ITAIPU DAM: 35 YEARS AFTER CONSTRUCTION

Étore F. de Faria*
*
ITAIPU BINACIONAL
Av. Tancredo Neves, 6731, 85867-900 Foz do Iguaçu, Paraná, Brazil
e-mail: etore@itaipu.gov.br

Keywords: Itaipu Dam, Dam Monitoring

Abstract. Itaipu Dam civil works ranged 1975-1982, accomplished by UNICON-

CONEMPA consortium, formed by five large Brazilian contractors and six Paraguayans
contractors. Since its completion, maintenance has been carried out to allow records of
hydroelectric energy generation. Recovering of eroded downstream slopes and chutes
concrete slabs are focused as preventive activities. Deep studies on right connection
buttress blocks have been performed, although their structural behavior is satisfactory.
Some mappings, as seepage in buttress dam foundation and concrete cracking, are
periodic and systemic, as well as, drainage system cleaning. As a conclusion, Itaipu dam
will continue supplying Brazil and Paraguay development with sustainable lots of
energy.

1 INTRODUCTION
Fast growing demand for power in south central Brazil, in 1960’s, led the Brazilian
government to contract the engineering firm OMF to study the feasibility of a 10,000MW
hydroelectric scheme in the Salto das Sete Quedas area. This was a unilateral scheme that
was not acceptable because of international nature of that site. By this way, Brazil and
Paraguay signed the Ata do Iguaçu or Ata das Cataratas, in June 22 nd, 1966, in joint
agreement, declaring the intention of carry out studies and evaluation of the technical and
economic feasibility of hydraulic resources development of the Paraná River stretch that
constitutes the border between the two countries.
Thus, Itaipu represents the efforts and accomplishments of two neighboring countries,
Brazil (BR) and Paraguay (PY), in developing their common energy resources for mutual
benefits1. For Paraguay, Itaipu generation provides about 85% of energy needed using a
little more than 2.35 units (1650MW – 08/03/2018). Other 15% comes from Acaray Dam
(360MW) – PY. At peak times, Yacyretà Dam (~3700MW) – PY – supplies the plus
necessary. For Brazil, the contribution of Itaipu fell from 20% to 15% of all energy
consumed in country, nowadays.
Construction of the civil works started in May 1975 at a site where there was a small
rocky island called Itaipu a (Figure 1). For civil works, Itaipu prequalified and selected
Brazilian and Paraguayan firms with extensive experience, skilled technicians,
specialized equipment and financial capacity. The contract for civil works was awarded
to the UNICON-CONEMPA consortium, formed by five large Brazilian contractors in

a
Itaipu is an expression in local Indian language (Guarany) that means “the singing stone”.

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joint-venture (UNICON): Cetenco Engenharia S.A., Companhia Brasileira de Projetos e

Obras-CBPO, Camargo Correa S.A, Andrade Gutierrez S.A., Mendes Junior S.A., and
six Paraguayans contractors also in joint venture (CONEMPA): Barrail Hermanos S.A.
de Construcciones, Cia. General de Construcciones S.R.L., Compañia de Obras de
Ingenieria de Obras S.R.L., Ing. Civil Hermann Baumann – Empresário de Obras, Ing.
Juan Carlos Wasmosy y Asociados e Jimenez Gaona y Lima Ingenieros Civiles –
Empresa de Construcciones 1.

Figure 1: Small rocky island, Itaipu.

For the excavation of the diversion channel and for construction of the rockfill dam,
the earthfill dams and the main cofferdams, the contract was awarded on October 6,
1975. For the remainder of civil works, comprising all the concrete structures, except for
the four-unit powerhouse section in the diversion channel, the contract was signed on
May 17, 1977. In the diversion channel, the work of the powerhouse was carried out as
an extension of the original contract and started in January 19861. The chronology of the
main events of the construction and assembly of the Itaipu Power Plant is illustrated in
Figure 2.
Year
Activity
1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988
Infrastructure works
Reservoir, land acquisition and
protection of environment.

Construction facilities and equipment

End of powerhouse
construction
Civil works
Completion of dam construction
Channel excavation termination

Permanent equipment
Generating units - assembly and tests 1 6 12 18
Generating units in operation 10

Figure 2: Itaipu main events1 (adapted).

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As relevant events, it is important to mention 2: a. the Parana river detour in Itaipu, in

October 1978; b. the closing the Diversion Channel and beginning of the Filling of the
Reservoir in October 1982; c. the beginning of the regular operation of the spillway, in
November 1982; d. the first turn of the First generating unit, 50 Hz, in December 1983.
In this article, the aging of the Itaipu dam is analyzed in several aspects. The
conditions of the structures and foundations, as well as the modernization of procedures,
are approached in order to demonstrate the good performance of the dam.
Instrumentation and visual inspection data are addressed to illustrate the reliance on
monitoring and on planning and accomplishment of maintenance.

2 GENERAL DATA
Itaipu is a junction of some kinds of dams. The 8 km length dam (Figure 3) is
composed by 1 - Right Earthfill Dam (zoned); 2 - Spillway; 3 - Right-wing dam (massive
head buttress); 4 - Main dam (buttress and hollow gravity) plus right buttress dam;
5 - Diversion control structure – concrete (gravity); 6 - Left buttress dam ; 7 - Rockfill
dam with clay core and 8 - Left earthfill dam (zoned). Besides this, there were two
cofferdams in concrete arch dam at diversion channel.
The Powerhouse in riverbed has 16 generating units (9) and in Diversion Channel (11)
it has more four units (10). Until 1998, 18 units (9-50 Hz and 9-60 Hz) were assembled,
comprising 12600MW. In 2005, other two complemented the 20 planned (10-50 Hz for
Paraguay and 10-60 Hz for Brazil).
At construction time, a Service bridge (12) was built to provide the only access across
the diversion channel after its opening and to allow transportation of excavated rock
which was stockpiled on the left bank for construction of the main cofferdams. Two
assembly areas (13 and 14) were used. Location of main cofferdams was on 15 and 16.
The Paraguayan 50Hz substation (right margin substation) was located on right si de (17).
The number 18 indicates the reservoir.

Figure 3: Itaipu Dam: structures general arrangement1.

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3 CONSTRUCTION

3.1 Chronology
From mid-1975 to 1984, the accomplishment of civil works was photo-registered. The
following pictures show some of most important events.

Figure 4: Site of Itaipu Dam Construction – October 19752.

Figure 5: Site of Itaipu Dam Construction – November 19752.

Figure 6: Excavation and access to foundation of the Rockfill Dam (Left Margin) – January 19762.

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Figure 7: Rockfill Dam (Left Margin) – October/November 1976.

Figure 8: Diversion Channel – January 1976.

Figure 9: First bucket of concrete – September 30th, 19772.

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Figure 10: The Paraná river detour – October 1978.

Figure 11: Construction of Main Dam – January 1980.

Figure 12: Left Margin Earthfill Dam in construction – March 1981.

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Figure 13: Closing of Diversion Channel and beginning of filling the reservoir – October 1982.

3.2 Geology1
The Itaipu dam and its reservoir are underlain by the large basalt flows of the upper
Paraná Basin, belonging to the Serra Geral Formation, whose origin dates back to the
Jurassic Period (Fig. 14).

Figure 14: General view of excavations.

The main geological characteristics of this area are as follows – Fig. 15:

a. Basalt flows, essentially horizontal, 20-60m thick;

b. Breccia layers between the basalt flows, ranging from 1-30m thick; mostly
heterogeneous, usually less resistant and more deformable than the basalt;
c. Discontinuities in planes parallel to the basalt flows, usually located at the contact
between flows or at the base of the transition zone;

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d. Horizontal permeability several times higher than vertical permeability.

e. Breccia, originated by the mixture of vesicular lava, basalt blocks, sandstone,
siltstone and other materials. It has irregular cavities partially filled by carbonate
and amorphous and crystalline quartz. The relative density varies between 2.1 and
2.4. The thickness, lithology and porosity of the breccia layers are highly variable.

Figure 15: Typical geologic section at Itaipu site1,2.

There are five basaltic flows in the area directly related to the project; they were
denominated, in an ascending order, A, B, C, D and E, with thicknesses ranging from 30
to 70 m; see Fig. 16. Sub-horizontal discontinuities were also found, having been formed
by the erosion of the Paraná River such that the unconfined rock mass had been slightly
displaced toward the river channel due to horizontal forces. The massive rock of the river
channel also has shear zones, in a general direction parallel to the river and dipping either
east or west, which were most likely caused by the action of horizontal compressive
forces in the east-west direction. The sub-horizontal discontinuities associated with
basalt of different mineral composition are a peculiar characteristic of this area2.
Each of the flows presents three distinct types of basaltic rock:

a. Dense basalt, characterized by its microcrystalline texture, high density (2.95) and
high deformability modulus (> 2000kN/cm²). This basalt, because of its intrinsic
rigidity, is highly fractured.
b. Amygdaloidal vesicular basalt, having a texture similar to the dense basalt but
containing vesicles and being much less fractured than the dense basalt. Its
density ranges from 2.6 to 2.7 and it has a deformability modulus between 1000
and 1500kN/cm². This lithology does not show pervious zones.
c. Breccia and scoriaceous lava, comprising a highly vesicular lava surrounding
angular blocks of other different types of basalt, sandstone and siltstone, and
having irregular cavities partially filled with carbonate, zeolite and amorphous
and crystalline quartz. Density values range from 2.1 to 2.4 and locally are lower
than 2. The deformability modulus is about 700kN/cm². The high porosity and the
interconnected cavities result in permeability higher than 10 -3cm/s.

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The discontinuities generally occurring at the region of contact at the upper part of the
breccia and the lower part of the dense basalt were important features with respect to the
stability of the dams and the other structures.

Y Wall reference line 5 Prospection shafts E1 … E6 Right wing dam Dense basalt
1 Profile of the excavation 6 Transversal grout curtain F1/2 … F35/36 Main dam blocks Breccia
2 Shear keys 7 Limit of the grout curtain A, B … E Basalt flows Vesicular amygdbasalt
3 Exploratory tunnels 8 Discontinuities

Figure 16: Main dam geological foundation – longitudinal section.

3.3 Concrete1
All coarse aggregate and about 70% of the sand for the concrete was obtained by
crushing sound basalt. Breccia and amygdaloidal basalts were not used. Aggregates were
designated 1, 2, 3 and 4 corresponding to maximum size, MSA, 19 mm, 38 mm, 76 mm
and 152 mm, respectively. The permitted gradation for the coarse aggregate and for the
crushed sand was as shown in Tables 1 and 2. About 30% by weight of the sand was fine
natural alluvial sand obtained from deposits along the Rio Paraná. The tests specified for
controlling the physical quality of crushed aggregate were: density, absorption, Los
Angeles abrasion, natural and artificial weathering (wetting and drying), cyclical ethylene
glycol, sodium Sulphate and alkali-aggregate reactivity. Special attention was given to
potential alkali-aggregate reactivity. It was checked not only by the chemical test, but
also by the mortar bar expansion test (ASTM C-227).

Sieve opening % passing

mm Aggregate sizes, mm
4.8―19 19―38 38―76 76―152
178 100
152 90―100
100 100 20―45
76 90―100 0―15
50 100 20―55 0―5
38 90―100 0―10
25 100 20―45 0―5
19 90―100 0―10
9.5 30―55 0―5
4.8 0―5

Table 1: Gradation for coarse aggregate.

Sieve nº. Opening, mm % passing

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3/8* 9.5 100

4 4.8 95―100
8 2.4 80―100
16 1.2 50―85
30 0.6 25―50
50 0.3 10―30
100 0.15 2―10

Table 2: Gradation for crushed sand.

The cements used in concrete were the equivalent of ASTM type II, with specific
physic and chemical properties. They were obtained from four different plants: ltambé,
Santa Rita and Votoran in Brazil and Vallemí in Paraguay. Fly ash was obtained from the
Candiota and Tubarão thermal powerplants in Brazil.
The specifications designated concrete classes on the basis of three parameters:

i. Maximum size of aggregate, in mm. (A = 152; B = 76; C = 38; D = 19; E = 13).

ii. Minimum strength of concrete in compression (fck, in kg/cm²).
iii. Age, in days. (a = 3; b = 7; c = 28; d = 90; e = 180; f = 360).

A-140-f, e.g., is a concrete with 152mm maximum aggregate (A) and a specified
minimum strength of 1.4kN/cm² (140 kg/cm²) at 365 days (f). Table 3 shows the classes
of concrete used for the various structures and the maximum water / (cement + fly ash)
ratio permitted for mixes with or without entrained air.

Class of Typical use Maximum size Maximum ratio

concrete of aggregate Water / (cement + fly ash)
mm Concrete Concrete
with air without air
A-100-f Non-structural backfill concrete 152 0.75 0.85
A-140-f Mass concrete, dams 152 0.65 0.80
A-180-f Mass concrete, dams 152 0.55 0.75
A-210-f Mass concrete, dams 152 0.43 0.70
A-240-f Mass concrete, dams 152 0.42 0.68
A-280-f Mass concrete, dams 152 0.40 0.65
B-140-f Mass concrete, lifts near foundations 76 0.64 0.70
B-180-f Mass concrete, dams and massive walls 76 0.55 0.68
B-210-f Mass concrete and structural concrete for 76 0.50 0.65
massive walls
B-240-f Ditto 76 0.45 0.7
B-280-f Mass concrete, near upstream face of dams, 76 0.40 0.65
piers of diversion structure
C-140-c Structural concrete; thin members 38 0.55 0.65
C-180-c Ditto 38 0.47 0.6
C-210-c Structural concrete and concrete exposed 38 0.48 0.55
to high velocity flow of water
C-280-c Ditto 38 0.40 0.58
C-350-c Ditto 38 0.35 0.50
D-100-f Porous concrete 19 0.85 ―
D-210-c Thin structures and blockouts 19 0.45 0.55
D-280-c Precast beams and slabs 19 0.4 0.52
Precast beams and slabs and prestressed
D-350-c concrete 19 0.35 0.5
E-210-c Shotcrete 13 0.5 0.65
Table 3: Classes of concrete.

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The construction yard facilities were designed for production of 300,000 m³/month of
concrete, cooled to a temperature of 6°C. These facilities comprised two large equivalent
industrial plants located on each bank of the river, each consisting of an aggregate
crushing plant, cooling plant and concrete batching plants. In addition to these plants,
which were the basic source of concrete production, a clinker grinding plant was erected
at the site to assure continuity of cement supply in case of an interruption in production
at the Brazilian or Paraguayan cement plants during the period of peak demand at Itaipu.

4 35-YEARS PERFORMANCE

4.1 Spillway

1 Spillway axis
2 Approach channel
3 Spillway radial gates
4 Right chute
5 Central chute
6 Left chute
7 Flip buckets
8 Downstream slope protection
9 Protection wall (1985)
10 Protection wall (1986)
11 Training wall
12 Vehicular tunnel
13 Air vents for aeration galleries
14 Right earthfill dam
15 Right wing buttress dam
16 Paraná river
17 Right slope
18 Aeration gallery
19 Drainage gallery
20 Anchor bolts
21 Original rock profile
F Flow direction

Figure 17: Spillway.

Hydrological, geological, powerhouse and dam layout as well as diversion studies

made at the feasibility stage had established that the Itaipu spillway would:

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i. Pass maximum flow of 62 200 m³/s with reservoir level at El. 223.
ii. Be located on the right bank.
iii. Be of the flip bucket type, discharging into the Paraná river 1.2 km downstream of
the power station.
The economic considerations and the predicted mode of spillway operation were
particularly determinant in the selection of the adopted scheme (Fig. 17).

Downstream slopes
The combination of high flood discharges in 1982-83 and the continuous operation of
the spillway for over 3 years caused some erosion on the slopes downstream of the
concrete slab which protects the toes of the flip buckets. The hydrodynamic forces
produced by the jet impinging upon the river produced strong eddy currents and high
waves against the right bank. The erosive action started at the base of the shotcreted area
at about El.100 downstream of the left and center buckets. The loose and weathered rock
blocks underlying the treated surface were progressively undercut and dislodged and the
rock bolts were exposed. Downstream of the left chute, this erosive action reached some
parts of the concrete slab.
The central chute was operated for a shorter period. Therefore, the erosion was less
severe. At this location, the softer slope also provided a wider protective strip. However,
severe erosion occurred in the area downstream of the dividing wall between the right
and central chutes. The area between the excavated rock, the rock ridge, and the natural
ground slope was severely damaged up to El.115. The eroded areas with typical sections
of the damaged slope and the treated areas are shown in Figs. 18 and 19.
The right bank deflected the cross-currents and the surges scoured out columnar basalt
to a depth of 5 to 10m for a length of about 100m. Since this scour terminated about 50
m downstream of the right bucket, it did not endanger the structure.
The eroded downstream slope of the left chute was first detected in August 1985
during a routine inspection since the scoured area extended to the toe of the concrete
slab; immediate remedial measures were needed to protect the slab. It was estimated that
the repair work would require 30 to 45 days, when the chute would be closed and the
tailwater levels maintained below El. 98.
In September 1985, a reinforced concrete wall (nº. 5 in Figure 19), 1.0m minimum
thickness, was built on the eroded slope, and was anchored to the rock with 32mm
diameter; 9.0m long steel anchors in a 2m x 2m grid. The concrete mix had a minimum
specified strength of 2.8kN/cm2 at 28 days, 19mm maximum aggregate size, and water
cement ratio of 0.52. It was pumped from El.140 to El.100 and the total volume of
concrete, placed in two phases, was 3380m3.
The damaged area below the central chute was discovered during the remedial work
on the slope below the left chute, the damage being obscured while the left chute was in
operation. During the dry season of 1986, the discharge through the left chute was
decreased to allow a thorough inspection of the slope below the central chute. It was
found that the erosion was extensive, but it was decided that the need for repairs was not
immediate. Repairs were carried out from October to December 1986 (nº. 6 in Figure 19),
using the same procedures as for the left chute area. Work conditions at this site were
extremely difficult (Figure 20).
The adjacent left chute was always operating, creating persistent spray and strong
winds, caused by negative pressure under the spillway jets together with eddy currents
and rough waves in the river. A 1.0m high cofferdam was built with sandbags to protect

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the personnel and the work area. Rapes were attached to rock bolts along the water line
for safety of personnel.

1 Wall reference line

2 Right flip bucket
3 Central flip bucket
4 Left flip bucket
5 Downstream end of flip bucket
6 Downstream slope protection
slab
7 Eroded regions
8 Paraná river
F Flow direction

Figure 18: Spillway downstream slopes eroded regions.

1 Wall reference line

2 Right flip bucket
3 Central flip bucket
4 Left flip bucket
5 Protection wall (1985)
6 Protection wall (1986)
7 Paraná river
F Flow direction

Figure 19: Spillway downstream slopes protection walls.

Figure 20: Repair of eroded downstream slopes.

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In 1995, 1998 and 2012, there were new treatments for those places (between El.101
and El.135). Similar to the previous ones, the erosions that emerged after this period
were recorded (Fig. 21) and measures (Fig. 22) to determine the volume of material and
other quantitative data in order to elaborate an outsourced contracting book to perform
the services.

Figure 21: Identifying of points that needed recovered.

Figure 22: Measurement of points and other minor deteriorations to be recovered.

In the period from April to December 2012 another recovery of part of the protection
of the slope downstream of the spillway was carried out, following the recommendations,
the projects and the field provisions related to the one carried out in 1995 and 1998.
For the structural concretes, applied in the erosions and the rebuilding of the berms, a
dosage of conventional concrete was used, consisting of Portland cement, small and large
aggregates and water, meeting the requirement of minimum compressive strength equal
to 21MPa. The concretes were generally run under ambient temperatures between 5°C
and 35°C and as much as possible in the morning.
Anchor bars were deployed to increase grip between the concrete structure and the
slope rock. The depth of the holes for the bars did not exceed 1% of the length of the bars
(lhole  1,01  lbar) and the holes were descended and inclined at least 5% with the
horizontal to facilitate the laying of the cement.
In the shotcrete, conventional mortars were applied by dry route, and Telcon CA-60
steel mesh, 15 x 15 mesh, with  = 8mm bars, fixed to the rock by metal clips. A liquid
handle accelerator additive was used in the ratio of 1 to 3% relative to the weight of the

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cement per cubic meter of concrete. The procedure used was to perform from the bottom
up in horizontal strips of at least 3 (three) layers of 5 cm each, totaling 15 cm the total
thickness of the shotcrete.
The photos from Figs. 23 to 25 show the final results of this recovery. The recovery of
the berm at the downstream slope of the right chute of the spillway (El.115) can be seen
in Figs. 23 and 24. The shotcrete recovery is shown in Fig. 25 and erosion filling with
reinforced concrete and rock anchored is shown in Figure 23.

Figure 23: Overview of the rebuilding beam of the downstream slope of the right chute (yellow circle) and of
part of the beam and the erosion area (red circle).

Figure 24: Views of the restoration beam of the downstream slope of the right chute at El.115.

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Figure 25: Partial views of the shotcrete recovery.

Chutes slabs repairing

In 2013, an experimental program was started with the main objective of
characterizing and evaluating the concrete of the slab of the left channel for the study of
materials for application in repair of the eroded surfaces of the spillway, comprising:

i. Characterization of existing concrete (compressive strength, modulus of elasticity,

tensile strength and thermal expansion);
ii. Characterization of superficial repair materials in the civil construction market;
iii. Development of a cementitious material for application in repairs of the spillway.

This program is part of a research project titled: "Experimental Analysis of

Cementitious Materials for Application in the Maintenance of the Surface of the
Spillways of the Itaipu HPP".
Initial activities focused on identifying and qualifying the problem to be studied, with
a visual inspection of the spillway chutes. The images in Figure 26 show aspects of the
spillway left channel in September 2013.

Figure 26: Roughness, surface abrasion and joint repair offset.

Pull out modified tests (Figure 27) and extractions of samples were carried out to
know the properties of concrete. The selection of the sites were performed using a map of
regions by type of dosage of the concrete applied in chute execution.
Materials from market and developed in the Concrete Technology Laboratory of Itaipu
have been tested. Procedures included surface cleaning with steel bristle brush and
preparation for the application of market.

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Figure 27: Performing of the pull out modified test.

4.2 Stretch E – Buttress blocks

Treatment at contact between basalt flows C and D consisted of a grid of three
longitudinal keys and a transverse key under blocks F1, E6, E5 and E4 of the dam,
totaling about 600m of tunnels and 6000m³ of concrete backfill, see Fig. 28. The
discontinuity is coincident with contact C/D at about El.112.
The underground treatment covered half of one hollow gravity block and five single
buttress blocks. This was necessary because of the low shear strength of the clayey
material in the discontinuity and because this portion of the foundation is unconfined on
two sides; on the left due to stepped down foundation and on the downstream side where
there is a deep excavation for the right assembly area. The treatment improved the shear
strength of the weak planes sufficiently to obtain adequate safety factors against
shearing-sliding at the discontinuity.

1 Access shaft
2 Shear keys
3 Discontinuity
4 Grout curtain
5 Drainage tunnels

Figure 28: Main dam – foundation treatment on right bank.

Behavior of highest of the Stretch E (E6) is mainly noted by rod extensometers and
pendullums. By extensometers (Figure 29), E6 block foundation is stable. Maximmum
vertical settlement is in order of 1.5mm. Structural deformation of E6 ranges from -4.6 to
0.6mm, due to sazonal hydrometeorologic variation.

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Figure 29: Settlement and deformation behavior, respectively.

4.3 Main dam – Buttress and hollow gravity dam

The most extensive foundation treatment was under the highest blocks of the main
dam in the river channel.
Of the several alternatives considered for this treatment, such as deepening of
excavation, trench or cut-off excavation, washing of weak materials and grouting, shear
keys, etc., two were selected for detailed analysis:
1. Partial lowering of the downstream third of the foundation.
2. Concrete shear keys at contact A/B.
A comparison of the two remedial treatment alternatives arrived at the following
conclusions:
• Both would provide equivalent factors of safety.
• With respect to technical feasibility, both were essentially equal.
• If part of the foundation was lowered to El.20, the following additional quantities
would be required: 190,000m³ of excavation and 180,000m³ of concrete.
• Even considering the higher unit prices for the shear keys, the subterranean treatment
alternative would be 20% cheaper.
• For the first alternative, about 7 months would be required to excavate the rock and
backfill with concrete from El.40 to El.20, which would impede the construction
schedule for the high blocks of the main dam.
• Underground treatment (the second alternative) could be carried out simultaneously
with the construction of the dam blocks with minimum interference.
Based on the above conclusions, it was decided to proceed with the second alternative
that was underground treatment with shear keys. The final arrangement consisted of a
grid of eight shear keys parallel and eight perpendiculars to the axis of the dam, see Figs.
30 and 31. Individual shear keys comprise tunnels 3.5 m wide and 2.5 m high at El.20,
some 15 to 20 m below the surface, backfilled with concrete and contact grouted.
Total length of the shear keys was 2600m and the total volume of concrete used,
30,000m³. The grid is circumscribed by a perimetral drainage tunnel, 800m long,
excavated along contact A/B at about El.20, which isolates the treated region so that
uplift in the inner area is reduced to a minimum.

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1 Grout curtain
2 Contact grouting
3 Consolidation grouting
4 Drain holes
5 Investigation and access shaft
6 Shear keys
7 Drainage tunnel
A, B Flow designation

Dense basalt

Breccia

Dense basalt

Figure 30: Main dam and powerhouse in the river channel foundation treatment – cross section.

1 Shear keys
2 Investigation and access shaft
3 Perimetral drainage tunnel
4 Axis of dam
5 Main dam – hollow gravity block
6 Powerhouse block
7 Axis of powerhouse

Figure 31: Main dam and powerhouse in the river channel foundation treatment – plan at El.20.

Stability of foundation at El.20 of Main dam is shown in Fig. 32. Deformation of shear
key and compression of rock layer (settlement) are measured by tri-orthogonal
instruments whose maximum values range between 0.7mm and 2.0mm.

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Figure 32: Settlement behavior of shear key at Main dam.

4.4 Surface seepage mapping

The basaltic flows of the foundation of the Itaipu plant are poorly permeable.
However, they present areas with a high degree of fracturing, especially in the horizontal
direction, through seepage occurs, mainly in the geological joints, contacts between
flows and contact of the structure with the foundation.
The mapping of surface seepages began in October 1982, during the formation of
ITAIPU reservoir, as a result of visual inspections. These inspections were part of the
"checklist" of Paraná river closure activities and would be carried out with the same
frequency as the readings of the auscultation instruments.
At the first inspection, the teams recorded daily the evolution of the number of
foundation drains with a flow rate greater than 3 l/min, thus characterizing the sites with
the greatest permeability. From June 1983, the first seepages by rock fractures were
observed. During the first year of lake filling, the operating phase and up to 1992, this
surface seepage mapping was performed annually. From 1992, it was run every six
months, usually at the end of the summer and winter seasons. Thus, the execution of the
mapping coincides with the times of maximum and minimum observed in the seasonal
behavior of the instrumentation. In the period between the mappings, the control of water
surge by the foundation is guaranteed by routine visual inspections performed by the
instrumentation technicians during the reading campaigns. Mappings have been done
each four years, twice a year. Figure 33 illustrates a result of seepage mapping.
According to the last mapping performed by the technicians, the following comments can
be made:

• Some spans of blocks in section F were inspected and did not present any seepage, but
most of these blocks are with the concrete floor, making it impossible to analyze the
foundation rock.
• New seepages have been verified since 2007. Some fractures were identified as wet
fractures and others fractures with water flow. In some sections the blocks have
connections, influencing the flow of water to the lower blocks. Many of these new
seepages are located near drains or near concrete walls.

20
 Étore F. de Faria

LEGEND:LEGEND:
DRAIN OF STRETCH D
WET FRACTURE
FRACTURE WITH WATER FLOW
CAIMPAIN 2016
CAIMPAIN 2007
PROJECTION OF TUNNEL EL.123

Figure 33: Mapping of seepage in foundation - spans between blocks D-48 to D-52.

4.5 Drainage system cleaning

Drainage system of Itaipu dam comprises 97,310m of foundation drains (about 4,500
units) and 1,100 drains in concrete structures. This system is frequently cleaned (more
recent work is now on running) as preventive maintenance, see images on Figures 35 and
36.
Historic data (Fig. 34) reveal that maximum values for all drainage system round
135.0 l/sec, much less than project limit forecast (488.0 l/sec.).

600,00 l/s

500,00 l/s Fundation 488,00 l/s

Concrete

400,00 l/s Total

Project (488 l/s)

Hist. drainage value

300,00 l/s

200,00 l/s
182,91

100,00 l/s

0,00 l/s
dez-04 dez-05 dez-06 dez-07 dez-08 dez-09 dez-10 dez-11 dez-12 dez-13 dez-14 dez-15 dez-16 dez-17 dez-18

Figure 34: Drainage total value.

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 Étore F. de Faria

Figure 35: Depth measurement of drains.

Figure 36: Cleaning of drain; and water aspect at beginning of work.

4.6 Concrete crack mapping

In Itaipu buttress dam, there is a long time monitoring of cracks that appeared at the
beginning of its construction (Figure 37). Since that cracks appear, technicians carried
out several surveys only for those wider than 0.1mm, including deep studies about
resistance, structural meaning and their relevance on dam safety. Results had shown no
risk to dam structural behavior. Anyway, following directions and technical
recommendations, cracks over 0.2mm width were injected with cement paste or resin. In
Fig. 37 there are registered the upper end of the crack, marked as a dot; thicker lines to
represent cracks without treatment (injection); and gross lines as cracks that were
injected.
In order to control the cracking condition of the concrete blocks, such cracks were
observed over time. However, after the analysis of injections, as only new cracks under
0.1mm width appeared besides old ones, not all blocks had been monitored. In 1990,
crack control campaigns were reduced to representative blocks, ranging until 20 meters
height from foundation and made each 2 years. In 1995, the periodicity changed to 5
years (common blocks) and 3 years (key blocks). Some reports were manuscript, but
drawings (Fig. 37) showed more effectiveness regarding to time for analysis. Nowadays
the height changed to until 5 meters each 4 years.

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 Étore F. de Faria

LEGEND: NO SCALE

CL OF DAM
HIGHER LEVEL OF CRACK
AT TIME OF INSPECTION.
EL. 214,00
CRACK STRETCH NON EL. 213,38
0,I
INJECTED 6
CRACK STRETCH
0,I
INJECTED
10
EL. 206,48 0,I
0,I

EL. 201,50
10

4B
0,I
0,I
FLUX 0,I 5C
9
0,I
0,I 4
8 0,I 5B 5A
0,I
0,I

2 4
8 11 12 5 6

Figure 37: Cracking in right face of one block of Buttress Dam. (Source: Itaipu registers)

At the beginning, Itaipu employed Mitutoyo Pocket Comparator with Reticle, 8x

Magnification, (Fig. 38) in campaigns to measure opening of cracks. Technicians used
their experience on mapping, i.e., subjective decisions took place even with long trai ning
programs and with practicing. In other words, optical methods present advantages in
terms of covering large areas and giving comprehensive data and disadvantages as
limited accuracy, labor-intensive, data interpretation requires specialist skill. (ICOLD
1997).

Figure 38: Mitutoyo Pocket Comparator with Reticle, 8x Magnification. (Source: Internet)

As several blocks are very high, high scaffolding structures needed to be assembled
(Figure 39). That methodology of working is increasingly been discarded, because of risk
of accident. The requirement for safety has turning scaffolding rental and assembling
prices very high. Brazilian standard states that there must be an anchorage point exter nal
to the scaffold. Thence, the assembly of those structures takes too much time.

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 Étore F. de Faria

Figure 39: Scaffolding assembled for crack mapping. (Source: Itaipu registers)

It is well known that image analysis has been evolved considerably fast for structural
studies. For crack monitoring, Itaipu acquired recently a new method for surface
inspections that basically get images in a pre-established range and merge all of them to
make a mosaic.
The system comprises by two steps: a field surveillance, where the apparatus is set up
to take pictures at the same place every campaign. Pins of reference fixed on wall and
floor between blocks guarantee repeatability. The apparatus allows a range until 45° for
vertical and horizontal angles. Therefore, the most blocks need to have more than one
mosaic, and two or three mosaics need to merge to a unique mosaic of each face of a
block. Again, the pins of reference are important to merge mosaics perfectly.
Lighting and cleaning of the faces of the blocks are important factors for the success
of the field survey. Buttress Dams have natural light, but depending on the time of day
(morning or afternoon), sunlight can disrupt the caption of camera. Reflect of sunlight on
surface of dam may prevent camera to focus and the picture got show haze. Cleaning of
the faces of the blocks is what determines the expensiveness of procedure. Some tests
have been made to check how far the cleaning needs to go (Figure 40), mainly in large
dams, as Itaipu, which has about 45000m² of wall to be inspected. Results show that if
the wall is too clean, the system cannot recognize any crack because of too many white
pixels. Otherwise, if the cleaning is “poor” or “weak”, the system will mark s everal non-
cracks as it was. See both situations in Figure 41. In this way, the cleaning will vary from
block to block, depending on the quality of the image obtained. This is still a matter of
trial and error.

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 Étore F. de Faria

When cleaning needs to access heights more than 2 meters, scaffold may be necessary.
For reasons mentioned above, Itaipu has tried to clean walls by rappel (Fig. 42). Some
comparisons showed that this way is cheaper and faster than to use scaffold. Mainly
when used to clean negative walls (Fig. 43).

Figure 40: Testing to check how far the cleaning needs to go. (Source: Itaipu registers)

Figure 41: Too white pixel and non-cracks at the same wall. (Source: Itaipu registers)

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 Étore F. de Faria

Figure 42: Cleaning surface of wall at 50-60 meters height. (Source: Itaipu registers)

Figure 43: Cleaning surface of wall at negative inclination. (Source: Itaipu registers)

The other step is the mosaic analysis. A gauge supports the determining of the
thickness of 0.1-1.0mm cracks (see Fig. 41). The system allows user to choose between
automatic and manual detection. If the analysis is about a wall like that shown in Figure
44, automatic detection will require user to erase too many “false cracks”. In this case,
manual detection would take lesser effort to conclude the analysis. In addition, sensitivity
of system must be checked to avoid false recognition as shown in circles in the Figure 44.

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 Étore F. de Faria

Figure 44: Mosaic of a face of a block. (Source: Itaipu registers).

5 FINAL CONSIDERATIONS
Itaipu is taking care of its Dam.
Almost 170,000 readings per year, in more than 2500 instruments and 5500 drains in
foundation and in concrete, are made by 15 technicians. The capacity e reliability of this staff
is evidenced by validation of readings. Less than 0.5% of them need field revision. To
complete information, regular daily visual inspections are performed. Data reliance analyses
involve three experienced engineers.
Structural behavior analyses comprise instrumentation data, regular inspections results and
frequent specific visual inspections that are carried out by other eight experienced engineers.
Each four years, a Board of Consultants spends a week assessing special reports and making
focused visual inspections; who’s concluding results in a report containing recommendations
for improvements on Dam Safety activities and preventive maintenance interventions.
The Laboratory of Concrete Technology is investigating ageing and durability of structures
and foundation of Itaipu dam, using mainly non-destructive essays. Its machinery park is on
revision and some equipment are being renewed and some replaced by new ones.
Besides this, the Centre for Advanced Studies on Dam Safety (Ceasb, in Portuguese), in
Itaipu Technological Park Foundation, is researching new technologies and solutions in
themes related to safety of dams, with a multidisciplinary professors, students and
researchers. Recent studies comprise 3D dam modeling, 3D modeling of generating unit;
thermo mechanical and seismic model of buttress dam blocks; fluid-structure interaction;
turbine modeling, automation of dam monitoring instruments, dam uplift map modeling;
modeling of the Itaipu foundation mass; safety studies of Earthfill and Rockfill dams;
Spillway restoration study - definition of the best concrete to be used on the surface;
durability and CO2 capture study and creep of concrete.

REFERENCES
[1] ITAIPU BINACIONAL, Itaipu: Hydroelectric Project, Itaipu Binacional, Curitiba,
Paraná, Brazil (1994).
[2] F.R. Andriolo, Obras de Concreto de Itaipu, Brazil (2015).

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