Budapest Univesity of Technology and Economics

Department of Building Machines, Materials Handling Machines and Manufacturing Logistics

and Department of Construction Technology and Management

Construction Equipment
Earthwork & Soil Compaction

Edited by: József Károly Ph.D. student

Revised and translated by: Dr. Zoltán A.Vattai

Budapest, 2009-2010
 EARTHWORKS - HEAVY EQUIPMENT

Excavators Rippers Extractor-Haulers Compactors

Intermittent Multibucket (trencher) Bulldozers Rollers

Tampers
Power Transm. Rotary
Vibrators
Mechanic
Graders
Hydaulic

Attachments
Bucket-line (ladder)
Loaders
Scrapers
Excavators

Grips

Jaws
 Cable-operated excavators

Front shovel

1. bogie undercarriage
Backacter
2. slewing upper machinery (drive,
operator’s canopy, counter-weight)
3. turn mechanism Features:
4. boom • complicated driving system
5. arm • many moving elements → manifold potential failures
6. bucket • low working performance
7. cable-lines • extensive maintenance requirements
 Cable-operated excavators

Dragline Clamshell

1 . bogie undercarriage
2. slewing upper machinery (drive,
operator’s canopy, counter-weight) Features:
3. turn mechanism • complicated driving system
4. boom • many moving elements → manifold potential failures
5. bucket • low working performance
6. cable-lines • extensive maintenance requirements
 Cable-operated excavators

• Intermittent (cyclic) operation

• Attachments:
showel, hook, dragline,
clamshell, boring equipment
 Hydraulic excavators
(slewing excavators)

1. wheel-bogie
2. turn mechanism
3. slewing upper machinery
4. boom
5. arm
6. backacter
7. boom cylinders
8. arm cylinder
9. bucket cylinder
10. bucket moving rods
11. auxiliary attachment
12. outrigger

Wheel-mounted backacter slewing excavator

 Hydraulic excavators
(slewing excavators)

1. bogie undercarriage
2. turn mechanism
3. slewing upper machinery
4. boom
5. arm
Track-mounted backacter slewing excavator
6. backacter
7. boom cylinders
8. arm cylinder
9. busket cylinder
10. Bucket moving rods
 Hydraulic excavators
(slewing excavators)

1. bogie undercarriage
2. turn mechanism
3. slewing upper machinery
4. boom
5. arm
6. front shovel
7. boom cylinders
8. arm cylinder
9. shovel moving cylinders

Track-mounted front shovel slewing excavator

 8 Hydraulic excavators
5
(slewing excavators)
2

4 1. frame (carriage)
7 9 2. slewing upper machinery (engine,
operator’s canopy, counter-weight)
10 6 3. hoe (showel or bucket)
4. arm
11
5. boom (monoblock or articulated)
3 6. hoe rods
1
Backacter, wheel-mounted 7. boom lifting cylinder
8. arm moving cylinder
9. hoe moving cylinder
10. outrigger (strut, jack)
11. auxiliary attachment (blade)

Front shovel, track-mounted Excavator (in action)

 Attachments

Clamshell bucket (for granular material)

Breakers, Jaws
(for concrete, reinforced concrete and steel)

Others: loader bucket; drill ; trunk-grip; cutter ;

trencher; fingered grips (for fibers or
bars); crusher; vibro-plate; etc.
Screening adapter (for recycled material)
 Attachments

Sheet-wall piling equipment Boring (auger) equipment

Crusher
adapter
Fingered grip
Hydraulic excavator attachments Earthwork attachments

Backacter bucket

Auger
Ripper

Others: loading attachment; surface vibrator; roller

compactor; bucket-lined or rotary terncher; profile
buckets; sheet-wall driver; etc.

Clamshell
Hydraulic excavator attachments Earthwork attachmenst

Special bucket-typed attachments

a. drainer; b. ripper; c. canal maintainer; d. ripper-cleaner; e. profile bucket;
f. extended cutter; g. ripper-profiler; h. ejector; i. tamper
Hydraulic excavator attachments Demolisher and Recycler attachments

Screen drum

Crusher (mill)

Breaker

Snapper
Bucket-wheel (cutter/jaw)
Hydraulic excavator attachments Grabs, grips and loaders

Grabbing and loading attachments

a. clamshell; b. boring; c. fingered; d. bale grip; e. barrel/pipe grip; f. logger
 Estimating performance (output) of intermittent excavators

Technical output:
Theoretical technical output ( ) assuming ideal circumstances
Qt

(soft soil, less than 90º slewing angle, skilled operator, etc.)

3600 ⋅
q
Qt = m3 / h
tc
Where
• q = volume (capacity) of bucket [m3]
=t +t +t +t
• tc e sl1 d sl2 cyle-time (single period) [s]
• te = extraction (charging/excavating/loading) time [s]
• tsl1 = (lifting and) slewing time (from) [s]
• td = discharging (unloading) time [s]
• tsl2 = slewing (and lowering) time (to) [s]
 Estimating performance (output) of intermittent excavators

Adjusted technical output:

Corrected (adjusted) technical output (Q ) considering construction of the
a
excavator and behaviour of the soil

k
f
Qa = Qt ⋅ m3 / h
kl
Where
• kf = bucket fill factor (0,6 – 0,89)
• kl = soil loosening factor (1,1 – 1,65)

volume
Bucket fill factor is the ratio of volume of soil in the bucket and of technical volume
(capacity) of the bucket.
Soil loosening factor is the ratio of volume of excavated loose soil in the bucket
and that of compacted (natural) soil before extraction (excavation).
 Estimating performance (output) of intermittent excavators

Effective (estimated) output:

Corrected adjusted output (Qe) considering expected (experienced)
time-efficiency of application (operation/site management)

⋅
Q = k t m3 / h
e Qa

Where
• kt = time efficiency factor (0,45 – 0,83)

Time efficiency factor is the estimated ratio of effective (factual) and of „calendar” (scheduled)
operation time of the equipment on site. It depends on lot of factors and circumstances such as:
maintenance demand, skill of operator, idle (waiting) times, manoeuvre (relocating) times,
.. , , .
 Backhoe excavators

view

1. wheel tractor
.
3. arm
4. slewing boom
5. boom cylinder
6. arm cylinder
7. bucket cylinder
8. slewing mechanism
9. suspension (base) plate
10. outrigger
11. front attachment (loader)
 Backhoe excavators

Features:

multifunctional
(universal excavator)
base (frame): wheel or
track mounted
Ö attachment slewing
o
ability: ± 90
auxiliary attachment:
front bucket or blade

Backacter’s working range (trajectory)

 Backhoe excavators

Features:
• Multifunctional front showel
• Draw beam (telescopic arm)
• Transversely slidable boom
 A. with rigid frame
Bulldozers (dozers)
7 2
5 Adjustability of blade:
6 Ö Cutting depth
1 Ö Cutting angle (tilt, adjusted to soil type)
3
8. ball-joint 9
9. swivel cylinders 3 9 4
 Bulldozers (dozers)

track shoes
idler tensioner guide (pilot) wheel

driving wheel
crawler belt runners
pins
 Bulldozers (dozers)

„Oval drive” (track)

„Delta drive” (track)

Advantages of delta drive:

• due to elevated engine and drive

risk of getting dust (mud) in is less Disadvantages of delta drive:
• longer operation (life) time • higher costs of manufacturing
• increased bulk clearance • more components, longer crawler belt
 Bulldozers (dozers)

Up-to-date controls

Laser control

Bulldozer equipped with ripper attachment

Satellite control
 Scrapers

5 4 6 2 1

8 3

1. single-axle tractor 3. bowl 5. ejector 7. bowl cylinder

2. articulation 4. apron 6. apron cylinder 8. ejector cylinder

Hauling excavated soil Discharging bowl, spreading soil

 Scrapers
Phases of a cycle (turn)

Excavating (charging): apron up (open), bowl down (penetrating into the soil)

Hauling (and compacting): apron down (close), bowl up

Discharging (spreading and compacting): apron up (open), bowl up, ejector forward
 Scrapers
4 9 8 5 1 . tractor
2. gooseneck
1 6 3. scraper bowl
10
4. steering cylinder
5. bowl cylinder
6. ejector
7. apron
8. apron cylinder
2 9. apron rods
7
10. rear engine
3
(rear wheel drive)
All-Wheel-Drive Scraper
(Charging and penetration provided by towing power of tractor)

1 4 2 13 14
6

11. cutting edge

12. discharge slide
13. elevator
14. hydro-engine
(of elevator)

Elevator-scraper
12 3
5 11
 Graders 1. tractor (engine)
2. articulated carriage
3. blade
4. tilting frame
5. main frame
6. swivel ring
7. ball-joint
8. lifting cylinder (jack)
9. tilting cylinder
10. swivel cylinder

(d) cutting depth

(δ) cutting angle
(β) slope angle
(α) heading angle
(s) sliding
Adjustability of the blade
α

d 5 7

β 4

d
δ
s
3
 Graders

Typical application: refinery earthworks, levelling, topsoil excavation, spreading

a. grader: H2 < h Effect of uneven surface (h) b. dozer: H1 > h

b dozer: H > h
on position of blade (H)

h H2

h H
1

A B
Laser controlled (C) grader equipped with ripper (A) and front blade (B) attachment
 Compactors

Rollers Vibrators Tampers

Towed

Drive Surface vibrator

Electric
Self-propelled
Towed
Diesel engine
Roller wheel
(e.g.: compacting
unit of a finisher)
Bareface steel drum Dropping weight
Self-propelled
Steel runner
Cammed wheels
Beater-piston

Directed excitation

Rubber wheel Cicrular excitation

Static weight
Poker vibrator
Compaction by
+Vibration
 Towed rollers
Basic types:

a. rubber-wheel roller b. barefaced steel-drum c. tamping (spiked/cammed) roller

(for clay and adherent soil)

Features:

- Main application is soil compaction

- Towed individually or in groups

- Static load transferred to the soil can

be controlled by weights mounted

Towed group of static rollers

 Self-propelled rollers

Typical configurations

a. bareface steel roller b. rubber-wheel roller

ϕ ϕ

σ σ wheel
Rubber-wheel

Soil compression (stress) under roller wheels configuration

 Vibratory compaction

Principle of vibratory compaction:

Grains of soil are effected by periodicall y alternating
inertial forces. These forces make grain particles
‘floating’, so ordering is progressed without friction.
At vibratory compaction low amplitude high frequency
excitation is used for loose soil or for deep layers.
High amplitude low frequency excitation is used for Effect of direction of rotation on the
cohesive soils in thin layers. Frequency of excitation quality of compacted surface
should be close to characteristic frequency of the soil.

Ways of excitation:
• circular excitation: simple construction,
single exciter unit, eccentric should always
rotate in direction of advancing
• directed excitation: double exciter unit,
generates both compressing and sharing forces
in the soil simultaneously
• oscillation: the two exciter masses generate
moment at the surface of the drum creating
compressing and sharing forces in the soil, so
grains are ordered horizontally. Vertical force
is provided by the weight of the drum Comparision of excitation methods
 Vibratory roller drives
6

8 Roller Compactor: low working speed ( v = 5 … 20 km/h )

Mechanic drive: gear-down unit (cogwheel gear, chain drive)
Hydraulic drive: low r/min hydro-motor, high driving torque
9 1

2 Excentric axle: high r/min value is needed for excitation

and for efficient compaction ( n = 2400 … 4500 r/min )
7 4

6 11 5
5 3

1. vibrating roller
8
2. excentric axle
3. carriage (frame)
4. rubber spring 9
10
5. V-belt drive 2
6. chain drive
7. engine 7 1
8. gear-down unit
9. clutch 3
10. exciting motor
5
11. cogwheel gear
Double engine drive (both roller wheels are driven)
 Vibratory roller 7 3 4
remote control

1. vibro roller
2. exciter unit
3. controlling unit
4. monitor
5. acceleration sensor
6. radio receiver-transmitter 5
(database + controlling- 1
monitoring system)
7. satellite
8. adjusting direction angle
6 8 2

Controlling parameters:
dynamic elastic modulus of
material to be compacted

(via measuring acceleration) F MAX F F 0

ve = ve ve =
Controlled parameters: ω ω ω
vertical excitation force (Fve)
frequency of vibration
working direction of the unit ω
ω ω
 Vibro-plates
Circular excitation Directed excitation
( changing direction of rotation ) ( changing angle of direction )

1 1

3
2 2
4 5 6 6 7
4 5
ω
8 8

Exciter unit drive

2
1. engine
2. V-belt drive
3. excitating mass 3
4. rubber spring
5. compactor plate
6. cogwheel 1 8
7. exciter unit
8. layshaft 5
6 7
 Tampers

Diesel engine Electric tamper Beater-piston Dropping weight

tamper rammer compactor

Tampers can be used for to compact nearly all types of soil. Thickness (depth) of layer can
be compacted effectively is about 40 cm. Compaction frequency is between 2 and 15 Hz.
Applicable (effective) compaction method to be used at different types of soil

Cummulative un dersize po rtion (%)

Grain size (mm)

1. Single-grain soil structures → vibratory compaction

2. Well distributed grain-size → low frequency vibratory compaction
3. Air and water removal → static cammed steel drum or rubber wheel comapctors
4. Sand and gravel → vibratory rollers
5. Clay and silt → cammed steel drum, sometimes rubber wheel compactors
 Soil stabilization

Job: stabilizing (solidifying) loose soil structure

Methods: in-situ stabilization, pre-mixed stabilization

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Steps (in-situ):
– ripping the soil by rippers (1)
– crushing (breaking) soil by bucket-wheels (2)
– improving soil structure by adding missing soil-fragments, or
cement (3) and water (4), or lime, or asphalt, and spreading it
– mixing additives and on-site soil by bucket-wheels (5)
compacting solidified layer by surface vibrators (6) and
roller

– roller compactors (7)

 Soil stabilizing and resurfacing train
emulsion sprayer

old surface

reconditioned
surface
spreader vibro-beam mixing unit bucket-wheel

Train units:

• resurfacing unit
• water or slurry tank
• asphalt emulsion tank
• vibratory steel- and
rubber-wheel rollers