(http://www.gurze.com/client/client_pages/newsletter22.cfm, 2007). Similar findings from Holland,

Sicotte & Treasure (1988) indicate that a genetic link is present. Their study examined twenty-five

monozygotic twins who had both been diagnosed with anorexia. Analysis of their data suggested that

up to eighty percent (80%) of anorexia nervosa might be accounted for by genetic factors.

If the causes of eating disorders are unclear, the road to recovery is every bit as difficult to

assess. The Academy for Eating Disorders estimates that while nearly one-half of patients with

anorexia nervosa recover, thirty-three percent (33%) recover slightly, and twenty percent (20%) do

not improve. Similarly, approximately fifty percent (50%) of bulimic individuals completely recover,

thirty percent (30%) recover somewhat, and twenty percent (20%) continue to meet full criteria for

diagnosis (http://www.aedweb.org/eating_disorders/outcomes.cfm, 2007).

“Recovery” is not just maintaining a healthy weight, but also exhibiting a healthy attitude

about food and a lack of destructive behaviors. Many former sufferers say that they “feel they are

stronger people and more insightful about life in general and themselves in particular than they

would have been without the disorder” (http://www.anred.com/stats.html, 2007, para. 16). About

twenty percent (20%) of individuals with serious untreated eating disorders die. With treatment,

however, that number falls to two-three percent (2-3%) and recovery rate is sixty percent (60%)

(http://www.anred.com/stats.html, 2007). However, relapsing is a big concern for those who have

recovered from eating disorders. Deter & Herzog (1994) conducted a follow up study of eighty-four

anorexia nervosa patients after a twelve- year period, and found that about twenty-two percent

(22%) relapsed after remission.

 While numerous theories have been proposed to connect the behaviors of eating

disorders to substance abuse behaviors, Davis & Claridge (1998) confirmed that both

anorexic and bulimic patients received high scores on the Addiction Scale of the Eysenck

Personality Questionnaire. This test also showed addictiveness and obsessive-

compulsiveness is related simultaneously to weight preoccupation and excessive exercise

in both patient groups. With any addiction, the dysfunctional behavior may be no longer

apparent, but the attitudes and mentality of the addiction may still be present (Bamford,

Brown, Burditt, Meyer, Morrison, & Waller, 2003). If eating disorders are indeed

addictions, the same pattern should be found.

The following study examined the attitudes of individuals who have a history of one or more

eating disorders compared with those who have never had an eating disorder. The following

hypotheses were tested:

1) Women who claim to have struggled with an eating disorder in the past still show signs of

addiction in their attitude toward food, even though the behavior of the eating disorder is no

longer apparent.

2) Women with a history of anorexia will have the most negative attitudes toward food; women

with a history of bulimia will have a less negative attitude toward food, and women with a

history of binge eating disorder will display the least negative attitude toward food.

Method

Participants

This study was conducted using a convenience sample of women from southwest Michigan.
The majority of the participants were women in the college setting, where ages ranged from 18-60
years of age. Incomplete and/or inaccurate surveys were discarded on as-needed basis. All of the
participants who were approached participated voluntarily.
Apparatus

The data found in this study was obtained through a completion of a survey. (See Appendix
A). Questions were designed to compare views, attitudes, and behaviors of women who have had an
eating disorder to those who have no history of an eating disorder. Age, weight, and height were also
recorded.

Procedure

Surveys were distributed to a convenience sample of women around southwest Michigan.

Most of the surveys were distributed on college campuses. With the permission of the professors,
surveys were offered before and after classes. The participants returned the surveys upon
completion, and were unaware of the exact hypotheses being tested.
 Results

Collected surveys were organized first into two groups: (1) having recovered from an eating

disorder and (2) having no history of an eating disorder. (See Graph #1).

GRAPH # 1

Total Number of women surveyed: Recovery and No History

(n = 117)

18

99

1 Recovery 2 No History

Data analysis was based on pre-determined scores designed to quantify the answers given

concerning current attitudes women have toward food. Those women who have recovered from their

self-diagnosed eating disorder were then broken into smaller groups in order to make a comparison

among the different disorders. Out of those participants, forty-four percent (44%) claimed to have

had anorexia; twenty-two percent (22%) claimed both anorexia and bulimia; twenty-two percent

(22%) claimed solely bulimia; and the last twelve percent (12%) did not specify which disorder they

struggled with. (See Graph #2).

GRAPH # 2
 Participants with History of Eating Disorder by Type
(n = 18) 1
12% Anorexia
44%

22% 2
Anorexia/Bulimia

3
Bulimia

22%
4
Other

Multiple measures were used to test hypothesis #1, “women who claim to have struggled

with an eating disorder still show signs of addiction in their attitude toward food, even though the

behavior of the eating disorder is no longer apparent.” Addictive behavior toward food was

operationalized as the mean number of positive and negative words selected from the survey. The

difference of the mean values with regard to positive words (“nourishing,” “enjoyable,” “a normal

part of life,” and “comforting”) chosen between the two groups was not great enough to be of

statistical significance, the results were in the predicted direction (Mann-Whitney Rank Sum Test.

T= 862.000; P= .2777). (See Graph #3).

GRAPH # 3
 Mean Positive Attitude Score: Recovery vs No
History

3.1
2.99
3
2.9
2.8
2.7 2.647
2.6
2.5
2.4
Recovery No History

On the survey, the negative words included: “full of calories,” “fattening,” “sickening,” “bad,”

“disgusting,” and “a necessary evil.” The difference of the mean values of the negative words chosen

between the two groups was greater than would be expected by chance (T= 1325.500; P= .013). (See

Graph #4). Therefore, hypothesis one was supported.

GRAPH # 4

Mean Negative Attitude Score: Recovery vs No

History

2
1.76471

1.5

0.9
1

0.5

0
Recovery No history

The third indicator of continued addictive behavior after recovery was measured by the

question on the survey regarding feelings of guilt associated with consuming unhealthy food.

Although the difference in the mean value between those in recovery and those with no history was
not great enough to exclude the possibility that the difference is due to the variability of random

sampling (Mann-Whitney Rank Sum Test. T=1165.500; P= .210), the numbers were leaning in the

predicted direction. (See Graph #5).

GRAPH # 5

Mean "Guilt" Scores: Recovery vs No History

3.1
3.05
3
2.95
2.9
2.85
2.8
2.75
2.7
2.65
Recovery No History

Hypothesis #2, “women with a history of anorexia will have the most negative attitude

toward food; women with a history of bulimia will have a less negative attitude toward food, and

women with a history of binge eating disorder will display the least negative attitude toward food”

was not supported. After collecting the data it became obvious that a fourth category emerged:

women who claimed to be in recovery from both anorexia and bulimia. Therefore, the attitudes of all

four groups were compared to measure hypothesis two: (1) anorexia, (2) anorexia/bulimia, (3)

bulimia, and (4) other. The strongest scores on the negative attitude scale were groups (2)

anorexia/bulimia and (3) bulimia each with a mean value of 1.75. Group (1) anorexia, had a mean

value slightly lower at 1.625, and group (4) other, had a mean value of zero. (See Graph 6). The

difference of the mean values among these groups is not great enough to exclude the possibility that

the difference is due to random sampling (Kruskal-Wallis One Way Analysis of Variance on Ranks;

H= 2.454 with 3 degrees of freedom, P= 0.484).

GRAPH # 6
 Mean Negative Attitude Score by Group

2
1.75 1.75
1.625
1.5

0.5

0
0
Anorexia Anorexia/Bulemia Bulemia Other

Discussion

Hypothesis number one, “women who claim to have struggled with an eating disorder in the

past still show signs of addiction in their attitude toward food, even though the behavior of the eating

disorder is no longer apparent” was supported. In this study, “signs of addiction” specifically

included having a negative attitude toward food, much as a former alcoholic might have negative

associations for alcohol. The mean score of negative words chosen on the survey by those women in

recovery from an eating disorder, as compared to those women with no history of an eating disorder

was found to be significantly different. This indicates that, although women have recovered from the

dysfunctional behavior of an eating disorder, more attention may be needed to help them regain a

healthy mentality with regard to food. The mean scores of positive words chosen by the two groups

were not significantly different. This is interesting, because it suggests an inner conflict that women

recovering from eating disorder may vacillate between positive and negative emotions in reference to

food.

In the past decade, our understanding of eating disorders has grown. Stewart Cooper (1989)

suggests that eating disorders are very similar to other chemical addictions. He says, “The specifics

for eating disorders and chemical addictions do differ, but more in manifestation than in purpose”

(para. 10). This concept of addiction to food should not serve as a label for individuals with the
disorder to hide behind, but should be used as an aid to understanding eating disorders. Alcoholics

Anonymous, a well-known support group across America, is available for those who admit to having

an addiction to alcohol, and want to change. Among this group, it is said that, “once you are an

alcoholic, you are always an alcoholic”. Behind this statement are numerous people who have

learned that overcoming an addiction is a lifelong process. We understand that recovering alcoholics

may need support. We should extend similar support to those who are recovering from eating

disorders.

The second hypothesis, “women with a history of anorexia will have the most negative

attitude toward food; women with a history of bulimia will have a less negative attitude toward food,

and women with a history of binge eating will display the least negative attitude toward food” was

not supported. All the scores comparing negative words chosen on the survey were relatively similar

among the groups and the differences among them were not significant. The similarity among the

groups puts all of the different disorders on the same plane for comparison, since one group did not

display more negativity toward food. Therefore, similar kinds of support during recovery might be

effective. In other words, even though the dysfunctional behavior is different in the various

disorders, the post-recovery attitude is very likely the same.

Eating Disorders have a large genetic link, and it is common to see patterns of dysfunctional

eating or other addiction among the family members of someone with such a disorder. Pope &

Hudson (1982) suggest that up to fifty-three percent (53%) of individuals with reported eating

disorders have a blood relative with a similar disorder (as cited in Cooper, 1989, para. 6). With this

understanding, the next step for therapists and researchers should be to incorporate those

individuals who have a history of an eating disorder in their research. Since some individuals have a

predisposition toward these kinds of dysfunctional eating behaviors, the possibility exists that one’s

attitude and mentality change when the behavior has changed, but this is not likely. The entire

pattern and cycle of disorders concerning food can be better understood by taking a closer look at

what the lives of those individuals who struggled with eating disorders, months or years after they

stopped harming their body in some way. It seems impossible to understand eating disorders, and

how to help those people who struggle with them, without considering life after recovery.
 In this study, participants were limited to women. Researchers at Harvard University

Medical School suggest that up to twenty-five percent (25%) of adults with eating disorders are men

(http://www.anred.com/stats.html, 2007), hence further research should include more participants of

both genders. This research was based on a convenience sample of participants from a rural area

with a majority gathered from community college campuses, local universities, local restaurants, and

small churches. Therefore, a more representative sample of the population should be tested. In

addition, more questions should be asked on the survey to compensate for possible false answers

given because of reasons of social desirability. Simply having an anonymous survey is not enough, for

it seems hard for people to be honest even with themselves, with regard to whether or not they have

had an eating disorder. Therefore, with more participants and less room for dishonesty in the

answers a better idea of true attitudes may emerge. When we look at life after recovering from

eating disorders, we see that there are a lot of stones that still need to be turned. Trying to discover

why people struggle with eating disorders, and how to best help them, is important; however, it is

only half of the story. Now is the time to start looking at how the story ends.
 REFERENCES

Abrams, K., Allen, L.R. & Gray, J.J. (1993). Disordered eating attitudes and behaviors,
psychological adjustment, and ethnic identity: a comparison of black and white female
college students. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 14, 49-57.

Bamford, B., Brown, L., Burditt, E., Meyer, C., Morrison, T. & Waller, G. (2003). Socially driven
eating, and restriction in the eating disorders. Journal of Eating Behaviors, 4, 221-228.

Cooper, Stewart. (1989). Chemical dependence and eating disorders: are they really so different?
Journal of Counseling & Development, 68, 102-106.

Davis, C. & Claridge, D. (1998). The eating disorders as addiction: a psychobiological perspective.
Journal of Addictive Behavior, 23, 463-475.

Deter, H.C. & Herzog, W. (1994). Anorexia nervosa in a long-term perspective: results of the
Heidelberg-Mannheim Study. Journal of Psychosomatic Medicine, 56, 20-27.

Harrison, K. (1997). The Relationship between media consumption and eating disorders. Journal of
Communication, 47, 40-67.

Holland, A.J., Sicotte, N. & Treasure, J. (1988). Anorexia nervosa: evidence for a genetic basis.
Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 32, 561-571.

http://www.aedweb.org/eating_disorders/prevalence.cfm (2007) Prevalence of eating disorders.

Retrieved March 25, 2007.

http://www.aedweb.org/eating_disorders/outcomes.cfm (2007) Course and outcome of eating

disorders. Retrieved March 26, 2007.

http://www.anred.com/stats.html (2007) Statistics: how many people have eating disorders?

Retrieved March 20, 2007.

http://www.gurze.com/client/client_disorders/outcomes.cfm (2007) Homepage. Retrieved March 24,

2007.

http://www.licensedceu.com/course.php, (2007) Homepage. Retrieved May 7, 2007.

Liu, A. (2007). Gaining: The truth about life after eating disorders. New York: Warner Books.

Maine, M. (2000). Body Wars: Making peace with women’s bodies. Gurze Books. Retrieved from the
World Wide Web on March 27, 2007
http://www.eatingdisorderscoalition.org/reports/statistics.html.
 Appendix A

Age: _____ Height:

_____

Have you ever thought you had an eating disorder? Yes No

If yes, which one? ______________________

Have you ever been medically diagnosed as having an eating disorder?

If yes, which one? ________________________

If you have answered “yes” to either of the above questions,

Have you recovered from your eating disorder? Yes No

How long has it been since you have recovered from the eating disorder?

0-1 year 2-5 yeas 5-10 years

Have you ever experienced a relapse? Yes No

What is your current weight? ________

How many meals do you eat a day? __________

How many calories do you eat a day? _________

Please circle answer that best suits you

I feel guilty when I eat unhealthy food

Strongly Agree Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree

I sometimes wish I still had my eating disorder.

Strongly Agree Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree

Please circle all the words that come to mind when you think about food:

A necessary evil Full of calories

Disgusting Comforting
Fattening Enjoyable
Bad Normal part of life
Nourishing Sickening
 ATTITUDES TOWARD ENTERING ROMANTIC RELATIONSHIPS WITH PEOPLE WHO
HAVE A PHYSICAL OR PSYCHOLOGICAL PROBLEM:
PERSONAL EXPERIENCE, AGE, GENDER,
AND SPIRITUALITY/RELIGION AS EFFECTORS

Kimberly A. DeFields
Lake Michigan College

This research investigates the effects of personal experience, age, gender, and
spirituality/religion on willingness to enter romantic relationships with people who
have physical or psychological problems. The hypotheses tested were: 1) Men and
women will believe it is more acceptable to enter into a romantic relationship with an
individual who has a physical problem as opposed to a psychological problem; 2) Men
will be more accepting than women of a psychological problem in their romantic
partner or potential mate; 3) Men will be less accepting than women of a physical
problem in their romantic partner or potential mate; 4) Men and women will anticipate
more support from family and friends in having a romantic relationship with someone
who has a physical problem versus a psychological problem; 5) Men and women over
the age of thirty-five years old will be more accepting of physical and psychological
problems in a romantic partner or potential mate; 6) Men and women who define
themselves as “spiritual or religious” will be more accepting of physical and
psychological problems in a romantic partner or potential mate; 7) Men and women
who have personally dealt with a physical or psychological problem will be more
willing to enter into a romantic relationship with someone who has a physical or
psychological problem; and 8) Men and women who have previously been involved in a
romantic relationship with a partner who had a physical or psychological problem will
be more reluctant to enter into a romantic relationship with someone who has a
physical or psychological problem. Hypotheses 1, 4, 6, and 7 were supported.
Hypotheses 2, 3, 5, and 8 were not supported.

History suggests that negative attitudes toward people with disabilities are not a new

phenomenon (Vash, 2001, as cited in Smith, 2003). Since 1552 B.C., when mental retardation was

first mentioned in writing, differences in people, such as physical disabilities or ethnic traits, were

viewed as indicators of exiguity (http://www.mnddc.org/parallels/one/1.html). Aristotle (384-322

B.C.) felt laws should be written to disallow deformed children to live out normal lives. In Sparta, it

was required by law that disabled or ill babies be abandoned and left to die

(http://www.mnddc.org/parallels/one/1.html). Wealthy Romans, and later, royalty, often kept

physically or mentally disabled people, called “fools” or “court jesters,” for their personal

entertainment (http://www.mnddc.org/parallels/one/4.html). After the Crusades, “idiot cages” made

their appearance in town squares. Devised as a way to keep a watchful eye on people with disabilities,

these were actual cages and probably provided a bit of entertainment to passers-by

(http://www.mnddc.org/parallels/two/2.html).
 This shocking treatment of people with disabilities has continued into the modern era.

Readers of history are familiar with Hitler’s “Final Solution,” a program which resulted in the

killing of six million Jews during World War II (Friedlander, 1995). What most people do not know

is that an additional 200,000 or more people with physical and mental disabilities, as well as the

chronically ill, were systematically exterminated from 1939 to 1941 as part of what Hitler called the

“euthanasia” program (Gallagher, 1995). Gallagher goes on to suggest these same attitudes and

beliefs, which made such atrocities possible, are existent even today.

Modern efforts to de-stigmatize people with disabilities have been varied. For example,

legislation such as the Rehabilitation Act of 1973 and the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) of

1990 (Hergenrather & Rhodes, 2007), has attempted to decrease the stereotypes and prejudice faced

by members of this social group, although success appears to have been somewhat limited (Gordon,

Tantillo, Feldman, & Perrone, 2002). In other attempts, national organizations have made efforts to

educate the public, with mixed results. For instance, the National Alliance for the Mentally Ill

(NAMI) defines schizophrenia as “‘a disorder of the brain, caused by problems with brain chemistry

and brain structure,’” while the World Psychiatric Association defines it as “‘a brain disorder that

affects the chemistry, structure, and function of the brain’” (Dietrich, Matschinger, & Angermeyer,

2006, p.167). These seemingly opposite explanations can be confusing to the general population.

However, both are operating on the belief that if a behavior can be attributed to something outside

the person’s control, there will be less stigma attached. Ironically, some evidence suggests that

biogenetic causal explanations may be not only ineffective in reducing negative biases toward people

with mental illness, but may even contribute to the proliferation of such attitudes (Dietrich et al.,

2006).

Numerous studies have shown significant social stigma still exists toward people with

disabilities (Corrigan, Edwards, Green, Diwan, & Penn, 2001; Gordon et al., 2004). Kreitner &

Kinicki (2007), for example, report that people with disabilities often face challenges in becoming

employed. Furthermore, they point out that while approximately 75% of this segment of the

population is unemployed, fully two-thirds of these potential employees are willing and able to work.

Interestingly, data gathered in a Harris poll shows a higher rate of satisfaction by employers with
regard to their employees with disabilities. Because of this satisfaction, many employers are

supportive of policies meant to increase the number of employed people with disabilities (Kreitner &

Kinicki, 2007). This disparity, between the number of disabled persons who are actually employed

and the number of those who are fully willing and able to work, clearly indicates that America and

other Westernized cultures are ambivalent when it comes to their outlook on equal opportunities for

people with disabilities (Chen, Brodwin, Cardoso, & Chan, 2002). In other research, simply the

perception of a disability in a person can cause negative emotions, attitudes and opinions, as well as

various forms of nonverbal communication and behaviors, in person without disabilities (Ryan, 1971,

as cited in Park, Faulkner, & Schaller, 2003).

No discussion of social stigma and attitudes toward people with disabilities would be

complete without considering the phenomenon of social distance, defined as “the relative

unwillingness of one person to participate in relationships of varying degrees of intimacy with a

person who has a stigmatized identity" (Bowman, 1987 and Link, Phelan, Bresnahan, Stueve, &

Pescolido, 1999 both cited in Hergenrather & Rhodes, 2007, p. 67). Research seems to suggest that as

social distance increases, attitudes become more positive. In fact, supportive data shows more

positive attitudes in regard to working with someone who has a disability than in dating or marrying

a person with a disability (DeLoach, 1994; Grand, Bernier, & Strohmer, 1982; Karnilowicz,

Sparrow, & Shinkfield, 1994; Strohmer, Grand, & Purcell, 1994; Stovall & Sedlacek, 1983 as cited in

Hergenrather & Rhodes, 2007).

While society’s attitudes toward educational and vocational opportunities may have

improved, attitudes have remained virtually unmoved on the social and personal fronts (Chen et al.,

2002). Little research, for example, has been conducted to measure attitudes toward dating and

marrying people with disabilities. With a 19.3% rate of disability in the American population

(http://factfinder.census.gov/jsp/saff/ SAFFInfo.jsp?_pageId=tp4_disability), this is certainly an area

worthy of study.

Obviously, a number of factors are taken into consideration when selecting a person to date

or mate. Both sexes have a tendency to prefer partners who closely match their own level of

attractiveness (Feng, 2002 as cited in Wier, M., 2006; Berscheid et al., 1971 as cited in Nevid, J.,
1984). Feng goes on to speculate this may be due to an evolutionary desire to preserve both parties’

genes. Perina (2007) supports this point as well, reporting that our choice of partner is related to a

need to make as few mistakes as possible in regard to reproduction. Vash (2001, as cited in Smith,

2003) “suggests that the current exclusion of persons with disabilities may be based on human

insecurity manifested by the conscious avoidance of anyone who looks different, fearing that

inclusion of someone with a disability will somehow weaken the dependability of the group (p.1).”

This application of evolutionary theory may explain why Chinese and Taiwanese students have a

greater acceptance of people with physical disabilities than toward those with developmental or

psychological disabilities. Since Chinese people customarily view mental impairment and illness as a

shameful reflection on the family (Chen et. al., 2002), it could be assumed that mentally impaired

relatives are seen as a weak link in the family structure.

A review of various studies conducted on romantic relationships, mate selection, and

attitudes toward people with disabilities (Chen et al., 2002; Corrigan et al., 2001; Dietrich et al.,

2006; Friedlander, 1995; Gallagher, 1995; Gordon et al., 2004; Hergenrather & Rhodes, 2007; Nevid,

1984; Smith, 2003; and Wiegerink, Roebroeck, Donkervoort, Stam, & Cohen-Kettenis, 2006) reveals

that few studies have investigated attitudes concerning dating or marrying people who have

disabilities. However, recent research has suggested that people’s physical and psychological

differences or challenges affect their perceived attractiveness level by potential mates (Chen et al.,

2002; Gordon et al., 2004). Rank order preferences of disabilities, as reported by occupational

therapy students in Hong Kong, and measured by Tsang, Chan, & Chan (as cited in Chen et al.,

2002) suggests that people are most positive toward physical disabilities and least positive toward

mental illness and developmental disabilities.

Since little research has thus far been done in the area of attitudes toward romantic

relationships with people who have physical or psychological disabilities, this study will begin by

assessing people’s general attitudes, while considering several basic variables as possible effectors of

the attitudes as well. Therefore, this study will measure: 1) general attitudes toward entering

romantic relationships with people who have physical or psychological problems; 2) how personal

experience of these conditions, either within the participants themselves or in a previous partner,
affects these attitudes; 3) perceived in-group attitudes toward entering romantic relationships with a

person who has a physical or psychological problem; and 4) whether age, gender, or

spirituality/religion affect these attitudes. The following hypotheses were tested:

1. Men and women will believe it is more acceptable to enter into a

romantic relationship with an individual who has a physical problem as

opposed to a psychological problem.

2. Men will be more accepting than women of a psychological problem

in their romantic partner or potential mate.

3. Men will be less accepting than women of a physical problem in their

romantic partner or potential mate.

4. Men and women will anticipate more support from family and friends in

having a romantic relationship with someone who has a physical problem

versus a psychological problem.

5. Men and women over the age of thirty-five years old will be more accepting

of physical and psychological problems in a romantic partner or potential mate than

younger participants.

6. Men and women who define themselves as “spiritual or religious” will be

more accepting of physical and psychological problems in a romantic partner

or potential mate.

7. Men and women who have personally dealt with a physical or psychological

problem will be more willing to enter into a romantic relationship with

someone who has a physical or psychological problem.

8. Men and women who have previously been involved in a romantic relationship with a

partner who had a physical or psychological problem will be more reluctant to enter into

a romantic relationship with someone who has a physical or psychological problem.

Method

Participants
 Participants in this research project were a convenience sample comprised of people

encountered in Berrien, Cass, and Kalamazoo counties of Michigan. They were approached after a

church service in Coloma, Berrien County, throughout the Lake Michigan College-Napier Campus

building, in two private counseling centers, in a psychology class at Western Michigan University,

and through random contacts. Participants were 68 men, 73 women, and one unknown gender

(n=142), ranging in age from 18 to 73 years.

Attrition

Of the 142 surveys completed, one was completed by an underage male and, thus, discarded.

All remaining surveys were at least partially completed. Data provided was used as appropriate in

the assessment of the survey responses.

Apparatus

The instruments used were surveys created by the researcher. (See Appendix A). Each

survey consisted of seven questions, as well as information regarding age and gender. Questions one

through five were to be answered using a five-point Likert scale, ranging from “1/no” to “5/yes.”

Questions six and seven required participants to select an answer from four, fixed-response choices.

(NOTE: For purposes of this study, the terms “physical problem” and “psychological problem” were

not operationalized and left to the interpretation of the participants.)

Procedure

Surveys were administered and collected over a four-week period throughout Berrien, Cass,

and Kalamazoo counties in Michigan by the researcher, one male and one female counselor at both

counseling centers, and a female psychology student at Western Michigan University. In addition, a

few stacks of surveys were located in various departments of Lake Michigan College.

Results

Data from male (n=68), female (n=73), and unknown (n=1) participants was compiled jointly

and entered into a computer spreadsheet program (total n=142). Data was then separated and

analyzed according to the hypothesis being tested.

 Hypothesis one, “men and women will believe it is more acceptable to enter into a romantic

relationship with someone who has a physical problem as opposed to a psychological problem,” was

tested by assessing participants’ responses to questions one and three on the survey. A mean score of

3.633803 was found for participants’ willingness to “enter into a romantic relationship with someone

who has a physical problem.” A mean score of 2.704225 was found for participants’ willingness to

“enter into a romantic relationship with someone who has a psychological problem.” A Mann-

Whitney Rank Sum Test determined a statistically significant difference (T=24154.00 n(small)=142

n(big)=142, P=<0.001) existed between the two sets of scores; therefore, hypothesis one was

supported. (See Graph 1).

Willingness to Enter Romantic Relationship:

Physical vs Psychological Problem

4 3.633803
3.5
3 2.704225
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
Physical Problem Psychological Problem

Graph 1

Hypothesis two, “men will be more accepting than women of a psychological problem in

their romantic partner or potential mate,” was tested by separating and analyzing responses to

question three by gender. A mean score of 2.6990 was found for women, while a mean score of 2.8240

was found for men. A Mann-Whitney Rank Sum Test determined a statistically significant difference

(T=4966.50 n(small)=68 n(big)=73, P=0.5690) did not exist between the two sets of scores; therefore,

hypothesis two was not supported. (See Graph 2).

 Hypothesis three, “men will be less accepting than women of a physical problem in their

romantic partner or potential mate,” was tested by separating and analyzing responses to question

one by gender. A mean score of 3.5340 was found for women, while a mean score of 3.7500 was found

for men. A Mann-Whitney Rank Sum Test determined a statistically significant difference

(T=5125.50 n(small)=68 n(big)=73, P=0.2200) did not exist between the two sets of scores; therefore,

hypothesis three was not supported. (See Graph 2).

Female vs Male Participants' Willingness to Enter

Romantic Relationship with a Person who has
Physical vs Psychological problem

4 3.534 3.75

2.699 2.824
3

0
Physical problem Psychological Problem
Female Male Female Male

Graph 2

Hypothesis four, “men and women will anticipate more support from family and friends in

having a romantic relationship with someone who has a physical problem versus a psychological

problem,” was tested by assessing participants’ responses to questions two and four on the survey. A

mean score of 4.204225 was found for the anticipation of “support from family and friends in having

a romantic relationship with someone who has a physical problem.” A mean score of 3.197183 was

found for the anticipation of “support from family and friends in having a romantic relationship with

someone who has a psychological problem.” A Mann-Whitney Rank Sum Test determined a

statistically significant difference (T=24332.500 n(small)=142 n(big)=142, P=<0.001) existed between

the two sets of scores; therefore, hypothesis four was supported. (See Graph 3).
 Support for Romantic Relationship: Physical
Problem vs Psychological Problem

5
4.204225
4
3.197183
3

0
Physical Problem Psychological problem

Graph 3

Hypothesis five, “men and women over the age of thirty-five years old will be more accepting

of physical and psychological problems in a romantic partner or potential mate than younger

participants,” was tested by separating the data by age and assessing participants’ responses to

questions one and three on the survey. A mean score of 3.12844 was found for participants under the

age of thirty-five years old, while a mean score of 3.387097 was found for participants over the age of

thirty-five years old. A Mann-Whitney Rank Sum Test determined a statistically significant

difference (T=9489.000 n(small)=62 n(big)=218, P=0.167) did not exist between the two sets of

numbers; therefore, hypothesis five was not supported. However, results were in the predicted

direction. (See Graph 4).

Willingness to Enter a Romantic Relationship

by Age

3.5
3.387097
3.4

3.3

3.2 3.12844
3.1

3
2.9
35 and under Over 35
 Graph 4

Hypothesis six, “men and women who define themselves as “spiritual or religious” will be

more accepting of physical and psychological problems in a romantic partner or potential mate,” was

tested by assessing participants’ responses to question five on the survey. Likert scores of one and

two were classified “not spiritual/religious.” Likert scores of four and five were classified

“spiritual/religious.” Scores of three were considered neutral and not included in the analysis of data.

A mean score of 2.70 was found for participants’ who consider themselves nonreligious or spiritual.

A mean score of 3.285 was found for participants who consider themselves religious or spiritual. A

Mann-Whitney Rank Sum Test determined a statistically significant difference did exist (T=5336.500

n(small)=50 n(big)=214, P=0.008) between the two sets of numbers; therefore, hypothesis six was

supported. (See Graph 5). Additionally, a Two Way Analysis of Variance determined there was no

statistically significant interaction between gender and religion for physical problems (P=0.271) nor

for psychological problems (P=.0938). Although not addressing a specific hypothesis, it was

interesting to note that upon further analysis of the data, religious/spiritual participants showed a

significantly greater acceptance of dating an individual with a physical problem than for dating an

individual with a psychological problem (T=14071.00 n(small)=107 n(big), P=0.001). (See Graph 5a).

Willingness to Enter Romantic Relationship:

Non-religious vs Religious

3.5 3.285

3 2.7
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
Non-religious/spiritual Religious/spiritual

Graph 5
 Religious/spiritual Participants Willingness to
Enter Relationship with a person with
Physical vs Psychological Problem

5
3.822429907
4
2.747663551
3

0
Physical Problem Psychological Problem

Graph 5a

Hypothesis seven, “men and women who have personally dealt with a physical or

psychological problem will be more willing to enter into a romantic relationship with someone who

has a physical or psychological problem,” was tested by separating and analyzing responses to

questions one and three, based on the participants’ response to question six on the survey. All

participants who chose “yes” answers to question six were included in one group, while participants

who responded “no” were assigned to a second group. A mean score of 3.583 was found for the

willingness of participants with physical or psychological problems to enter into a romantic

relationship with a person who has a physical or psychological problem. A mean score of 3.0143 was

found for the willingness of participants with no physical or psychological problems to enter into a

romantic relationship with a person who does have physical or psychological problems. A Mann-

Whitney Rank Sum Test determined a statistically significant difference (T=11972.500 n(small)=72

n(big)=210, P=0.003) did exist between the two sets of numbers; therefore, hypothesis seven was

supported. (See Graph 6).

 Relative Willingness to Enter into a Romantic
Relationship with a Person who has Problem:
Those with Problems Themselves vs Those
Without

3.8
3.583
3.6
3.4
3.2 3.0143
3
2.8
2.6
People with problems People without problems

Graph 6

Hypothesis eight, “Men and women who have previously been involved in a romantic

relationship with a partner who had a physical or psychological problem will be more reluctant to

enter into a romantic relationship with someone who has a physical or psychological problem,” was

tested by separating and analyzing responses to questions one and three, based on the participants’

response to question seven on the survey. All participants who chose “yes” answers to question seven

were included in one group, while participants who responded “no” were assigned to a second group.

A mean score of 3.46875 was found for the willingness of participants to enter into a romantic

relationship with a person who has a physical or psychological problem, when they have done so in

the past. A mean score of 2.95569 was found for the willingness of participants to enter into a

romantic relationship, with a person who has physical or psychological problems, when they have not

done so in the past. A Mann-Whitney Rank Sum Test determined a statistically significant difference

(T=20084.500 n(small)=128 n(big)=158, P=0.001) did exist between the two sets of numbers; however,

it was in the direction opposite that of the hypothesis, revealing that people who have had a romantic

relationship in the past with an individual who had a physical or psychological problem are more

willing to do so, than people who have not had a romantic relationship with an individual with a

physical or psychological problem. Therefore, hypothesis eight was not supported. (See Graph 7).
 Relative Willingness to Enter a Romantic
Relationship with a Person who has a Problem:
Those who Have Dated Someone with a Problem
vs Those Who have Not

3.6 3.46875
3.4
3.2
2.95569
3
2.8
2.6
Have Dated... Have Not Dated...

Graph 7

Discussion

The first hypothesis, “men and women will believe it is more acceptable to enter into a

romantic relationship with someone who has a physical problem as opposed to a psychological

problem,” was supported (T=24154.00 n(small)=142 n(big)=142, P=<0.001) . One male participant

qualified his answer to question three by writing, “Always date someone crazier than you.” His

answer to question seven indicated he has a psychological problem. Additionally, one female

participant also qualified her answers with written comment. For question one, regarding physical

problems, she wrote, “Probably not if the problem is ED [erectile dysfunction].” For question three,

regarding psychological problems, she wrote, “It depends on the problem.” Interestingly, her

comment seemed to indicate very definite and specific ideas of what is acceptable when it comes to

physical problems. When it comes to psychological problems, however, her comment seemed to

indicate more uncertainty and left much more room for rejection, based on the specific problem of

an individual. Her answer to question seven also indicated she has a psychological problem, as well as

a physical problem.

Previous research by Socall and Holtgraves (1992) supports these results, finding that
participants were much more likely to reject a mentally ill person behaving in a particular manner,

than a physically ill person behaving in an identical manner, thereby indicating a stronger prejudice

toward psychological disabilities than toward physical disabilities, when all other factors are equal.

While it is encouraging to see much progress has been made in the acceptance of individuals with

physical problems, the prejudice that still clearly exists toward individuals with psychological

problems is disappointing.

For the second hypothesis, “men will be more accepting than women of a psychological

problem in their romantic partner or potential mate,” results were in the predicted direction, as men

were slightly more accepting than women of a psychological problem. However, there was not a

statistically significant difference; therefore, hypothesis two was not supported (T=4966.500

n(small)=68 n(big)=73, P=0.2200) . These results are actually in conflict with those of Hergenrather

& Rhodes (2007) and Gordon, Minnes, & Holden (1990), as cited in Hergenrather & Rhodes, 2007),

who found a more positive attitude toward people with disabilities in female college students than in

male college students. The difference in the results of this present study may be explained by the

survey questions, which did not operationalize “physical problem,” “psychological problem,” or

“romantic relationship.” In both studies mentioned above, the term “disability” was used, rather

than “problem,” and in some cases, was specifically defined, while the terms “marriage” and/or

“dating” were used, rather than “romantic relationship.”

The third hypothesis, “men will be less accepting than women of a physical problem in their

romantic partner or potential mate,” was not supported (T=5125.00 n(small)=68 n(big)=73, P=.2200).

Surprisingly, male participants reported a higher rate of acceptance toward people with physical

problems, as well as psychological problems. Prior research has suggested men place more

importance on physical attractiveness than women when selecting a romantic partner (Nevid, 1984).

Therefore, it was interesting to note that in this study, men were more accepting of both physical and

psychological problems.

The fourth hypothesis, “men and women will anticipate more support from family and

friends in having a romantic relationship with someone who has a physical problem versus a

psychological problem,” was supported by a statistically significant difference (T=24332.500

n(small)=142 n(big)=142, P=<0.001). This is consistent with the results of hypothesis one, in that both

women and men are more accepting of physical problems than psychological problems in people with

whom they anticipate a romantic relationship. The results for hypothesis three could also be

explained by the participants’ desires to have in-group approval, by family and friends, of their own

personal viewpoints regarding romantic relationships with people who have physical or psychological

problems. An alternative explanation could be that participants were merely projecting their own

feelings in anticipation of family and friends’ responses.

For hypothesis five, “men and women over the age of thirty-five years old will be more

accepting of physical and psychological problems in a romantic partner or potential mate than

younger participants,” results were in the predicted direction, as men and women over the age of 35

years old were slightly more accepting of having a romantic relationship with someone who has a

physical problem than with someone who has a psychological problem. However, a statistically

significant difference was not found to exist (T=9489.000 n(small)=62 n(big)=218, P=0.167);

therefore, hypothesis five was not supported. In testing this hypothesis, the experimenter expected

age and experience to mellow negative feelings toward people different from one's self, but the results

would seem to indicate attitudes remain generally constant throughout one's lifetime. (See Graph 8).

Willingness to Enter Romantic Relationship:

Physical vs Psychological
by Age

5
3.903226
4 3.568807
2.688073 2.870968
3
2
1
0
Physical Problem Psychological Problem
Under 35 Over35 Under 35 Over 35

Graph 8
 The sixth hypothesis, “men and women who define themselves as “spiritual or religious” will

be more accepting of physical and psychological problems in a romantic partner or potential mate

than those who do not,” was supported by a statistically significant difference (T=5336.500

n(small)=50 n(big)=214, P=0.008). These results were expected and suggest religion and spirituality

affect attitudes toward having romantic relationships with people who have physical or psychological

problems.

Results for hypothesis seven, “men and women who have personally dealt with a physical or

psychological problem will be more willing to enter into a romantic relationship with someone who

has a physical or psychological problem,” did show a statistically significant difference (T=11972.500

n(small)=72 n(big)=210, P=0.003) and therefore, was supported. Possible explanations for this could

be empathy, in-group identification (Stangor, 2000), or familiarity (Corrigan et al., 2001).

Hypothesis eight, “men and women who have previously been involved in a romantic

relationship with a partner who had a physical or psychological problem will be more reluctant to

enter into a romantic relationship with someone who has a physical or psychological problem,” was

clearly not supported (T=20084.500 n(small)=128 n(big)=158, P=0.001). This supports prior research

that indicates familiarity with disabilities has an inverse affect on negative attitudes toward

disabilities (Holmes et al., 1999 as cited in Corrigan, 2001, p. 220).

The results of this study are somewhat encouraging, as the data suggests attitudes have

improved with regard to the acceptance of people with physical problems, specifically within the

social context of dating or marriage. Conversely, minimal progress appears to have been made with

regard to the acceptance of people with psychological problems. Chen et al. (2002) asserts,

For full acceptance of people who have disabilities into mainstream culture, there needs to

be positive attitudes not only in areas such as employment and education, but within the

interpersonal domains, including social and personal relationships. Negative attitudes

toward dating and marriage indicate that persons with disabilities still are not fully accepted

within society. When researchers find positive attitudes in these areas, perhaps full inclusion

and integration will have become realized. (p. 10)

Progress made toward people with physical disabilities is not enough. Society needs to progress in
their attitudes toward psychological disabilities as well.

Several variables may have affected the outcome of this study:

1) The terms “physical problem,” “psychological problem,” and “romantic

relationship” were not operationalized, leaving the interpretation up to the

participants. While this was done intentionally, in the hopes of pulling intuitive

answers from the survey takers, it also created more questions and less clarity in the

analysis of the results. Operationalizing the terms, or studying specific problems or

disabilities, would improve the accuracy of the results.

2) This study used a convenience sample of 142 participants from a fairly rural

area. A larger study, including participants from other regional and demographic

areas, would provide data more representative of the population.

3) The survey instrument required self-scoring. Therefore, some of the data

collected may not be accurate. Participants may have under- or over- assessed their

attitudes and/or those of their family and friends. They may also have been doubtful

or unclear about their answers to some of the questions, or even the questions

themselves.

4) Social desirability may also be a factor in survey responses. Participants may

have consciously or unconsciously answered the questions in such a way as to be

perceived more favorably by the survey administrators.

Research of attitudes toward entering romantic relationships with people who have physical

or psychological problems has been extremely limited to date. Clearly, there is a need for more to be

done in this area. Future research should take a deeper look at the issues presented in this study. A

study of how people define words or terms, such as “physical problem” or “psychological problem,”

and what conditions or illnesses would be included under such labels, would more clearly illustrate

the perspective and attitudes of the participants. Furthermore, studying attitudes toward particular

physical and psychological problems, such as bipolar disorder or quadriplegia, would be helpful as

well, in identifying and addressing specific negative attitudes and their causes. In addition, more

questions should focus on familiarity and in-group effect on attitudes. This data would be helpful in
developing a better understanding of what influences society’s acceptance of people who have

physical or psychological problems. Finally, research in the future should also include the study of

people who have physical or psychological problems and their attitudes toward marriage and dating.

References

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disabilities in the social context of dating and marriage: A comparison of

American, Taiwanese, and Singaporean college students. Journal of Rehabilitation,

68, 5-11.

Corrigan, P. W., Edwards, A. B., Green, A., Diwan, S. L., & Penn, D. L. (2001).

Prejudice, social distance, and familiarity with mental illness. Schizophrenia

Bulletin, 27, 219-225.

Dietrich, S., Matschinger, H., & Angermeyer, M. C. (2006). The relationship between

biogenetic causal explanations and social distance toward people with mental

disorders: Results from a population survey in Germany. The International Journal of

Social Psychiatry, 52, 166-174.

Friedlander, H. (1995). The origins of Nazi genocide: From euthanasia to the final

solution. Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press.

Gallagher, H. G. (1995). “Slapping up spastics”: The persistence of social attitudes

toward people with disabilities. Issues in Law & Medicine, Spring95, 10, 401-415.

Gordon, P. A., Tantillo, J. C., Feldman, D., & Perrone, K. (2004). Attitudes regarding

interpersonal relationships with persons with mental illness and mental retardation.

Journal of Rehabilitation, 70, 50-56.

Hergenrather, K., & Rhodes, S. (2007). Exploring undergraduate student attitudes

toward persons with disabilities: Application of the disability social relationship

scale. Rehabilitation Counseling Bulletin, 50, 66-75. Retrieved Thursday, March

18, 2007 from the Health Source: Nursing/Academic Edition database.

http://www.mnddc.org/parallels/ (2007). The Minnesota Governor’s Council

on Developmental Disabilities website. Retrieved March 22, 2007.

http://www.bcm.edu/crowd/national_study/RELATION.html (1999). National Study of

Women with Physical Disabilities: Relationships. Retrieved February 8, 2007.

Kreitner, R. & Kinicki, A. (2007). Organizational Behavior/Seventh Edition. New York:

McGraw-Hill/Irwin. pp. 219-220.

Nevid, J. S. (1984). Sex differences in factors of romantic attraction. Sex Roles: A

Journal of Research, 11, 401-411.

Park, J. H., Faulkner, J., & Schaller, M. (2003). Evolved disease-avoidance processes and

contemporary anti-social behavior: Prejudicial attitudes and avoidance of people with

physical disabilities. Journal of Nonverbal Behavior, 27, 65-87.

Perina, K. (2007, Jan/Feb). Love’s loopy logic. Psychology Today, 40, 68-77.

Simpson, J. & Gangestad, S. (1992). Sociosexuality and romantic partner choice,

Journal of Personality, 60, 31-51.

Smith, D. (2003). Attitudes towards persons with disabilities: Selected college major

vs. personal degree of familiarity. The Lake Michigan College Journal of

Psychology, 11, 1-21.

Socall, D. W. & Holtgraves, T. (1992). Attitudes toward the mentally ill: The effects of

label and beliefs. The Sociological Quarterly, 33, 435-445.

Stangor, C. (Ed.). (2000). Stereotypes and prejudice: Essential readings. Philadelphia:

Taylor & Francis.

Wiegerink, D., J. H. G. Roebroeck, M. E., Donkervoort, M., Stam, H. J., &

Cohen-Kettenis, P. T. (2006). Social and sexual relationships of adolescents and

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Appendix A

AGE ____________ Please mark an “X” on the line that most closely
matches your answer to the question.
GENDER _____________ Thank you for your participation in this survey!

CONFIDENTIAL SURVEY

Would you enter into a romantic relationship with someone who has a physical problem?

___________ ___________ ___________ ___________ ___________

NO UNSURE YES

Do you think your friends and family would be supportive if you entered into a romantic relationship
with someone who has a physical problem?

___________ ___________ ___________ ___________ ___________

NO UNSURE YES

Would you enter into a romantic relationship with someone who has a psychological problem?
___________ ___________ ___________ ___________ ___________
NO UNSURE YES

Do you think your friends and family would be supportive if you entered into a romantic relationship
with someone who has a psychological problem?

___________ ___________ ___________ ___________ ___________

NO UNSURE YES

Do you consider yourself to be a religious or spiritual person?

___________ ___________ ___________ ___________ ___________

NO UNSURE YES

Are you a person with a physical or psychological problem?

____________ YES, I have a physical problem.

____________ YES, I have a psychological problem.

____________ YES, I have both a physical problem and a psychological problem.

____________ NO, I do not have either type of problem.

Have you ever been in a romantic relationship with someone who has a physical or psychological
problem?

____________ YES, a physical problem.

____________ YES, a psychological problem.

____________ YES, both a physical problem and a psychological problem.

____________ NO, never.

 Men’s Attitudes towards Women’s Body Size: History of
Eating Disorders as a Factor

Cody Brown

Lake Michigan College

This research examined the female body type men most prefer, and
their willingness to enter into a relationship with a woman previously
overweight or underweight. The hypotheses tested were: 1) Men will
in fact indicate that they do prefer a female body type that is thinner
than the norm. 2) The stigma of the overweight female is so strong that
men will be reluctant to enter into a relationship with an attractive
woman who used to be overweight but is no longer. None of the
hypotheses were supported.

It is easy to understand why so many women have problems with their eating. Virtually

everywhere one looks, whether on TV, billboards, magazines, or the Internet, female beauty is

portrayed as synonymous with being young and impossibly thin. The pressure on women to be thin

starts at an early age. For example, research suggests that for girls aged 10-13 years, the pressure to

be thin, which they perceive as coming from the media, can lead to increased body dissatisfaction

(Blowers, Loxton, Flesser, Occhipinti, & Dawe, 2003).

Another factor that must be considered when investigating the causes of eating disorders is

the role of men’s attitudes towards women’s weight. The Western ideal of female beauty, while not

universally shared, exerts a significant influence on women around the world. American culture

seems to require women to posses a trinity of traits in order to be considered attractive; youth,

height, and thinness (Hargreaves & Tiggemann, 2004). Yet while the attractive American man might

be described as tall, muscular and athletic, American culture accepts a much broader range of body

types and characteristics as attractive for men (Humphreys & Paxton, 1999). In her book, The

Beauty Myth, author Naomi Wolf claims that American women are under significant pressure from

men to be thin (Wolf, 1991). Rozin & Fallon (1988) found that women whose ages spanned two

generations believed that the men in their corresponding generations preferred much thinner women

than these men actually claimed to prefer. Indeed, in comparing men’s preferences along racial lines,

African-American men appear to prefer a heavier female figure than their White American
counterparts (Freedman, Carter, Sbrocco, & Gray, 2004). On the other hand, Benninghoven,

Raykowski, Solzbacher, Kunzendorf, & Jantschek (2006) compared females with anorexia nervosa

and bulimia nervosa to females without eating disorders, in terms of their perceptions of society’s

ideal female body. They also measured men’s perceptions of what they thought constituted the most

attractive female body type. The estimation of society’s ideal female body type by all three female

groups did not differ from men’s perceptions of the most attractive female body. This study poses an

interesting question: if men do prefer a female body type that is unhealthy for women, are men, in

fact, contributing to the epidemic of eating disorders among women?

In an attempt to address this question, two hypotheses were tested in this study: Hypothesis

1. Men will in fact indicate that they do prefer a female body type that is thinner than the norm;

Hypothesis 2. The stigma of the overweight female is so strong that men will be reluctant to enter

into a relationship with an attractive woman who used to be overweight but is no longer.

METHOD

Participants

Participants in this research project consisted of a convenience sample of 60 men from retail

establishments and academic institutions in southwest lower Michigan, including Harding’s Market

in Buchanan, and the Niles, Benton Harbor, and South Haven campuses of Lake Michigan College.

Men ranged in age from 18 to 60 years old.

Apparatus

The data in this study was collected by means of a survey. (See Appendix A). The questions

on the survey were designed to identify the degrees to which men were willing to be in a relationship

with women who were previously overweight or underweight. The survey also assessed the female

body type men most prefer.

Procedure

Surveys were distributed both in person and through third parties, at the aforesaid

establishments in southwest lower Michigan. Participants were told that the surveys were being used

to gather data for a research class at Lake Michigan College. Participants were unaware of the

hypotheses being tested, and they immediately returned the completed surveys.
 Results

Data from participant surveys (n=60) were complied together.

Hypothesis 1, “men in fact do prefer a female body that is thinner than the norm,” was

tested by tabulating participant answers to survey question #2. Overall, most participants (n=42;

87%) indicated that they in fact preferred a female body type that was average or above average

weight. (See Graph 1). Hypothesis 1 was not supported.

Graph 1

Types of Female Bodies Men Most Prefer

50
42
40

30

20
9
10 1
8
0
0
re
fig u
Fu ll rage
Ave in
y Th
Ve r

Hypothesis 2, “the stigma of the overweight female will be so strong that men will be

reluctant to enter into a relationship with a woman who used to be overweight but is not anymore”

was tested by tabulating participant answers to survey question #3, a five-point Likert scale, where 5

indicated “definitely would” and 1 indicated “definitely would not”. In total, most participants
(n=42; 78%) indicated that they would not be reluctant to enter into a relationship with a woman

who used to be overweight. (See Graph 2). Hypothesis 2 was not supported.

Graph 2

Mean Willingness Score for Dating Formerly

Overweight vs Formerly Underweight
1,
4.333333
4.35
4.3
4.25
4.2
3, 4.15
4.15
4.1
4.05 Discussion
Overweight Underweight

The hypothesis that “men will in fact indicate that they do prefer a female body type that is

thinner than the norm” was not supported. Indeed, the vast majority of participants preferred

average – sized women. The second hypothesis, that “the stigma of the overweight female will be so

strong that men will be reluctant to enter into a relationship with a woman who used to be

overweight but is not anymore” also was not supported. Again, the resounding majority of

participants responded that they ‘definitely’ or ‘probably’ would ask a formerly overweight woman

out on a date. Interestingly, when the prospective woman was previously underweight, participants

also answered in the affirmative, but to a slightly smaller degree. Rozin & Fallon (1988) found that

mothers and daughters believed that men in their respective generations preferred much thinner

women than these men actually did. Therefore, the results of this research are consistent with the

findings of Rozin & Fallon (1988).

Obviously, there are several factors that may have contributed to and restricted the results

of this research. Participants were drawn from a convenience sample, and that sample consisted of

only 60 participants. A study with more participants would strengthen the integrity of the results.

Also, differences in race and ethnicity were not accounted for. Including these variables, while not

changing the results, could serve to highlight different preferences among the races.
 But perhaps the survey questions themselves were the primary factor influencing the results.

Due to the frankness of the questions, and the sensitive subject matter, the issue of social desirability

must be taken into account. Most people will avoid being seen in an unflattering light – that is, most

people will try to avoid looking brazenly prejudiced. In fact, several potential participants refused to

answer the survey when they read the questions, even after they were assured of confidentiality and

anonymity. Certainly researchers in the future should try to create an instrument that poses the

questions in a less obvious way to the participants. Eating disorders among women are a serious

issue. It is important that we understand that it is not just a women’s issue.

 References

Benninghoven, D., Raykowski, L., Solzbacher, S., Kunzendorf, S. & Jantschek, G. (2006). Body

images of patients with anorexia nervosa bulimia nervosa and female control subjects: A

comparison with male ideals of female attractiveness. University of Schlewwig-Holstein,

Campus Lubeck, Department for Psychosomatic Medicine and Psychotherapy, Germany.

Blowers, L. C., Loxton, N. J., Grady-Flesser, M., Occhipinti, S. & Dawe, S. (2004). The relationship

between sociocultural pressure to be thin and body dissatisfaction in preadolescent girls.

Eating Behaviors.

Freedman, R. E. K., Carter, M. M., Sbrocco, T. & Gray, J. J. (2006). Do men hold African –

American and Caucasian women to different standards of beauty? Eating Behaviors.

doi::10.1016/j.eatbeh.2006.11.008

Hargreaves, D. A. & Tiggemann, M. (2004). Idealized media images and adolescent body image:

“Comparing” boys and girls. Body Image, vol. 1, pgs. 351-361.

Humphreys, P. & Paxton, S. J. (2004). Impact of exposure to idealized male images on adolescent

boys’ body image. Body Image, vol. 1, pgs 253-266.

Rozin, P. & Fallon, A. (1988). Body image, attitudes to weight, and misperceptions of figure

preferences of the opposite sex: A comparison of men and women in two generations.

Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 97, 342-345.

Wolf, Naomi. (1991). The Beauty Myth. New York: Harper Collins.
 Appendix A

1. Age ______________

2. Personally, I prefer women who are:

Full-figured__________Average_________Very Thin
5 4 3 2 1

3. Suppose you meet a woman who you find attractive. You’re thinking about asking her out. You then
learn that she used to be OVERWEIGHT, because she had an eating disorder. Would you still ask her
out?

Definitely________Probably________Not_________Probably__________Definitely
would sure not would not

4. Suppose you meet a woman who you find attractive. You’re thinking about asking her out. You then
learn that she used to be UNDERWEIGHT, because she had an eating disorder. Would you still ask her
out?

Definitely________Probably________Not_________Probably__________Definitely
would sure not would not

5. Have you ever dated a woman with an eating disorder?