pp ~p ~(~p) Input~p Output

p p q ~ pr ~qp
p pq p~q
pq
pr r ~pq
TT F T P Q R T
TT T F T TTT F
T
T T
F
FT T 1- LogicF 1 F1 1 F
TF T T F TT F F
F
F F
F T T 1 T0 1
T F T T T TLecture No.1
T LogicT
F Course
F Objective: T 0 T1 1 T
T F F T T F F
0
1.Express statements with the precision of0formal logic0
F T T T
2.Analyze T to test their
arguments T validityT
3.Apply the basic properties and operations related to sets
F T F T T T F
4.Apply to sets the basic properties and operations related to relations and functions
F F T 5.Define
F terms recursively
T T T
6.Prove a formula using mathematical induction
F F F F statements
7.Prove T using directT and indirect
F methods
8.Compute probability of simple and conditional events
9.Identify and use the formulas of combinatorics in different problems
10.Illustrate the basic definitions of graph theory and properties of graphs
11.Relate each major topic in Discrete Mathematics to an application area in computing

1.Recommended Books:

1.Discrete Mathematics with Applications (second edition) by Susanna S. Epp

2.Discrete Mathematics and Its Applications (fourth edition) by Kenneth H. Rosen
1.Discrete Mathematics by Ross and Wright

MAIN TOPICS
:

1. Logic
2. Sets & Operations on sets
3. Relations & Their Properties
4. Functions
5. Sequences & Series
6. Recurrence Relations
7. Mathematical Induction
8. Method of Proof
9. Graphs and Trees

Discrete Continuous
1-Logic

Set of Integers:
• • • • • • •
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3

Set of Real Numbers:

• • • • • • •
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3

What is Discrete Mathematics?

:

Discrete Mathematics concerns processes that consist of a sequence of individual steps.

LOGIC
:

Logic is the study of the principles and methods that distinguishes between a
valid and an invalid argument.

SIMPLE STATEMENT
:

A statement is a declarative sentence that is either true or false but not both.
A statement is also referred to as a proposition
Example: 2+2 = 4, It is Sunday today
If a proposition is true, we say that it has a truth value of "true”.
If a proposition is false, its truth value is "false".
The truth values “true” and “false” are, respectively, denoted by the letters T and F.

EXAMPLES
:

1.Grass is green.
2.4 + 2 = 6
2.4 + 2 = 7
3.There are four fingers in a hand.
are propositions
Rule:

If the sentence is preceded by other sentences that make the pronoun or variable reference
clear, then the sentence is a statement.

Example: Example
x=1 Bill Gates is an American
x>2 He is very rich
x > 2 is a statement with truth-value He is very rich is a statement with truth-value
FALSE. TRUE.
1-Logic

UNDERSTANDING STATEMENTS
:

1.x + 2 is positive. Not a statement

2.May I come in? Not a statement
3.Logic is interesting. A statement
4.It is hot today. A statement
5.-1 > 0 A statement
6.x + y = 12 Not a statement

COMPOUND STATEMENT
:
Simple statements could be used to build a compound statement.

EXAMPLES: LOGICAL CONNECTIVES

1. “3 + 2 = 5” and “Lahore is a city in Pakistan”
2. “The grass is green” or “ It is hot today”
3. “Discrete Mathematics is not difficult to me”
AND, OR, NOT are called LOGICAL CONNECTIVES.

SYMBOLIC REPRESENTATION
:
Statements are symbolically represented by letters such as p, q, r,...

EXAMPLES:
p = “Islamabad is the capital of Pakistan”
q = “17 is divisible by 3”

CONNECTIV MEANING SYMBOL CALLED

E S
Negation not ~ Tilde

Conjunction and  Hat

Disjunction or  Vel

Conditional if…then…  Arrow

Biconditional if and only if  Double arrow

1-Logic

EXAMPLES:

p = “Islamabad is the capital of Pakistan”

q = “17 is divisible by 3”
p  q = “Islamabad is the capital of Pakistan and 17 is divisible by 3”
p  q = “Islamabad is the capital of Pakistan or 17 is divisible by 3”
~p = “It is not the case that Islamabad is the capital of Pakistan” or simply
“Islamabad is not the capital of Pakistan”

TRANSLATING FROM ENGLISH TO SYMBOLS

:
Let p = “It is hot”, and q = “ It is sunny”

SENTENCE SYMBOLIC FORM

1.It is not hot. ~p
2.It is hot and sunny. p q
3.It is hot or sunny. pq
4.It is not hot but sunny. ~ p q
5.It is neither hot nor sunny. ~p~q

EXAMPLE
:

Let h = “Zia is healthy”

w = “Zia is wealthy”
s = “Zia is wise”

Translate the compound statements to symbolic form:

1.Zia is healthy and wealthy but not wise. (h  w)  (~s)

2.Zia is not wealthy but he is healthy and wise. ~w  (h  s)
3.Zia is neither healthy, wealthy nor wise. ~h  ~w  ~s

TRANSLATING FROM SYMBOLS TO ENGLISH

:
Let m = “Ali is good in Mathematics”
c = “Ali is a Computer Science student”
Translate the following statement forms into plain English:
1.~ c Ali is not a Computer Science student
2.c m Ali is a Computer Science student or good in Maths.
3.m  ~c Ali is good in Maths but not a Computer Science student
A convenient method for analyzing a compound statement is to make a truth
table for it.
1-Logic

A truth table specifies the truth value of a compound proposition for all
possible truth values of its constituent propositions.

NEGATION (~)
:

If p is a statement variable, then negation of p, “not p”, is denoted as “~p”

It has opposite truth value from p i.e., if p is true, ~p is false; if p is false, ~p is true.

TRUTH TABLE FOR

~p

CONJUNCTION ( )
:
If p and q are statements, then the conjunction of p and q is “p and q”, denoted as
“p  q”.
It is true when, and only when, both p and q are true. If either p or q is false, or
if both are false, pq is false.

TRUTH TABLE FOR

pq

p q pq

T T T
T F F
F T F
F F F

DISJUNCTION ( ) or INCLUSIVE OR
If p & q are statements, then the disjunction of p and q is “p or q”, denoted as
“p  q”.It is true when at least one of p or q is true and is false only when both
p and q are false.
1-Logic

TRUTH TABLE FOR

pq
p q pq
T T T
T F T
F T T
Note it that in the table F is only in that row where both p and q have F and all other
F out the truth values
values are T. Thus for finding F for the disjunction
F of two statements
we will only first search out where the both statements are false and write down the F in
the corresponding row in the column of p  q and in all other rows we will write T in the
column of p  q.

Remark:
Note that for Conjunction of two statements we find the T in both the statements, But in
disjunction we find F in both the statements. In other words we will fill T first in the
column of conjunction and F in the column of disjunction.

SUMMARY
1. What is a statement?
2. How a compound statement is formed.
3. Logical connectives (negation, conjunction, disjunction).
4. How to construct a truth table for a statement form.
1-Logic
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2-Truth Tables
2-Truth Tables

Truth table for (pq)  ~ (pq)

p q pq pq ~ (pq) (pq)  ~ (pq)
T T T T F F
T F T F T T
F T T F T T
F F F F T F
Double Negative Property ~(~p) º p

Example
“It is not true that I am not happy”

Solution:
Let p = “I am happy”
then ~ p = “I am not happy”
and ~(~ p) = “It is not true that I am not happy”
Since ~(~p)  p
Hence the given statement is equivalent to:
“I am happy”
~(pq) and ~p  ~q are not logically equivalent

p q ~p ~q pq ~(pq) ~p  ~q
T T F F T F F
T F F T F T F
F T T F F T F
F F T T F T T
Different truth values in row 2 and row 3

DE MORGAN’S LAWS
:
2-Truth Tables

The negation of an and statement is logically equivalent to the or statement in which

each component is negated. Symbolically ~(p  q)  ~p  ~q.

The negation of an or statement is logically equivalent to the and statement in which

each component is negated. Symbolically: ~(p  q)  ~p  ~q.
~(p  q)  ~p  ~q
p q ~p ~q pq ~(p  q) ~p  ~q
T T F F T F F
T F F T T F F
F T T F T F F
F F T T F T T

Application:

Give negations for each of the following statements:

a.The fan is slow or it is very hot.
b.Akram is unfit and Saleem is injured.

Solution
a.The fan is not slow and it is not very hot.
b.Akram is not unfit or Saleem is not injured.

INEQUALITIES AND DEMORGAN’S LAWS

:
Use DeMorgan’s Laws to write the negation of

-1 < x  4
for some particular real no. x
-1 < x  4 means x > –1 and x  4

By DeMorgan’s Law, the negation is:

x > –1 or x  4
Which is equivalent to: x  –1 or x > 4

EXERCISE:
1. (p  q)  r  p (q  r)
2. Are the statements (pq)r and p (q  r) logically equivalent?

TAUTOLOGY
:
A tautology is a statement form that is always true regardless of the truth
values of the statement variables.
A tautology is represented by the symbol “t”..

EXAMPLE: The statement form p  ~ p is tautology

2-Truth Tables

p  ~p  t

CONTRADICTION:
A contradiction is a statement form that is always false regardless of the truth values of
the statement variables.
A contradiction is represented by the symbol “c”.
So if we have to prove that a given statement form is CONTRADICTION we will make
the truth table for the statement form and if in the column of the given statement form all
the entries are F ,then we say that statement form is contradiction.

EXAMPLE:
The statement form p  ~ p is a contradiction.
p ~p p~p
T F F
F T F

Since in the last column in the truth table we have F in all the entries so is a contradiction
p  ~p c

REMARKS:
– Most statements are neither tautologies nor contradictions.
– The negation of a tautology is a contradiction and vice versa.
– In common usage we sometimes say that two statement are contradictory.
By this we mean that their conjunction is a contradiction: they cannot both be true.
LOGICAL EQUIVALENCE INVOLVING TAUTOLOGY

1. Show that p  t  p

p t pt
T T T

F T F

Since in the above table the entries in the first and last columns are identical so we have
the corresponding statement forms are Logically equivalent that is
ptp

LOGICAL EQUIVALENCE INVOLVING CONTRADICTION

Show that pc  c

p c pc
T F F Same truth values in the indicated columns so
F F F pc  c

EXERCISE:
Use truth table to show that (p  q) (~p (p  ~q)) is a tautology.
2-Truth Tables

SOLUTION:
Since we have to show that the given statement form is Tautology so the column of the
above proposition in the truth table will have all entries as T.
As clear from the table below

p Q P  q ~ p ~ q p  ~ q ~ p (p  ~q) (p  q)  (~p  (p  ~q))

T T T F F F F T
T F F F T T T T
F T F T F F T T
F F F T T F T T
Hence (p  q) (~p (p  ~q))  t

EXERCISE:
Use truth table to show that (p  ~q) (~pq) is a contradiction.

SOLUTION:
Since we have to show that the given statement form is Contradiction so its column in the
truth table will have all entries
as F. As clear from the table below

p q ~q p~q ~p ~pq (p  ~q) (~pq)

T T F F F T F
T F T T F F F
F T F F T T F
F F T F T T F

USAGE OF “OR” IN ENGLISH

In English language the word or is sometimes used in an inclusive sense (p or q or both).

Example: I shall buy a pen or a book.

In the above statement, if you buy a pen or a book in both cases the statement is true and
if you buy both pen and book then statement is again true. Thus we say in the above
statement we use or in inclusive sense.
The word or is sometimes used in an exclusive sense (p or q but not both). As in the
below statement

Example: Tomorrow at 9, I’ll be in Lahore or Islamabad.

Now in above statement we are using or in exclusive sense because both the statements
are true then we have F for the statement.
While defining a disjunction the word or is used in its inclusive sense. Thus the symbol 
means the “inclusive or”
2-Truth Tables

EXCLUSIVE OR:
When or is used in its exclusive sense, The statement “p or q” means “p or q but not both”
or “p or q and not p and q” which translates into symbols as:
(p  q)  ~(p  q)

Which is abbreviated as:

pÅq
or p XOR q

TRUTH TABLE FOR EXCLUSIVE OR:

p q pq pq ~ (pq) (pq)  ~ (pq)

T T T T F F
T F T F T T
F T T F T T
F F F F T F

Note:
Basically
p Å q ≡ (p  q)  ~p  q)
≡ [p  ~q)  ~p]  [(p  ~q)  q]
≡ (p  q)  p  q)
≡ (p  q)  p  ~q)
2-Truth Tables
2-Truth Tables
2-Truth Tables
2-Truth Tables
2-Truth Tables
3-Laws of logic
3-Laws of Logic

 (p  ~q)  (pq) Double Negative Law

 p  (~q  q) Distributive Law
pc Negation Law
p Identity Law

SIMPLIFYING A STATEMENT:
“You will get an A if you are hardworking and the sun shines, or you are hardworking and
it rains.”
Rephrase the condition more simply.
Solution:
Let p = “You are hardworking’
q = “The sun shines”
r = “It rains” .The condition is then (p  q)  (p  r)
And using distributive law in reverse,
(p  q)  (p  r)  p  (q  r)

Putting p  (q  r) back into English, we can rephrase the given sentence as

“You will get an A if you are hardworking and the sun shines or it rains.

EXERCISE
:

Use Logical Equivalence to rewrite each of the following sentences more simply.
1.It is not true that I am tired and you are smart.
{I am not tired or you are not smart.}
2.It is not true that I am tired or you are smart.
{I am not tired and you are not smart.}
3.I forgot my pen or my bag and I forgot my pen or my glasses.
{I forgot my pen or I forgot my bag and glasses.
4.It is raining and I have forgotten my umbrella, or it is raining and I have
forgotten my hat.
{It is raining and I have forgotten my umbrella or my hat.}

CONDITIONAL STATEMENTS
:

Introduction

Consider the statement:

"If you earn an A in Math, then I'll buy you a computer."
This statement is made up of two simpler statements:
p: "You earn an A in Math," and
q: "I will buy you a computer."
The original statement is then saying :
if p is true, then q is true, or, more simply, if p, then q.
We can also phrase this as p implies q, and we write p  q.

CONDITIONAL STATEMENTS OR IMPLICATIONS:

3-Laws of Logic

If p and q are statement variables, the conditional of q by p is “If p then q”

or “p implies q” and is denoted p  q.
It is false when p is true and q is false; otherwise it is true.
The arrow " " is the conditional operator, and in p  q the statement p is called
the hypothesis (or antecedent) and q is called the conclusion (or consequent).

TRUTH TABLE
:
p q pq
T T T
T F F
F T T
F F T
PRACTICE WITH CONDITIONAL STATEMENTS:

Determine the truth value of each of the following conditional statements:

1. “If 1 = 1, then 3 = 3.” TRUE
2. “If 1 = 1, then 2 = 3.” FALSE
3. “If 1 = 0, then 3 = 3.” TRUE
4. “If 1 = 2, then 2 = 3.” TRUE
5. “If 1 = 1,then 1 = 2 and 2 = 3.” FALSE
6. “If 1 = 3 or 1 = 2 then 3 = 3.” TRUE

ALTERNATIVE WAYS OF EXPRESSING IMPLICATIONS

:
The implication p  q could be expressed in many alternative ways as:
•“if p then q” •“not p unless q”
•“p implies q” •“q follows from p”
•“if p, q” •“q if p”
•“p only if q” •“q whenever p”
•“p is sufficient for q” •“q is necessary for p”

EXERCISE:
Write the following statements in the form “if p, then q” in English.
a)Your guarantee is good only if you bought your CD less than 90 days ago.
If your guarantee is good, then you must have bought your CD player less
than 90 days ago.
b)To get tenure as a professor, it is sufficient to be world-famous.
If you are world-famous, then you will get tenure as a professor.
c)That you get the job implies that you have the best credentials.
If you get the job, then you have the best credentials.
d)It is necessary to walk 8 miles to get to the top of the Peak.
If you get to the top of the peak, then you must have walked 8 miles.

TRANSLATING ENGLISH SENTENCES TO SYMBOLS

3-Laws of Logic

:
Let p and q be propositions:
p = “you get an A on the final exam”
q = “you do every exercise in this book”
r = “you get an A in this class”
Write the following propositions using p, q,and r and logical connectives.

1.To get an A in this class it is necessary for you to get an A on the final.

SOLUTION pr
2.You do every exercise in this book; You get an A on the final, implies,
you get an A in the class.

SOLUTION pqr
3. Getting an A on the final and doing every exercise in this book is sufficient
For getting an A in this class.

SOLUTION pqr

TRANSLATING SYMBOLIC PROPOSITIONS TO ENGLISH

:
Let p, q, and r be the propositions:
p = “you have the flu”
q = “you miss the final exam”
r = “you pass the course”
Express the following propositions as an English sentence.

1.p  q
If you have flu, then you will miss the final exam.
2.~q  r
If you don’t miss the final exam, you will pass the course.
3.~p  ~q r
If you neither have flu nor miss the final exam, then you will pass the course.

HIERARCHY OF OPERATIONS FOR LOGICAL CONNECTIVES

•~ (negation)
• (conjunction),  (disjunction)
p q
• (conditional) ~q ~p p  ~q p~q~p
Construct a truth table for the statement form p  ~ q  ~ p
T T F F T F
T F T F T F
F T F T F T
F F T T T T
3-Laws of Logic

Construct a truth table for the statement form (p q)(~ p  r)

p q r pq ~p ~pr (pq)(~ p r)
T T T T F T T
T T F T F T T
T F T F F T F
T F F F F T F
F T T T T T T
F T F T T F F
F F T T T T T
F F F T T F
LOGICAL EQUIVALENCE INVOLVING IMPLICATION
F
Use truth table to show pq  ~q  ~p
p q ~q ~p pq ~q  ~p

T T F F T T
T F T F F F
F T F T T T
F F T T T T

same truth values

IMPLICATION LAW
pq  ~pq
3-Laws of Logic

same truth values

NEGATION OF A CONDITIONAL STATEMENT
:
Since pq  ~pq therefore
~ (p  q)  ~ (~ p  q)
 ~ (~ p)  (~ q) by De Morgan’s law
 p  ~ q by the Double Negative law
Thus the negation of “if p then q” is logically equivalent to “p and not q”.
Accordingly, the negation of an if-then statement does not start with the word if.

EXAMPLES
Write negations of each of the following statements:
1.If Ali lives in Pakistan then he lives in Lahore.
2.If my car is in the repair shop, then I cannot get to class.
3.If x is prime then x is odd or x is 2.
4.If n is divisible by 6, then n is divisible by 2 and n is divisible by 3.

SOLUTIONS:
1. Ali lives in Pakistan and he does not live in Lahore.
2. My car is in the repair shop and I can get to class.
3.x is prime but x is not odd and x is not 2.
4.n is divisible by 6 but n is not divisible by 2 or by 3.

INVERSE OF A CONDITIONAL STATEMENT

:
The inverse of the conditional statement p  q is ~p  ~q
A conditional and its inverse are not equivalent as could be seen from the truth table.

p q pq ~p ~q ~p ~q
T T T F F T
T F F F T T
F T T T F F
F F T T T T
different truth values in rows 2 and 3

WRITING INVERSE
:
1. If today is Friday, then 2 + 3 = 5.
If today is not Friday, then 2 + 3  5.

2. If it snows today, I will ski tomorrow.

If it does not snow today I will not ski tomorrow.

3. If P is a square, then P is a rectangle.

If P is not a square then P is not a rectangle.

4. If my car is in the repair shop, then I cannot get to class.

If my car is not in the repair shop, then I shall get to the class.
3-Laws of Logic

CONVERSE OF A CONDITIONAL STATEMENT

:

The converse of the conditional statement p  q is q p

A conditional and its converse are not equivalent.
i.e.,  is not a commutative operator.

p q pq qp
T T T T

T F F T

F T T F

F F T T
not the same
WRITING CONVERSE
:
1.If today is Friday, then 2 + 3 = 5.
If 2 + 3 = 5, then today is Friday.

2.If it snows today, I will ski tomorrow.

I will ski tomorrow only if it snows today.

3. If P is a square, then P is a rectangle.

If P is a rectangle then P is a square.

4. If my car is in the repair shop, then I cannot get to class.

If I cannot get to the class, then my car is in the repair shop.

CONTRAPOSITIVE OF A CONDITIONAL STATEMENT

:
The contrapositive of the conditional statement p  q is~ q  ~ p
A conditional and its contrapositive are equivalent. Symbolically,pq  ~q  ~p

1.If today is Friday, then 2 + 3 = 5.

If 2 + 3  5, then today is not Friday.

2.If it snows today, I will ski tomorrow.

I will not ski tomorrow only if it does not snow today.

3. If P is a square, then P is a rectangle.

3-Laws of Logic

If P is not a rectangle then P is not a square.

4. If my car is in the repair shop, then I cannot get to class.

If I get to the class, then my car is not in the repair shop.
3-Laws of Logic
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3-Laws of logic
4-Biconditional
4-Biconditional
4-Biconditional

same truth values

REPHRASING BICONDITIONAL
:
pq is also expressed as:
“p is necessary and sufficient for q”
“if p then q, and conversely”
“p is equivalent to q”

EXERCISE
:
Rephrase the following propositions in the form “p if and only if q” in English.

1.If it is hot outside you buy an ice cream cone, and if you buy an ice cream
cone it is hot outside.
Sol You buy an ice cream cone if and only if it is hot outside.

2.For you to win the contest it is necessary and sufficient that you have the
only winning ticket.
Sol You win the contest if and only if you hold the only winning ticket.

3.If you read the news paper every day, you will be informed and conversely.
Sol You will be informed if and only if you read the news paper every day.

4.It rains if it is a weekend day, and it is a weekend day if it rains.

Sol It rains if and only if it is a weekend day.

5.The train runs late on exactly those days when I take it.
Sol The train runs late if and only if it is a day I take the train.

6.This number is divisible by 6 precisely when it is divisible by both 2 and 3.

Sol This number is divisible by 6 if and only if it is divisible by both 2 and 3.

TRUTH TABLE FOR (pq)  (~ q ~ p)

p q pq ~q ~p ~ q ~ p (pq)  (~ q ~ p)
T T T F F T T
T F F T F F T
F T T F T T T
F F T T T T T
4-Biconditional

TRUTH TABLE FOR (pq)(rq)

p q r pq rq (pq)(rq)
T T T T T T
T T F T F F
T F T F F T
T F F F T F
F T T F T F
F T F F F T
F F T T F F
F F F T T T
TRUTH TABLE FOR

p  ~r qr

Here p  ~ r q  r means (p  (~ r)) (q  r)

p q r ~r p~r qr p  ~r qr

T T T F F T F
T T F T T T T
T F T F F T F
T F F T T F F
F T T F F T F
F T F T F T F
F F T F F T F
F F F T F F T
4-Biconditional

LOGICAL EQUIVALENCE

INVOLVING BICONDITIONAL
Show that ~pq and p~q are logically equivalent
p q ~p ~q ~pq p~q
T T F F F F
T F F T T T
F T T F T T
F F T T F F

same truth values

EXERCISE
:
Show that ~(pÅq) and pq are logically equivalent
p q pÅq ~(pÅq) pq
T T F T T
T F T F F
F T T F F
F F F T T
same truth values
4-Biconditional

LAWS OF LOGIC
:
1.Commutative Law: pqqp

2.Implication Laws: p q  ~p  q
 ~(p  ~q)
3.Exportation Law: (p  q)r  p (q r)
4.Equivalence: p  q  (p q)(q p)
5.Reductio ad absurdum p q  (p  ~q) c

APPLICATION
:
Rewrite the statement forms without using the symbols  or 
1.p~qr 2. (pr)(q r)

SOLUTION
1.p~qr  (p~q)r order of operations
~(p~q)  r implication law
2.(pr)(q r)  (~p  r)(~q  r) implication law
 [(~p  r) (~q  r)]  [(~q  r) (~p  r)]
equivalence of biconditional
 [~(~p  r)  (~q  r)]  [~(~q  r)  (~p  r)]
implication law
Rewrite the statement form ~p  q  r  ~q to a logically equivalent form that uses
only ~ and 

SOLUTION
STATEMENT REASON

~p  q  r  ~q Given statement form

 (~p  q)  (r  ~q) Order of operations
 ~[(~p  q)  ~ (r  ~q)] Implication law pq  ~(p~ q)
 ~[~(p  ~q)  (~r  q)] De Morgan’s law
Show that ~(pq)  p is a tautology without using truth tables.

SOLUTION
STATEMENT REASON

~(pq)  p Given statement form

 ~[~(p  ~q)]  p Implication law pq  ~(p  ~q)
 (p  ~q)  p Double negation law
4-Biconditional

 ~(p  ~q)  p Implication law pq  ~p  q

 (~p  q)  p De Morgan’s law
 (q  ~p)  p Commutative law of

 q  (~p  p) Associative law of

qt Negation law
t Universal bound law

EXERCISE
:
Suppose that p and q are statements so that pq is false. Find the truth values
of each of the following:
1.~ p  q
2.p  q
3.q  p
SOLUTION
1.TRUE
2.TRUE
3.FALSE
4-Biconditional
4-Biconditional
4-Biconditional
4-Biconditional
5-Arguments
5-Argument

:
An argument is valid if the conclusion is true when all the premises are true.
Alternatively, an argument is valid if conjunction of its premises imply conclusion.
That is (P1 P2  P3  . . .  Pn)  C is a tautology.
An argument is invalid if the conclusion is false when all the premises are true.
Alternatively, an argument is invalid if conjunction of its premises does not imply
conclusion.

EXAMPLE
:
Show that the following argument form is valid:
pq
p
 q
SOLUTION
premises conclusion

EXAMPLE Show that the following argument form is invalid:

pq
q
 p

SOLUTION premises conclusion

p q pq q p
T T T T T
T F F F T
F T T T F

EXERCISE
F F T F F
:
Use truth table to determine the argument form
pq
p  ~q
5-Argument

pr
 r
is valid or invalid.

premises conclusion

critical rows

The argument form is invalid WORD PROBLEM

If Tariq is not on team A, then Hameed is on team B.

If Hameed is not on team B, then Tariq is on team A.
 Tariq is not on team A or Hameed is not on team B.
SOLUTION
Let
t = Tariq is on team A
h = Hameed is on team B
Then the argument is
~th
~ht
~t~h

t h ~t  h ~h  t ~t ~h
T T T T F
T F T T T
F T T T T
F F F F T
Argument is invalid. Because there are three critical rows ( Remember that the critical
rows are those rows where the premises have truth value T) and in the first critical row
conclusion has truth value F. (Also remember that we say an argument is valid if in all
critical rows conclusion has truth value T)

EXERCISE
5-Argument

If at least one of these two numbers is divisible by 6, then the product of these two
numbers is divisible by 6.
Neither of these two numbers is divisible by 6.
 The product of these two numbers is not divisible by 6.
SOLUTION
Let d= at least one of these two numbers is divisible by 6.
p= product of these two numbers is divisible by 6.
Then the argument become in these symbols
dp
~d
 ~p
We will made the truth table for premises and conclusion as given below
d p d  p ~d ~p
T T T F F
T F F F T
F T T T F
F F T T T
The Argument is invalid.

EXERCISE
If I got an Eid bonus, I’ll buy a stereo.
If I sell my motorcycle, I’ll buy a stereo.
 If I get an Eid bonus or I sell my motorcycle, then I’ll buy a stereo.
SOLUTION:
Let e = I got an Eid bonus
s = I’ll buy a stereo
m = I sell my motorcycle
The argument is es
ms
e  m  s
e s m e s m s em em s
T T T T T T T
T T F T T T T
T F T F F T F
T F F F T T F
F T T T T T T
F T F T T F T
F F T T F T F
F F F T T F T

The argument is valid. Because there are five critical rows

5-Argument

( Remember that the critical rows are those rows where the premises have truth value T)
and in all critical row conclusion has truth value T. (Also remember that we say an
argument is valid if in all critical rows conclusion has truth value T)

EXERCISE
An interesting teacher keeps me awake. I stay awake in Discrete Mathematics class.
Therefore, my Discrete Mathematics teacher is interesting.
Solution: t: my teacher is interesting a: I stay awake
m: I am in Discrete Mathematics class the argument to be tested is
t  a,
am
Therefore mt
T a M ta am mt
T T T T T T
T T F T F F
T F T F F T
T F F F F F
F T T T T F
F T F T F F
F F T T F F
F F F T F F
Argument is not valid
5-

Lecture No.6 Applications of logic

SWITCHES IN SERIES

P Q
Switches Light Bulb
Light bulb P Q State
Closed Closed On
Closed Open Off
open Open Closed Off
Open Open Off
c lo s e d
SWITCHES IN PARALLEL
:

P
Switches Light Bulb
P Q State
Q Closed Closed On
Light bulb Closed Open On
Open Closed On
Open Open Off
SWITCHES IN SERIES
:
Switches Light Bulb
P Q P Q
P Q State
T T T
Closed Closed On
T F F
Closed Open Off
F T F
Open Closed Off
F F F
Open Open Off

SWITCHES IN PARALLEL
5-

:
Switches Light Bulb
P Q P Q
P Q State
T T T
Closed Closed On
T F T
Closed Open On
F T T
Open Closed On
F F F
Open Open Off
1.NOT-gate
A NOT-gate (or inverter) is a circuit with one input and one output signal. If the
input signal is 1, the output signal is 0. Conversely, if the input signal is 0, then the output
signal is 1.

Input Output
P R
1 0
0 1
2.AND-gate
An AND-gate is a circuit with two input signals and one output signal.
If both input signals are 1, the output signal is 1. Otherwise the output signal is 0.
Symbolic representation & Input/Output Table
Input Output
P Q R
1 1 1
1 0 0
0 1 0
3. OR-gate
An OR-gate is a circuit with two input signals0 and0 one output
0 signal.
If both input signals are 0, then the output signal is 0. Otherwise, the output signal
is 1.
Symbolic representation & Input/Output Table
5-

P
R
Q OR

COMBINATIONAL CIRCUIT
:
A Combinational Circuit is a compound circuit consisting of the basic logic
gates such as NOT, AND, OR.

DETERMINING OUTPUT FOR A GIVEN INPUT

:
Indicate the output of the circuit below when the input signals are P = 1, Q = 0 and R = 0

P
AND NOT
Q

OR
S
R
SOLUTION
:

Output S = 1
CONSTRUCTING THE INPUT/OUTPUT TABLE FOR A CIRCUIT
5-

Construct the input/output table for the following circuit.

P
AND NOT
Q
S
OR
LABELING
R INTERMEDIATE OUTPUTS
:

P X Y
AND NOT
Q
S
OR
R
P Q R X Y S
1 1 1 1 0 1
1 1 0 1 0 0
1 0 1 0 1 1
1 0 0 0 1 1
0 1 1 0 1 1
0 1 0 0 1 1
0
FINDING 0 1 EXPRESSION
A BOOLEAN 0 1 A CIRCUIT
FOR 1
0 0 0 0 1 1
P
OR
Q
AND

R OR

SOLUTION
:
Trace through the circuit from left to right, writing down the output of each logic gate.
5-

P PQ

Q OR
(PQ)  (PR)
PR AND

R OR
Hence (PQ) (PR) is the Boolean expression for this circuit.
CIRCUIT CORRESPONDING TO A BOOLEAN EXPRESSION
EXERCISE
Construct circuit for the Boolean expression (PQ)  ~R

SOLUTION

P PQ
Q AND (P  Q)  ~R

OR
~R
R NOT

CIRCUIT FOR INPUT/OUTPUT TABLE

:

INPUTS OUTPU
T
P Q R S
1 1 1 0
1 1 0 1
1 0 1 0
1 0 0 0
0 1 1 1
0 1 0 0
0 0 1 0
0 0 0 0
5-

SOLUTION
:

INPUTS OUTPUT
P Q R S
1 1 1 0
P  Q  ~R
1 1 0 1
1 0 1 0
1 0 0 0
0 1 1 1 ~P  Q  R

0 1 0 0
0 0 1 0
0 0 0 0
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
:
P
Q AND S
R
OR
P
~P  Q  R
Q
EXERCISE : AND
PR
Q AND

NOT
OR
AND

AND
NOT
SOLUTION
5-

:
We find the Boolean expressions for the circuits and show that they are logically
equivalent, when regarded as statement forms.

STATEMENT REASON
(P  Q) (~P  Q)  (P ~ Q)
 (P  Q)  (~P  Q)  (P ~ Q)
 (P  ~P)  Q (P ~ Q) Distributive law
 t Q  (P ~Q) Negation law
 Q  (P ~Q) Identity law
 (Q  P)  (Q  ~Q) Distributive law
 (Q  P)  t Negation law
 (Q  P)  t
 QP identity law
 PQ Commutative law
Thus (P  Q)  (~P  Q)  (P ~ Q)  P  Q
Accordingly, the two circuits are equivalent