Placer Deposits
Placer Deposits
Placer Deposits
Contents:
1. Introduction
2. Classification
3. Formation of placers
4. Conditions favourable for placer deposit development
5. Factors controlling formation of placers
6. Ages of placers
7. Mineral concentration and accumulation
8. World Distribution of placer mineral deposits
9. Indian distribution
10. Conclusions
Objectives: The objectives of learning this module are to understand the placer deposits by studying their
characteristic, physical properties, classification, formation of placers, factors that are controlling the
formation of placers, world distribution and Indian distribution of placer deposits in particular.
1.0 Introduction
Placers are very important economic minerals found in the near shore environment. These are detrital minerals
which have been transported to their sites of deposition, in a particular form. Placers are mineral deposits that
have been formed by the mechanical concentration of detrital mineral particles in subaqueous
environments.They occur, in beaches, rivers, dunes and offshore areas. The minerals that constitute the placer
deposits are resistant to chemical breakdown and have high density and durability. Placer minerals include
elements in their native state such as gold, platinum and diamond, and resistant minerals such as cassiterite,
ilmenite, rutile, zircon, monazite, garnet, magnetite and corundum.
Most of placer minerals occur within a few kilometers of their source. Thus marine placers are confined to
near shore zone. However, placers also occur on ancient submerged beaches or in drowned valleys far away
from shore line or on raised beaches.
The most commonly used definitions of placers refer to the concentration of valuable detrital minerals formed
by sedimentary processes. Theses minerals are distinguished by the relatively high specific gravity that serves
as the principal cause of concentration.
1.1 Mineral sands: Deposits of mineral sands are gaining economic importance on many occasions. Today
people concentrate on mineral placer deposits occurring along beaches. Most of the mineral sands are
exploited for titanium in the form of rutile and ilmenite, with by products of zircon and commonly kyanite,
sillimanitestaurolite, or garnet. At one time, the mineral sands were shipped as concentrates of three
naturally occurring minerals like rutile, ilmenite, and leucoxene.
1.2 Economic importance: The economic mineral in placers are those with a specific gravity greater than
2.65, i.e., that of the main gangue mineral, quartz. Individual placer deposits are exploited for gold, platinum
group minerals, cassiterite and diamonds. Each of these may also occur as an accessory,as by-product
concentration with another dominant mineral. Less commonly, placers also include sheelite, wolframite,
bismuthinite, native copper, cinnabar, magnetite, chromite, anatase, columbite-tantalite and pyrochlore. Since
the 1970’s, Australia has overtaken India and the United States and now dominates the world’s production of
ilmenite, together with rutile.
1.3 Historical importance: Placers have been mined on all continents except Antarctica. Historically, placers
have yielded a very significant part of the world’s total supply of gold, platinum, tin, and diamonds.
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They are presently the source of most of the world’s titanium. With the exception of mineral sands, the
productive role of placers declined considerably during the 20th century and continues to decrease overall as
reserves diminish. Diamond mining especially in the environment, being the only sector exhibiting growth in
recent years.
The history of placer deposits as a source of economic minerals began with the discovery of monazite in the
beach sands of Manavalakurichi (Tipper, 1909). This was first worked in 1911 and rapidly developed with the
establishment of Ti02 (titanium) pigment industry in Europe and America. In early 1930's, India accounted for
80% of the total ilmenite production in the world. However, by the 1950's the ilmenite production marked a
sudden decrease in the country. This owes, in part to the discoveries of new deposits in Australia and Canada
and the presence of undesirable impurity like chromium and ferric iron in Indian ilmenite. Many features of
Placer deposits and their evaluation were known a century ago.
2.0 Classification of placers: Placers may be classified according to the main mineral constituent, the
physical and chemical properties of the mineral, age, size, tectonic history, means of formation, or
geomorphological form. Kazakevich proposed a classification based on placer’s genesis. Lindgren gave due
credits to geological location and tectonic history.
2.3Folk (1971) has divided the heavyminerals into three groups, based on their physical and chemical
naturenamely, opaques, ultra-stables and meta-stables.
2.4Routhier (1963) classified Placers into a simpler type of subdivisions. Placers are classified into (1)
eluvial, (2) alluvial or fluvial, (3) eolian, (4)beach placers, and (5) fossil placers based on their mode of
transportation and site of deposition.
1) Eluvial placer: A placer deposit that is concentrated near the decomposed outcrop of the source.This is the
embryonic stage in the development of placers.
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2. Alluvial placers: Placers or its associated valuable mineral, formed by the action running water. The heavy
minerals are introduced into the fluvial system by the action ofrunoff, gravity or by the erosion process of
streams themselves.
3. Eolian deposits: They occur in arid or semiarid regions, where the influence of wind is strong and
sufficient vegetation does not exist to cover the soil.
4. Beach placers: Such placers are formed by the interact on of the terrestrial processes with the coastal
hydrodynamics
5. Fossil placers: Placers formed in the geologic past, which were removed from the sub aerial environment
by factors like changes in climate and/or epirogenic movements and eustasy are called fossil placers or
submerged placers.
2.5Kartashov(1971) identified two types of placer, autochthonous and allochthonous on the basis of their
formational processes.
He described the former as predominantly proximal to the sources and formed mostly during fluvial
downcutting. Allochthonous placers are concentrated during an aggradation stage after some significant
transport.
3.0Formation of placers:
For any placer deposit to form the conditions to be satisfied are the following:
1) a primary source for the mineral placers, which are usually crystalline rocks.
2) a suitable weathering environment, which is required to liberate the minerals from the source rocks and
3) agents of transportation like running water, wind etc. which move the placer-forming
minerals to the zones of concentration where they are deposited.
3.1 Sources:
The formation of placer mineral deposits requires a primary source and involves process of erosion,
transportation and concentration. The main environments of placer mineral deposition are rivers, beaches and
the offshore area. The formation of placer mineral deposits on beaches results essentially from the selective
sorting of the beach deposits in the intertidal zone by wave and current action with the velocity of the
backwash being sufficient only to remove light minerals, thus leaving the heavy minerals behind (dunham
1969). Placer minerals can occur in several situations in the offshore area.
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3.4 Chemical weathering:
Chemical weathering occurs during warm, preferably humid, conditions. It is most intence and extends to the
greatest depth, tens of meters in tropical climates. Resistant placer and accessory minerals are liberated with
quartz, whereas rock-forming silicates are altered. In situ weathered mantles that contain economic
concentrations of placer minerals constitute eluvial placer deposits.
Weathered ground may move downslope under the influence of gravity alone, lubricated by ground water, or
washed by flowing surface water, to form a colluvial deposit. The various means of mass movement are
determined by the physical nature of the ground, climate, elevation, and slope gradient.
3.5 Topoographiccontrols :
Placers may form in higher elevation, low order, headwater creeks, gullies, gulches and canyons in all of
which placers have been mined.
Beach placers result from the concentration of heavy minerals by waves on the foreshore, the active portion of
the beach between low-tide level and the level attained by storm waves. Mineral sands are most efficiently
concentrated by wave action on the foreshore.
4.1Tectonic activity:
Plate tectonics results in continental collision within plate boundaries, creating a combination of horizontal
and vertical uplift. Uplift causes a fall in relative sea level and immediately affects coastal rivers, increasing
their gradients. Uplift alternates with subsidence and localized down warping , causing an on-and off-lap
surrounding oceans with accompanying deposition of platform sedimentary sequences.
Colder climates encourage physical weathering with solifluction and, at high elevations coupled with
sufficient snowfall, glaciation. Warmer climates, especially in combination with humidity, result in chemical
weathering.
Change in climate may be more important than the climate itself at any one time and place and encourages
alternating effects of weathering and erosion. A change from arid to semiarid conditions increases the
availability of water in source areas, increasing the rate of sediment transport. Erosion is assisted by the lack
of vegetation cover.
5.1Geological control:
The physico-chemical behaviour of provenance rocks, i.e.,igneous, metamorphic or sedimentary and the effect
of various geological processes have played avital role in contributing sediments to form a placer deposit.
6.0Ages of placers:
Primary sources, including those of gold, that generated placer deposits cover most of earth history.Some
important gold placers owe their origin to orogenic gold deposits formed during the Paleozoic, but the
maximum frequency of all sources is in younger Mesozoic settings. The frequency declined in the Cenozoic
butprimary sources continued to form through to the Pliocene and Pleistocene epochs. Evidence exists that
greater number of placers were formed during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras.
The two forms of placer deposit, lag and accumulation, reflect variations in energy created by rainfall, stream
flow, marine currents, ocean swell, breaking waves, tides, and wind. They may exist alone or in combination
in any placer type in progression from eluvial to the most distal and dispersed marine deposits.
Geological factors considered to have contributed to the unusual size and value of this belt includes:
a) High concentration of tin bearing granite
b) Deep and rapid tropical weathering,
c) Formation of marine and alluvial placers many of which are now seaward of the present shoreline.
d) Preservation of placers, resulting from relatively low terrain drained by low velocity streams.
The most important offshore placers near the Indonesian tin islands are found in submerged river channel of
glacial or post-glacial age, covered by younger sediments.
Of the world’s annual production of about 0.23 million tones, 30 to 50% comes from Malaysia and 10% from
Thailand and Indonesia.
The offshore dredging of submarine tin first began in 1908 in the shore line area of Puket Island, Thailand.
Seabed mining for tin continued for many years near Indonesian tin islands and Phuket Island.
Oregon: Surface concentration of more than 10% heavy minerals lie at more than 200m water depth nearer to
the river mouths of Oregon. Higher concentrations of 30% heavy minerals associated with 5 to 150ppb gold
are located seaward of Rouge river mouth and off Cape Blanko. The heavy minerals are chromite, Ilmenite,
zircon and gold.
Virginia-Georgia coast: Economic deposits are expected to occur off Virginia-Georgia coast where onshore
strandline deposits are being mined.
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Reconnaissance surveys of Virginia were conducted in the inner shelf for over 3 years from 1986. The chief
economic heavy mineral is ilmenite (27%) with minor quantities of leucoxene, rutile, zircon and monazite.
Gold occur as accessory mineral in beach sand heavy mineral concentrates at a number of places in eastern
Australia. The gold placers may extend offshore either in drowned river channel or in ancient beaches.
Offshore investigations in late 1980 have showed the presence of insignificant traces of gold and the operation
was abandoned.
South African coast: Diamonds in raised beaches were first discovered along the coast of southeast Africa in
1908. Since the diamond bearing sand extends down to the shore line, it was thought that they might also
occur on the sea floor. During 1961, the Marine Diamond corporation of South Africa commenced
commercial offshore operations. They located several areas of diamond concentration. Mining was
subsequently undertaken in three areas. The other heavy minerals present are similar to those reported from
the east coast of Africa.
Senegal:Offshore surveys have brought out the presence of ancient shorelines at 25 m, 40 m and 65 m
waterdepth. Heavy mineral concentration is in fine sands which contains 2 to 5% of ilmenite and zircon.
Heavy mineral concentration occurs as lenses parallel to shoreline.
Over the last few decades new deposits have been discovered in placerslike, Chattarpur in Orissa,
Vishakapatnam in Andhra Pradesh in the east coast and Ratnagiri in Maharashtra in the west coast of the
country. Along the coastal stretches of Tamil Nadu, deposits of heavy minerals occur in the inland areas in the
form of Teri sands.
The current reservesof the placer minerals in India, are as follows; 278 million tonnes of ilmenite 13.49 of
rutile, 18 million tonnes of zircon, 7 million tonnes of monazite, 84 million tonnes of sillimanite and 86
million tonnes of garnet. The major placercon centrations of India are located along the east and west coasts.
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9.1 Placer deposits ofRatnagiri,Maharastra
High concentrations of placer minerals occur along Jaigarh and Vijaydurgin Maharastra particularly in the
bays of Kalbadevi, Mirya and Ratnagiribays. Heavy minerals range from 1-91% with 1-52% of ilmenite.
Ilmeniteassays about 50-52% TiO2 (Titanium oxide). The placers in Bhatya, Purangad andGoankhede contain
high content of magnetite (40-60%) and
limonite/haematite (25-35%) with relatively low ilmenite(5-25%). Thetotal reserves of the heavy minerals are
estimated to be around 3.45 million tonnes.
The provenance of the heavy minerals is attributed mainly to the DeccanTrap provinces. The Kaladgis consist
of both granitic and metamorphic rocks and the gneissic basement of south Konkan forms a secondary source
of heavy minerals. Extensive areas of Deccan Traps are overlain by laterites.
The Konkan coast extending for about 230 km from Dabhol through Ratnagiri to Vengurla is marked by a
number of rocky promontories with interveningarcuate bays and tidal inlets. The occurrence of ilmenite
placers on the beaches of these bays and estuaries have been known since 1935. The Department of Geology
and Mines of Maharashtra estimated the onland reserves of ilmenite to be 4 mt. in the area extending from
Undi to Purangad for a stretch of 48 km. The offshore surveys of Konkan coast by National Institute of
Oceanography (N.I.O.) in 1975 indicated ilmenite bearing sand cover more than 96 sq.km area between
Jaigarh and Vijayadurg and the resources were inferred to be about 12.5 million tonnes for a sediment
thickness of 1m from seafloor.
The resources estimated by National Institute of Oceanography(N.I.O) in the three bays of Kalbadevi,
Ratnagiri and Mirya based on grab sampling and extrapolation to a depth of 1m from seabed were of the order
of two million tones.
The total heavy mineral content varies from 2.5 to 66%. The chief heavy minerals are ilmenite (10 to 40%),
magnetite (2.0 to 8%) and clinopyroxene (up to 8%). Hornblende, tourmaline, zircon and garnet are also
present in minor quantities.
Conservative estimation of ilmenite and magnetite in Kalbadevi down to a depth of 2m from seabed is of the
order of 2.29 to 3.12 and 0.44 to 0.68 million tone srespectively over an area of 6 to 8.45 sq.km.
This deposit, popularly known as Quilon deposit is one of the largest and richest in the world. It extends to
about 22 km with a width of around500m. It stretches as a barrier beach between Neendakara, at the mouthof
Ashtamudi estuary and Kayamkulam. The deposit has a maximum depth of 15m and is estimated to contain
about 12.7 Million tonne of ilmenite, 1 million tonne of rutile, 1.9 million tonne of zircon and 0.41 million
tonne of monazite and 6 million tonne ofsillimanite.
Ilmenite contains about 56% Ti02. The monazite has a total of 58% REE (rare earth elements)oxides and 8%
Th02(Thorium). The total reserves of heavy minerals in the Manavalakurichi-Kolachel stretch are estimated to
be about 1.6 million tonne. Ilemenite amounts to about 1 million tonne. The reserves of other
mineralsestimated are as follows: 0.075 million tonne of rutile, 0.035 million tonne of leucoxene,0.082
million tonne of zircon, 0.043 million tonne of monazite, 0.23million tonne of garnet, 0.14 million tonne of
sillimanite and about 6850 tonnes' of kyanite. The area north of Kolachelto Midalam has been found to
contain workable deposits of heavy minerals estimated to about 0.5 million tonnes.
The lithology of the area consists of charnockite and khondalite group ofrocks of the Eastern Ghats Province.
Granites and granitic gneisses also exist in the rock assemblages. A part of the sediment for the deposit
formation may have been brought by large drainage systems like Krishnaand Godavari, which flow through a
range of lithologic successions like Deccan Traps, Cuddapah sedimentary formations and tertiaries of
Rajamundry sequence.
10.0 Conclusions:
The most important economic attributes of placer deposits are size, density and grade, for their commercial
extraction. Sometimes, placers are distributed far away from their source rocks. Diamond, rutile and zircon
are found as placers after several hundred kms of their sources. Erosion, transportation and deposition of
placer and heavy minerals are very interesting areas of study in Earth sciences.
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