AFFIRMATIVE ACTION FOR WOMEN IN INDIAN CONSTITUTION

INTRODUCTION

Condition of women in India has not been historically very good. As is evident from Manusmriti,
women did not have much rights as compared to men. Further, the women are physically weaker
than men and due to this fact also, they have been exploited. Due to such continuous unfavorable
treatment, the social status of women has become really bad.

That woman is naturally a weaker sex was first acknowledged by US Supreme Court in the case
of Muller vs. Oregon 19081. In this case, the US SC observed that due physical structure and
performance of maternal functions, women are at a disadvantage in the society and thus it is
society's responsibility to implement favorable laws to bring them on the same level as men. The
makers of Indian Constitution also understood this fact and have provided several provisions for
elevating the status of women and giving them a level playing field. The following is a brief
description of such provisions.

The Constitution not only grants equality to women, but also empowers the State to adopt
measures of positive discrimination in favour of women. Within the framework of a democratic
polity, our laws, development policies, Plans and programmes have aimed at women’s
advancement in different spheres. India has also ratified various international conventions and
human rights instruments committing to secure equal rights of women. Key among them is the
ratification of the Convention on Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women
(CEDAW) in 1993.

1
52 L.Ed. 551

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  Fundamental Rights Guaranteed to women under the Constitution:—

Part III of the Constitution, consisting of Articles 12 to 35, relating to Fundamental Rights, is
considered the ‘heart’ of the Constitution. The fundamental rights are regarded as fundamental
because they are most essential for the attainment by the individual of his full intellectual, moral
and spiritual status. As per Justice P. N. Bhagwati :“These fundamental rights represent the basic
values cherished by the people of this country since the Vedic times and they are calculated to
protect the dignity of the individual and create conditions in which every human being can
develop his personality to the fullest extent2.”

 Article 14 (Equality before Law) :-

Article 14: It says that the state shall not deny any person equality before law and equal
protection of law in the territory of India. While this article is general in nature, it forms the
bedrock for all other provisions. The principle of equality adopted in the this article is that "like
should be treaded alike". This is the key principle for a social welfare state to ensure social and
economic equality. The right to equality with out the capability and the means to avail the
benefits equally would be a cruel joke on the weaker sections. This concept of equality
permeates throughout the entire constitution. This article facilitates the existence of other
provisions that might seem discriminatory but are, in fact, not.

Article 14 guarantees to every person the right to equality before the law or the equal protection
of the laws within the territory of India. The first expression ‘equality before law’ which is taken
from the English Common Law, is a declaration of equality of all persons within the territory of
India, implying thereby the absence of any special privilege in favour of any individual. The
second expression, ‘the equal protection of the laws’ is the essence and core of the right to
equality under which the State is under an obligation to take necessary steps so that every
individual, man and woman alike, is given equal respect which he or she is entitled to as a human
being. This provision is based on the last clause of the first section of the Fourteenth Amendment
to the American Constitution and directs that equal protection shall be secured to all persons

2
. Maneka Gandhi v. Union of India, AIR 1978 SC 597
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within the territorial jurisdiction of the Union in the enjoyment of their rights and privileges
without favoritism or discrimination. It is, therefore, said that ‘the equal protection of the laws’ is
a pledge of protection or equal law.

Though Article 14 permits reasonable classification, yet classification based on sex is not
permissible3. In the case of AIR India v. Nergesh Meerza3, the Apex Court, while dealing with
the fixation of different ages of retirement for male and female employees and the provision
preventing the female employees from having child, expressed the view to the effect that the
retirement of air hostesses in the event of marriage taking place within four years of service does
not suffer from any irregularity or arbitrariness but retirement of air hostesses on first pregnancy
is unconstitutional being violative of Articles 14 and 16 of the Constitution. It was considered
that such a provision was callous, cruel and an insult to Indian womanhood. Therefore, such
disability violates the equal protection of law and opportunity which is the cornerstone of our
Constitution and legal system.

Payment of equal pay for equal work has also been justified under Article 14. Unequal pay for
materially equal work cannot be justified on the basis of an artificial classification between the
two kinds of work and employment.4 In the case of Mackinnon Mackenzie and Co. Ltd. v.
Andrey (D)5, the question involved was getting of equal pay for equal work. Their Lordships
ruled that when lady stenographers and male stenographers were not getting equal remuneration,
that was discriminatory and any settlement in that regard did not save the situation. Their
Lordships also expressed the view that discrimination between male stenographers and lady
stenographers was only on the ground of sex and that being not permissible, the employer was
bound to pay the same remuneration to both of them when they were doing practically the same
kind of work. In Madhu Kishwar v. State of Bihar,6 the Chotanagpur Tenancy Act, 1908 was
challenged on the ground that the Act denied the right to succession to scheduled tribe women to
the tenancy lands and hence, it violates Articles 14, 15 and 21 of the Constitution. The Supreme
Court, by admitting the petition, quashed the discriminative provisions of the Act and paved a
way for tribal women to entitle their rights to tenancy lands along with men.

3
AIR 1981 SC 1829 : 1981 Lab IC 1313
4
State of M.P. v. Pramod Bhartiya, AIR 1993 SC 286.
5
AIR 1987 SC 1281 : 1987 Lab IC 961.
6
AIR 1996 SC 1864

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Article 14 has also been invoked to prohibit sexual harassment of working women on the ground
of violation of the right of gender equality.7 Article 14 indeed contains important provisions for
protecting the rights of women and the interpretation of this Article by the judiciary enables the
establishment of equality between the sexes.

 Article 15 (Prohibition of discrimination on grounds of sex) :-

According to Article 15: While article 15(1) prohibits the state from discriminating on the basis
of religion, race, case, sex, or place of birth, art 15(3) allows the state to make special provisions
for women and children. This is important because as espoused by art 14, it is imperative for the
state to make laws as per the social condition of various peoples. Art 15 merely elaborates that
same concept and acknowledges that women need special treatment for their upliftment.

According to Article 15(3), the state is not prevented from making any “special provision” for
women and children.Article 15(1) and 15(2) prevents the state from making any discriminatory
law on the basis of gender alone. Thus the Constitution is based on gender equality. The
Constitution insists on equality of status but it negates gender bias. Nevertheless, by virtue of
Article 15(3), the state is permitted, despite Article 15(1), to make any special provision of
women. Article 15 and 16 do not prohibit special treatment on women.

Article 15(3) recognises the fact that the women in India have been socially and economically
handicapped for centuries and, as the result thereof, they cannot fully participate in the socio-
economic activities of the nation on a footing of equality. The purpose of Article 15(3) is to
eliminate this socio-economic backwardness of women and to empower them in such a manner
as to bring out effective equality between men and women. The object of 15(3) is to strengthen
and improve the status of women. Article 15(3) thus relieves the state from the bondage of
Article15 (1) and enable to make special provision to accord socio-economic equality to women.

The scope of Article 15(3) is wide enough to cover the entire range of state activity including
that of employment.Article 15(3) is a special provision which helps women to come in same
footing with that of men.

7
Vishaka v. State of Rajasthan, AIR 1997 SC 3011

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Article 15(3) makes intelligible differentia that may not be reasonable classification. Reasonable
classification means which a ordinary prudent man should follow. There may be a clear nexes
between the classification made and the object sort to be achieved by law, it may be reasonable
or it may not be reasonable.

A doubt has been raised whether Article 15(3) saves any provision concerning women, or saves
only such a provisions as is in their favour.8The better view appear to be that while the state can
make laws containing special provisions for women and children, it should not discriminate
against them on the basis of their gender only. This appear to be cumulative effect of Article
15(1)and 15(3).Although there can be no discrimination in general on the basis of sex, the
Constitution itself provides for special provisions being made being made for women and
children by virtue of Article 15(3).Reading Article 15(3) and 15(1) together, it seems to be clear
that while the state may discriminate in favour of women against men, it may not discriminate
men against women. However Article15(3) can make special provision for women and that must
be reasonable and which do not altogether obliterate or rendor illusory the Constitutional
guarantee mentioned in Article 15(2).

Article 15(3) is an enabling provision as well as an exception to Article 15(1).It is a provision

The operation of Article 15(3) can be illustrated by the following few cases:

Under Section 497 of IPC, 1860 it says very clearly that the person who have sexual intercourse
with the wife of another person, without the consent of her husband, such sexual intercourse not
amounting to the offence of rape, as consent of the woman is there so that amounts to an offence
of adultery. In such a case the wife is not punishable as an abettor.

So in the offence of adultery the man is punishable under Indian Penal Code but the female
cannot even be punished as an abettor. Here the state makes a special provision for women.

(A) In the case of Yusuf Abdul Aziz vs. State of Bombay, the appellant is being prosecuted for
adultery under section 497 of IPC, 1860 but the women would not even be punishable as an
abettor, which is very clearly given in the last sentence of Section 497 of IPC. It was held that

8
Mahadev vs Dr. Sen, AIR 1951 Cal 563 10

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Section 497 violates Art 14 and Art 15.The portion on which the appellant relies is Article15(1)
but he has overlooked clause 3 of Article 15, which says that state can make special provision for
women. The second thing is that the appellant is not a citizen of India and it was argued that he
could not come inside the ambit of Article 14 and 15 for that reason. Hence the appeal was
dismissed.

(B) Where as in the case of Sowmithri Vishnu vs. Union of India9, In this case also similar
question arose that Section 497 of IPC violates Article 14 because under section 497 of IPC the
husband has right to prosecute the adulterer but it does not confer any right upon the women to
prosecute the women, with whom his husband has committed adultery. But the law under section
497 of IPC does not offend Article 14 and 15 of the Constitution as well as the basic structure of
the Constitution as women are protected under Article 15(3) of the Indian Constitution.

It is said by the National Women Commission that in this 21st Century where a man and woman
relationship is changing, law should also be changed, for example Section 497 of IPC, where at
least women should be punishable as an abettor in Adultery.

(C) The discretionary nature of the power of judicial review is illustrated when the Supreme
Court even after finding that the reservation policy of the State Government in force was
contrary to Article14, 15, 16 took into consideration the fact that a large number of young girls
below the age of 10 years are taught by the women and held that the reservation of 50% in
favour of female candidates was justified.10 In matter of distribution of state largesse where
dealership of retail outlets of petrol pump was reserved for women, financial capacity and ability
to provide infrastructure and facility are not relevant and material criteria when the
instrumentality of the state is providing finance and the concerned outlet site and retail outlet is
to be operated by instrumentality.11

(D) Section 497 of Cr.P.C. 1899, prohibited release of a person accused on a capital offence on
bail except a woman or a child under 16 or a sick man. The provision has been held valid as it
made out of the special treatment to women which is consistent with Article 15(3).The Rajasthan

9
Sowmithri Vishnu v Union of India, AIR 1985 SC 1618
10
Rajesh Kumar Gupta v State of UP AIR 2005 SC 2540
11
A.Ritu Maharajan v Indian Oil Corpn. (2009) 3 SCCC 506 14. Mt. Choki v State of Rajasthan, AIR 1957

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High Court observed12: “The State may makes laws containing special provisions for women and
children but no discrimination can be made against them on account of their sex alone.

 Article 16 (Equality of opportunity in matters of public employment) :-

According to Art 16(1) ensures equality in employment in govt. services and Art 16(2) explicitly
prohibits any discrimination on the ground of sex among other grounds. Even though art 16 does
not directly contain any provision specifically for women, in the case of State of AP vs. P B
Vijayakumar AIR 1995, SC held that a rule 22A introduced by AP govt. that gave preference to
women over men was valid. SC held that it is not necessary to have a specific provision in art 16
because such a provision can be made under art 15(3) itself. It further noted that art 15(3) is
recognition of the fact that for centuries the women of this country are socially and economically
handicapped. As a result they are unable to participate in the socio-economic progress of the
country on an equal footing. Thus, making special provisions for women in employment is an
integral aspect of 15(3). This power of art 15(3) is not whittled down any way in art 16.

The most significant pronouncement on Art. 15(3) are recent Supreme Court case Government
of Andhra Pradesh vs. P.B Vijay Kumar.13

The Supreme Court has ruled in the instant case under the Art.15 (3), the state may fix a quota
for appointment of women in government services. Also the rule saying that all other thing being
equal, preference would be given to women to the extent of 30% of the post was held valid with
reference to 15(3).

It was argued that the reservation of posts or appointment for any backward classes is
permissible under Art. 16(2) but not for women and so no reservation can be made in favour of
women as it would amount to discrimination on the ground of sex in public employment which
would be violative of Art 16(2).Rejecting this argument, the Supreme Court has ruled that post
can be reserved for the women under Art 15(3) as it is much wider in scope and cover all state

12
Mt. Choki v State of Rajasthan, AIR 1957
13
AIR 1995 SC 1648

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activities. While Art.15(1) prohibits the State from making any discrimination inter alia on the
grounds of sex alone, by virtue of Art.15(3), the State may make special provisions for women.

The Court has emphasized an important limb of the concept of gender equality in creating job
opportunity for women. Making special provision for women in respect of employment or posts
under the State is an integral part of Art. 15(3).This power conferred by Art. 15 (3) is not
whittled down in any manner by Art.16.

What does the expression “special provision”for women mean? The special provision which the
state may make to improve women’s participation in all activities under the supervision and
control of the state can be in the form of affirmative action or reservation. Thus Art. 15(3)
include the power to make reservation for women. Talking about the provision giving preference
to women, the court has said that this provision does not make any reservation for women. It
amounts to affirmative action. Under Art 15(3), both reservation and affirmative action are
permissible in connection with employment or posts under the State Art. 15 are designed to
create an egalitarian society.

The Supreme Court has explained the relationship between Articles 15 and 16 as follows. Art. 15
deals with every kind of state action in relation to Indian citizens. Every sphere of state activity is
controlled by Art.15 (1) and therefore, there is no reason to exclude from the ambit of Art 15(1)
employment under the state. Art 15(3) permits special provision for women. Art 15(1) and 15(3)
go together. In addition to Art.15 (1), Art. 16(1) places certain additional prohibitions in respect
of specific area of state activity, employment under the State. These are in addition to the
grounds of prohibition enumerated under Art 15(1) which are also included under Art 16 (2).The
Court has observed : “Therefore in dealing with employment under state, it has to bear in mind
both Articles 15 and 16 the former being more general provision and later is more specific
provision. Since Art.16 does not touch upon any special provision for women being made by the
state, it cannot in any manner derogate from the power conferred upon the state in the connection
under Art. 15(3).This power of the state is wide enough to cover the entire range of state activity
including employment under the State.”

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It may be noted that Art 16(2) is more limited in scope than Art 15(1) as it is confined to
employment or office under the state. The prohibited grounds of discrimination under Art 16(2)
are somewhat wider than those under Art 15(2) because Art. 16(2) prohibit discrimination on the
additional grounds of descent and residence apart from religion, caste, sex and place of birth.

Article 16 is an instance of the application of the general rule of equality before law laid down
in Article 14 and of the prohibition of discrimination in Article 15(1) with respect to the
opportunity for employment or appointment to any office under the State. Explaining the relative
scope of Article on 14, 15 and 16, Das, J. said: “Article 14 guarantees the general right of
equality; Articles 15 and 16 are instances of the same right in favour of citizens in some special
circumstances16.”

Article 16(1) and (2) embody the general rule that the State shall provide equal opportunities for
all citizens in matters relating to employment or appointment to any office under the State. There
shall be no discrimination on the grounds of religion, race, caste, sex, and place of birth,
residence or any of them in providing employment. These provisions are an extension of the
principle of equality before law and of the goal of ‘equality of status and opportunity’ as set in
the Preamble of the Constitution. The import of these provisions is that a woman has the same
rights in matters of employment under the State as a man and the State shall not discriminate
against women on this count. It operates equally against any such discriminative legislation or
discriminative executive action. If any law is passed or any executive action is taken to prevent
the women from taking up employment under the State, such law or executive action could be
challenged under Articles 16 (1) and (2). The principle of equal pay for equal work is also
covered by equality of opportunity in Article 16 (1)14.Difference in the pay scales and
promotional avenues between male and female employees is also prohibited under Article
16(2)18.

In the case of Miss C. B. Muthamma, IFS v. Union of India and others19, the constitutional
validity of Rule 8(2) of the Indian Foreign Service (Conduct and Discipline) Rules, 1961 and
Rule 18 (4) of the Indian Foreign Service (Recruitment, Cadre, Seniority and Promotion) Rules,
1961 was challenged before the Supreme Court. The impugned provision Rule 8 (2) requires a

14
AIR 1995 SC 1648
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woman member of the service to obtain permission of the Government in writing before her
marriage is solemnized and at any time after the marriage, a woman member of her service may
be required to resign from the service, if the Government is satisfied that her family and
domestic commitments are likely to come in the way of the due and efficient discharge of her
duties as a member of the service.

Further, Rule 18 (4) also runs in the same prejudicial strain, which provides that no married
woman shall be entitled as a right to be appointed to the service. The petitioner complained that
under the guise of these rules, she had been harassed and was shown hostile discrimination by
the Chairman, UPSC from the joining stage to the stage of promotion. The Hon’ble Supreme
Court held that these Rules are in defiance of Article 14, 16 and 21 and Krishna Iyer, J.
pronounced:“That, our founding faith enshrined in Articles 14 and 16 should have been
tragically ignored vis-a-vis half of India’s humanity, viz; our women, is a sad reflection on the
distance between the Constitution in the book and law in action.

In the case of T. Sudhakar Reddy v. Government of Andhra Pradesh15, the petitioner challenged
the validity of Section 31 (1)(a) of the Andhra Pradesh Co-operative Societies Act, 1964 and
Rule 22 C. 22 A (3)(a) of the Andhra Pradesh Co-operative Societies Rules 1964. These
provisions provide for nomination of two women members by the Registrar to the Managing
Committee of the Co-operative Societies, with a right to vote and to take part in the meetings of
the committee.

The Andhra Pradesh High Court quashed the petition and upheld these provisions in the interest
of women’s participation in co-operative societies and opined that it will be in the interest of the
economic development of the country. In Government of Andhra Pradesh v. P.B. Vijaya
Kumar16, the legislation made by the State of Andhra Pradesh providing 30% reservation of seats
for women in local bodies and in educational institutions was held valid by the Supreme Court
and the power conferred upon the State under Article 15 (3) is so wide which would cover the
powers to make the special legal provisions for women in respect of employment or education.
This exclusive power is an integral part of Article 15(3) and thereby, does not override Article
16.

15
AIR 1994 SC 544. 21
16
AIR 1995 SC 1648.

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At this juncture, it is also noteworthy to mention the case of Associate Banks Officers
Association v. State Bank of India17, wherein the Apex Court held that women workers are in no
way inferior to their male counterparts, and hence there should be no discrimination on the
ground of sex against women. Recently, in Air India Cabin Crew Association v. Yeshaswinee
Merchant18,the Supreme Court has held that the twin Articles 15 and 16 prohibit a discriminatory
treatment but not preferential or special treatment of women, which is a positive measure in
their favour. The Constitution does not prohibit the employer to consider sex while making the
employment decisions where this is done pursuant to a properly or legally chartered affirmative
action plan. Further, in Vijay Lakshmi v. Punjab University19, it has been observed that Rules 5
and 8 of the Punjab University Calendar, Vol. III providing for appointment of a lady principal in
a women’s or a lady teacher therein cannot be held to be violative of either Article 14 or Article
16 of the Constitution, because the classification is reasonable and it has a nexus with the object
sought to be achieved. In addition, the State Government is empowered to make such special
provisions under Article 15(3) of the Constitution. This power is not restricted in any manner by
Article 16. In this way, the Indian Judiciary has played a positive role in preserving the rights of
women in the society.

 Article 21 (Protection of life and personal liberty):-

Article 21 contains provisions for protection of life and personal liberty of persons. It states :
“No person shall be deprived of his life or personal liberty except according to procedure
established law”

17
AIR 1998 SC 32
18
AIR 2004 SC 187
19
AIR 2003 SC 3331

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This short one sentence in which Article 21 has been couched has made long strides due to the
judicial interpretation received at the deft hands of judges of the Apex Court. Article 21, though
couched in negative language, confer on every person the fundamental right to life and personal
liberty and it has been given a positive effect by judicial interpretation. “Life”, in Article 21, is
not merely the physical act of breathing. This has been recognized by the Courts. The Rig Veda
gives a subtle description of the mundane activity of speech. The soul (which, in the Rig Veda, is
compared to a bird soaring high in the heavens) inspires or fills up the mind with speech. The
“Gandharva” (the mind) carries it to the heart; and then, the luminous inspired speech takes
shape in words that can be heard. One can pursue this imagery further. While the external
mundane activities of life have their own place, they are the manifestations of an inner, unseen,
unperceived activity — which, indeed is the real “life” that a human being lives, it is true that
judicial decisions on Article 21 do not embark upon such an analysis in depth. But the judiciary
does take note to deal with the wide approach of the life.

In view of the global developments in the sphere of human rights the judicial decisions from
time to time have played a vital role towards the recognition of affirmative right to basic
necessities of life under Article 21. In the case of State of Maharashtra v. Madhukar Narayan
Mandikar20, the Supreme Court has held that even a woman of easy virtue is entitled to privacy
and no one can invade her privacy as and when he likes. This article has also been invoked for
the upliftment of and dignified life for the prostitutes. The Supreme Court has placed emphasis
on the need to provide to prostitute opportunities for education and training so as to facilitate
their rehabilitation21.

Sexual harassment at workplace is a violation of Article 21 of the Constitution and hence, the
Apex Court of the Country, in the case of Vishaka v. State of Rajasthan22, has laid down detailed
direction and guidelines on the subject which are to be strictly observed by all employers, public
or private. Right to life is recognized as a basic human right. It has to be read in consonance with
the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, 1948, the Declaration on the Elimination of
Violence against Women and the Declaration and Covenants of Civil and Political Rights and the
Covenants of Economic, Social and Cultural Rights to which India is a party having ratified

20
AIR 1991 SC 207, 211
21
Gaurav Jain v. Union of India, AIR 1997 SC 3021
22
AIR 1997 SC 3011

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them. The right to life enshrined in Article 21 of the Constitution also includes the right to live
with human dignity and rape violates this right of women23.

 Article 23 (Right against exploitation and prohibition of traffic in human beings):-

For centuries women have been humiliated, exploited, tortured and harassed in all walks of life
physically, mentally and sexually. To safeguard and protect women against exploitation, Article
23 (1) of the Constitution of India prohibits traffic in human beings and begar and other similar
forms of forced labour. “Traffic in human beings” means selling and buying human beings as
slaves and also includes immoral traffic in women and children for immoral or other purposes30.
To curb the deep rooted social evil of prostitution and to give effect to this Article, the
Parliament has passed The Immoral Traffic (Prevention) Act, 1956. This Act protects the
individuals, both men and women, not only against the acts of the State but also against the acts
of private individuals and imposes a positive obligation on the State to take all measures to
abolish these evil practices. Another evil practice of the Devadasi system, in which women are
dedicated as devadasis to the deities and temples, was abolished by the State of Andhra Pradesh
by enacting the Devadasis (Prohibition of Dedication) Act, 1988. The Supreme Court has also
held that traffic in human beings includes devadasis and speedy and effective legal action should
be taken against brothel keepers.

Similar evil practices are prevalent in India such as selling the female infants and girls to
foreigners under the guise of inter-country adoption and marriages. The Supreme Court accepted
a letter as a writ petition, complaining of mal-practices indulged by nongovernment
organizations and orphanages engaged in the work of offering Indian children, more specifically,
female infants, in adoption to foreign parents.

The Courts observed that in the guise of adoption, Indian children of tender age were not only
exposed to the long dreadful journey to distant foreign countries at great risk to their lives, but in
case they survive, they were not provided proper care and shelter and were employed as slaves
and in the course of time they become beggars or prostitutes for want of proper care and

23
Bodhisattwa Gautam v. Subhra Chakraborty, AIR 1996 SC 922

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livelihood. As there are no specific legislative provisions to regulate Inter-country adoptions, the
Court laid down certain principles and norms which should be followed in determining —
whether a child should be allowed to be adopted by foreign parents. Further a direction was
given to the Government to enact a law oregulating intercountry adoptions, as it is their
constitutional obligation under Articles 15 (3), 23, 24 and 39 (c) and (f) of the Constitutin.

The Role of Directive Principles of State Policy in Protecting the Rights of Women.

Part IV of the Constitution from Articles, 3 to 51 contains what may be described as the
active obligation of the State. The Directive Principles of State Policy are fundamental in
the governance of the country and it shall be the duty of the State of apply these principles
in making laws an to secure a social order in which social, economic and political justice
shall inform all the institutions of national life. These Directives Principles are ideals which
are based on the concept of ‘Welfare State’ and they fix certain goals; social and economic;
for immediate attainment by the Union and State Governments while formulating policy or
enacting a law.According to Article 39(a), the State shall direct its policy towards securing that
the citizens men and women equally, have the right to an adequate means of livelihood34. Under
Article 39 (d), the State shall direct its policy towards securing equal pay for equal work for both
men and women35. This Article draws its support from Articles 14 and 16 and its main objective
is the building of a welfare society and an equalitarian social order in the Indian Union. To give
effect to this Article, the Parliament has enacted the Equal Remuneration Act, 1976 which
provides for payment of equal remuneration to men and women workers and prevents
discrimination on the ground of sex. Further Article 39 (e) is aimed at protecting the health and
strength of workers, both men and women.A very important and useful provision for women’s
welfare and well-being is incorporated under Article 42 of the Constitution. It imposes an
obligation upon the State to make provisions for securing just and humane conditions of work
and for maternity relief. Some of the legislations which promoted the objectives of this Article
are the Workmen’s Compensation Act, 1923, the Employees State Insurance Act, 1948, the
Minimum Wages Act, 1948, the Maternity Benefit Act 1961, the Payment of Bonus Act, 1965,

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and the like. In the case of Dattatraya v. State of Bombay36, the Court held that legal provisions
to give special maternity relief to women workers under Article 42 of the Constitution does not
infringe Article 15 (1). Recently, in the case of Municipal Corporation of Delhi v. Female
Workers (Muster Roll)37, the Supreme Court held that the benefits under the Maternity Benefits
Act, 1961 extend to employees of the Municipal Corporation who are casual workers or workers
employed on daily wages basis. Upholding, the claim of non-regularized female workers for
maternity relief, the Court has stated :

34. Olga Tellis v. Bombay Municipal Corporation, AIR 1986 SC 180. 35. Randhir Singh v.
Union of India, AIR 1982 SC 879; Mackinnon Mackenzie and Co. Ltd. v. Andrey D’Kosta, AIR
1987 SC 1281; State of M.P. v. Pramod Bhartiya, AIR 1993 SC 286. 36. AIR 1952 SC 181 :
1952 Cri LJ 955. 37. AIR 2000 SC 1274.

Page- 15

“Since Article 42 specifically speaks of just and humane conditions of work, and maternity
relief, the validity of an executive or administrative action in denying maternity benefit has to be
examined on the anvil of Article 42 which though not enforceable at law, is nevertheless
available for determining the legal efficacy of the action complained of38.”

Article 44 provides that the State shall endeavour to secure for the citizens, a
Uniform Civil Code, throughout the territory of India. India comprises of diverse religions, faith
and beliefs and each of these religious denominations are governed by their distinct personal
laws which vary from one another. In matters relating to marriage, divorce, adoption,
maintenance and succession, different personal laws have treated and placed women on different

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levels. Due to these variations, people are being tempted to convert from one religion to another
in order to seek the benefit under the guise of those personal laws. Placing , reliance on Article
44 by the Supreme Court in upholding the right of maintenance of a Muslim divorce under
Section 125 of the Criminal Procedure Code has boomeranged resulting in a separate law of
maintenance for Muslim female divorcee39. Later the Court again reminded the State of its
obligation under this Article and issued direction to it to take appropriate steps for its
implementation and inform the Court of these steps. In the case of Sarla Mundgal v. Union of
India40, a Hindu husband married under Hindu Law and again married the second time by
converting himself to Islam. As the State had not yet made any efforts to legislate the Uniform
Civil Code, the Supreme Court directed the Government to report the measures taken for the
implementation of Article 44 of the Constitution in the interest of unity and integrity and for the
welfare and benefit of women. Fundamental Duties towards woman enshrined in the
Constitution :—

Article 51-A under Part IV-A of the Constitution of India lays down certain Fundamental Duties
upon every citizen of India, which were added by the Forty-Second Amendment of the
Constitution in 1976. The later part of Clause (e) of Article 51-A, which relates to women, gives
a mandate and imposes a duty on Indian citizens “to renounce practices derogatory to the dignity
of women”. The duties under Article 51-A are obligatory on citizens, but it should be invoked by
the Courts while deciding cases and also should be observed by the State while making statutes
and executing laws.

38. Id. At p. 1277. 39. Mohd. Ahmed Khan v. Shah Bano Begum, AIR 1985 SC 945, 954 :
1985 Cri LJ 875 and the Muslim Women (Protection of Rights on Divorce) Act, 1986. 40. AIR
1995 SC 1531.

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Reservation of Seats for Women in Election to Local Bodies :—

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The Parliament has succeeded in its efforts to provide for reservation of seats for women in
election to the Panchayat and the Municipalities. Reservation of seats for women in Panchayats
and Municipalities have been provided in Articles 243 D and 243 T of the Constitution of India.
Part IX and IX A have been added to the Constitution by the 73rd and 74th Amendment Acts
with Articles 243, 243 A to 243 D and Articles 243 P 243 ZG41. According to Article 243 D(3),
“not less than one-third, (including the number of seats reserved for women belonging to the
Scheduled Castes and the Scheduled Tribes) of the total number of seats to be filled up by direct
election in every Panchayat, shall be reserved for women and such seats may be allotted by
rotation to different constituencies in a Panchayat. Article 243 T (3) of the Constitution provides
similar provisions for reservation of seats for women in direct election in every Municipality.
Therefore, reservation of 33% of seats for women candidates to hold office and perform all
public functions at the Panchayat.

As an extension the 73rd and 74th Amendments to the Constitution, the Constitution (81st
Amendment) Bill was introduced in the Parliament way back in 1996 to reserve one-third of
seats for women in the Lok Sabha and the State Assemblies. However, this bill has not yet been
brought in to shape due to political overtures.

Ameliorative Measures for women

In the past 60 yrs of independence there has been quite a lot of work done towards the benefit of
women. In intial 5 yr plans, the focus was on welfare of women. Later on the focus shifted to
development and currently the focus is on empowerment. In 2001, National Policy for Women
Empowerment was adopted. It main points are -

1. To create an environment so that women feel involved in the making of economic and social
policies. 2. To give equal share in social, economic, and political aspects. 3. To remove
discrimination against women by enacting various laws. 4. To encourage equal treatment of
women in the society.

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41. The Constitution (Seventy-third Amendment) Act, 1992 and the Constitution Seventy-fourth
Amendment Act 1992 popularly known as the Panchayat Raj and Nagarpalika Constitution
Amendment Acts.

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The following are other measures adopted towards this end.

1. Swayamsidha Scheme - Implemented by joining Indira Awas Yojana and Mahila Samruddha
Yojana, whose objective is the ensure the total development of women. Under this policy,
women can directly control and audit the programs. It is implemented at gram and village
panchayat level by Govt. as well as NGOs. 2. Swahdhar Scheme - It helps destitute women to
learn vocation and financial support so that they can start earning on their own. 3. Kishori Shakti
Yojana 4. Mahila Samriddhi Yojana 5. Maternity Benefits Scheme 6. Rashtriya Mahila Kosh 7.
Scheme for working women's hostels 8. Development of women and children in rural areas 9.
Margin Money Loan scheme

Acts for the benefit of women

Several Acts have been passed for the improving the condition of women from time to time.

1. Dowry Prohibition Act 1961 2. Contract Labor Act 1970 as well as Factories Act 1948
provide that women cannot be employed in the night between 9 PM to 6 AM. Women cannot be

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required to work more than 9 hours. 3. Equal Remuneration Act 1976 4. The Indecent
Representation of Women (Prohibition) Act 1986 5. The Commission of Sati (Prevention) Act
1987 6. Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act 2005 7. Maternity Benefits Act 1961
8. Child Marriage Prohibition Act 1929

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SPECIAL INITIATIVES FOR WOMEN

(1)National Commission for Women

In January 1992, the Government set-up this statutory body with a specific mandate to study and
monitor all matters relating to the constitutional and legal safeguards provided for women,
review the existing legislation to suggest amendments wherever necessary, etc.

(2) Reservation for Women in Local Self -Government

The 73rd Constitutional Amendment Acts passed in 1992 by Parliament ensure one-third of the
total seats for women in all elected offices in local bodies whether in rural areas or urban areas.

(3) The National Plan of Action for the Girl Child (1991-2000)

The plan of Action is to ensure survival, protection and development of the girl child with the
ultimate objective of building up a better future for the girl child.

(4) National Policy for the Empowerment of Women, 2001

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The Department of Women & Child Development in the Ministry of Human Resource
Development has prepared a “National Policy for the Empowerment of Women” in the year
2001. The goal of this policy is to bring about the advancement, development and empowerment
of women

"The Constitution of India not only provides for equal rights and privileges for women and men
but also for making special provision for women. A series, of social legislations have been
enacted from time to time for raising the status of women in the country. The Five Year Plans
have consistently placed special emphasis on providing minimum health facilities integrated with
family welfare and nutrition for women and children, acceleration of women's education, their
increase in the labour force and welfare services for women in need. Various welfare and
development schemes have been introduced to improve the living conditions of women and to
increase their access to and control over material and social resources. Special steps have been
taken to remove legal, social and other constraints to enable them to make use of the rights and
new opportunities becoming available for them…Various studies show that women are
becoming increasingly conscious of their rights

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and capabilities. However, the demographic features of female population like excessive
mortality in female children resulting in persistent decline in sex ratio, low rate of literacy, and
low economic status stress the need for greater attention to the economic emancipation of
women. The law status of women in large segments of Indian society cannot be raised without
opening up of opportunities of independent employment and income for them. But the process of
change to raise the status of women under various spheres of socio-economic activities would
require sustained effort over a period of time..."

Conclusion

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The issue of ‘gender justice’ has been gaining ground in many an area for some centuries.
Though the traditional view of gender injustice has been given quite a quietus and treated as an
event of bygone days, yet the malady still remains, sometimes pouncing with ungenerous
monstrosity giving a free play to the inferior endowments of nature in man thereby making the
whole concept a ridicule anaesthetizing the entire edifice built in the last few decades. The
ruthless exploitation of women not only exhibits how such treatment in an anathema to the
concept of gender justice but also exposes the burial of the idea that is required to be nurtured,
cherished and believed with a deep conviction and maintained with a sanguine resolve.

It is realized that despite the constitutional safeguard and the active judicial
support towards the cause of women, changes in social attitudes and institutions cannot be
brought about very rapidly. However, it is necessary to accelerate this process of change by
deliberate and planned efforts so that the pernicious social evil of gender inequality is buried
deep in its grave. Laws written in black and white are not enough to combat the evil. The role of
Courts and judges assume greater importance and it is expected that the Courts would deal with
cases relating to woman in a more realistic manner. A socially sensitive judge is indeed a better
statutory armour in cases of crimes against women than the long clauses of penal provisions,
containing complex exceptions and provisos.

Awakening of the collective consciousness is the need of the day. A problem

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