RESEARCH 200 REVIEWER 1ST EXAM

What is research? interviews, longitudinal studies, website

 “a studious inquiry or examination; interceptors, online polls, and systematic
especially investigation or experimentation observations)
aimed at the discovery and interpretation of • Focuses on verifiable observation
facts, revision of accepted theories or laws in
the light of new facts, or practical application HOW QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH WORKS
of such new or revised theories or laws” –
Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary
 “a process of steps used to collect and Observing Collection of Using
analyze information to increase our and quantitative mathematics
understading of a topic or issue” – John W. explaining to analyze
occurrences
information data
Cresswell, 2008
 Asking a question that nobody has asked
before
 Creation of new knowledge, concepts,
methodologies, and understandings CHARACTERISTICS OF QUANTI RESEARCH
 Examination of a subject from different points 1. Formal, objective, and a systematic process for
of view obtaining quantifiable information about the
 Hunt for truth world
2. Presented in numerical forms, and analyzed
CHACTERISTICS OF RESEARCH through the use of statistics
 According to LEADY (1974) 3. Used to describe and to test relationships
Research: 4. Used to examine the cause-and-effect of
 begins with a question in the mind of relationships
the researcher
 requires a plan -------------------------------------------------------------------
 demands a clear statement of the IN SIMPLE TERMS, QUANTITATIVE
problem RESEARCH IS CONCERNED WITH NUMBERS,
 deals with the main problem through STATISTICS, AND THE RELATIONSHIPS
sub-problems BETWEEN EVENTS/NUMBERS
 seeks direction through appropriate -------------------------------------------------------------------
hypotheses
 deals with facts and their meaning TYPES OF QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH:
 is circular 1. SURVEY/DESCRIPTIVE
 Uses interviews, questionnaires, and
 SEVEN CHARACTERISTICS: sampling polls to get a sense of
1. Empirical – based on behavior with intense precision
observations/experimentation on theories  Usually expressed in a percentage
2. Systematic – orderly and sequential  People questioned are sampled at
3. Controlled – all variables (except those random
that are tested) are kept constant  Can be done in person, over the phone,
4. Employs hypothesis – guides the though mail or e-mail (self-
investigation process administered), or on a single group
5. Analytical – critical analysis is utilized survey research
for no error in interpretation  Extremely common for its many
6. Objective, Unbiased & Logical - practical applications
logically based on empirical data  Seeks to describe the current status of
7. Employs quantitative or statistical an identified variable or phenomenon
methods – data are in numerical  Does not usually begin with a
measures/treated statistically hypothesis but is likely to develop one
after collecting data
WHAT IS QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH?  Analysis and synthesis of the data
provide the test of the hypothesis
• Explaining phenomena by collective  Systematic collection of information
numerical data that are analyzed using requires careful selection of the units
mathematically based methods studied and measurement of each
• Used to quantify the problem by way of variable in order to demonstrate
generating numerical data that can be validity
transformed into useable statistics (attitudes, 2. CORRELATIONAL
opinions, behaviors, and other defined  Tests for the relationships between two
variables) and generalize results from a larger variables
sample population  Establishes what is the effect of one on
• Uncovers patterns using measurable data the other might be and how that affects
• Collects data through various forms of the relationship
survey (online surveys, paper surveys, mobile  Conducted in order to explain a notice
and kiosk surveys, face-to-face or telephone occurrence
RESEARCH 200 REVIEWER 1ST EXAM
 Does not always mean causation  It is possible to control for the effects of
 Attempts to determine the extent of a extraneous variables that might result in
relationship between two or more misleading interpretations of causality
variables using statistical data (although this can be challenging in the natural
 Recognizes trends and patterns in data settings of evaluations)
but doesn’t establish cause and effect  Estimates can be obtained of the costs and
 Variables are not manipulated and are benefits of interventions
studied in a natural setting  Clear documentation can be provided regarding
 Sometimes considered a type of the content and application of the survey
descriptive research as no variables are instruments so that other researchers can assess
manipulated the validity of the findings
3. CAUSAL-COMPARATIVE/QUASI-  Standardized approaches permit the study to be
EXPERIMENTAL replicated in different areas or overtime with
 Looks to uncover a cause and effect the production of comparable findings
relationship between variables  Estimates can be obtained of the magnitude
 Not conducted between the two groups and distribution of impacts.
on each other
 Tries to identify, specifically, how the WEAKNESSES
different groups are affected by the  Many kinds of information are difficult to
same circumstance obtain through structured data collection
 Very similar to true experiments but instruments, particularly on sensitive topics
with some key differences such as domestic violence or income
 An independent variable is identified  Many groups such as sex workers, drug users,
but not manipulated by the illegal immigrants, squatters, and ethnic
experimenter and its effects on the minorities are always difficult to reach, but the
dependent variable are measured problems are often greater for quantitative data
 Does not randomly assign groups and collection methods
must use ones that are naturally formed  Self-reported information obtained from
or pre-existing groups questionnaires may be inaccurate or incomplete
 Identified control groups are studies  There is often no information on contextual
and compared to groups who are not factors to help interpret the results or to explain
exposed to the treatment variable variations in behavior between households
4. EXPERIMENTAL with similar economic and demographic
 Guided specifically by a hypothesis or characteristics
several hypotheses  The administration of a structure questionnaire
 This type is the bedrock of most creates an unnatural situation that may alienate
sciences respondents
 Can be used to explain all sorts of  Studies are expensive and time-consuming and
phenomena even the preliminary results are usually not
 Also called true experimentation which available for a long period of time
uses scientific method to establish the  Research methods are inflexible because the
cause-effect relationship among a instruments cannot be modified once the study
group of variables that make up a study begins
 A true experiment is any study where  Reduction of data to numbers results in lost
an effort is made to identify and information
impose control over all other variables  The correlations produces (e.g. between costs
except one and benefits, gender, and access to services or
 An independent variable is benefits) may mask or ignore underlying
manipulated to determine the effects causes or realities.
on the dependent variables  Untested variables may account for program
 Subjects are randomly assigned to impacts
experimental treatments rather than  Errors in the hypotheses tested may yield
identified in naturally occurring groups misimpressions of program quality or
influential factors
STRENGTHS & WEAKNESSES OF  Errors in the selection of procedures for
QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH determining statistical significance can result
in erroneous findings regarding impact
STRENGTH
 Study findings can be generalized to the FIELDS THAT USE QUANTITIVE RESEARCH
population about which information is required
 Samples individuals, communities, or 1. NATURAL SCIENCES
organizations can be selected to ensure that the  Description, prediction and
results will be representative of the population understanding of natural
studied phenomena, based on
 Structural factors that determine how observational and empirical
inequalities (such as gender inequalities) are evidence
produced can be analyzed
RESEARCH 200 REVIEWER 1ST EXAM
DEPENDENT VARIABLE
2. MATHEMATICAL SCIENCES  Also the outcome/effect variable
 include mathematics as a main  Effect or result of another variable
field or sub-field like statistics,  Depends on the cause (IV)
some areas of physics, biometrics,
computer science, computational EXAMPLES:
science, population genetics,  Climate change: temperature (IV) may
operations research, cryptology, influence sea level (DV)
econometrics, theoretical physics,  Crime and violence: number of law enforcers
actuarial science, and many more (IV) may influence the number of robberies
3. SOCIAL SCIENCES (DV).
 psychology, economics
demography, sociology, marketing, In the research vocabulary, different labels have been
community health, health & associated with the independent and dependent
human development, gender, and variables like:
political science, widely use
quantitative research. INDEPENDENT
 Presumed cause
These fields use quantitative research for many reasons  Stimulus
which may be a combination of any of the following  Predicted from
reasons:  Antecedent
1. It is more reliable and objective;  Manipulated
2. It can use statistics to generalize a  Predictor
finding;
3. It often reduces and restructures a DEPENDENT
complex problem to a limited number  Presumed effect
of variables;  Response
4. It looks at relationships between  Predicted to
variables and can establish cause and  Consequence
effect in highly controlled  Measured outcome
circumstances.  Criterion
5. It tests theories or hypotheses;
6. It assumes sample is representative of In experimental research, the aim is to manipulate
the population; an IV(s) and then examine the effect that a specific
7. Subjectivity of researcher in change has on a DV(s). In a true experiment, a
methodology is recognized less; and, treatment, procedure, or program is intentionally
8. It is less detailed than qualitative data. introduced and a result or outcome is observed.
True experiments have four elements:
THE NATURE OF VARIABLES manipulation, control, random assignment, and
Variables – Measurable characteristic that varies. random selection. Of these four, manipulation and
- root word “vary” meaning changing in control are the most important.
amount, volume, number, form, nature, or type. Manipulation means that something is purposefully
- factors that can be manipulated or measured. changed by the researcher in the environment.
EXAMPLES: Control is used to prevent outside factors from
1. Gender; Values: Male or Female influencing the study outcome. Control makes a
2. Marital status; Values: Never married, researcher more confident that the manipulation
Single, Married, Divorced, or “caused” the outcome.
Widowed Random assignment means that if there are groups
3. Family income; Values: zero to or treatments in the experiment, participants are
billions of pesos assigned to these groups or treatments, or randomly
4. Person’s attitude toward women (like a coin flip).
empowerment; Values: Highly Random selection means that no matter who the
favorable to Highly unfavourable participant is, he/she has an equal chance of getting
into the groups or treatments in an experiment.
------------------------------------------------------------------- This helps to ensure that the groups of treatments
KINDS OF VARIABLES are similar at the beginning of the study to ensure
------------------------------------------------------------------------- there is more confidence that the manipulation
INDEPENDENT VARIABLE “cause” the outcome.
 Also the cause In contrast, researchers do not manipulate the
variable/experimental/predictor variable independent variable(s) in non-experimental
 Identifies the forces or conditions that act on research. The reason for this is that it will either be
something else. impractical or unethical to manipulate the IV(s).
 May influence or affect another variable. Non-experimental research involves observing and
 The variable the researcher controls measuring things as they are. Variables are studied
 In any case, the researchers expects the IV will as they exist.
have some effect (or relationship with) the Naturalistic observation, interview, survey, case
dependent variable. history, and psychometric scales are some of the
RESEARCH 200 REVIEWER 1ST EXAM
methods used when manipulation is not possible or HOW ARE VARIABLES RELATED AMONG THEMSELVES?
unethical. Once variables are identified by the researcher,
One reason for using non-experimental research is he/she is interested in the relationship among them. A
that many variables of interest in social science statement containing the variable is called a
cannot be manipulated because they are attribute proposition. A proposition with one variable in it may
variables, such as gender, socioeconomic status, be called as univariate proposition, those with two
learning style, or any other personal characteristic variables as bivariate proposition, and then those with
or trait. more that two as multivariate.
For example, a researcher may be interested in the
effect of illegal, recreational drug use (IV) on
certain types of behavior (DV). However, while
possible, it would be unethical to ask individuals to
take illegal drugs in order to study what effect this
had on certain behaviors.

CATEGORICAL VARIABLES - Also known as

discrete/qualitative variables.

THREE TYPES:
1. NOMINAL
 Variables that have two or more
categories but DOES NOT have an
intrinsic order
 Latin nomalis “pertaining to names”
 CATEGORY
2. ORDINAL
 Variables that have two or more
categories but CAN BE ORDERED
OR RANKED
3. DICHOTOMOUS
 Nominal variables that only have two
categories or levels.

CONTINUOUS VARIABLES – also known as

quantitative variables.

TWO TYPES:
1. INTERVAL
 Can be measured along a continuum
and that have a numerical value.
2. RATIO
 Interval variables but with the added
condition that 0 (zero) of the
measurement indicated that there is
none of that variable.
 HAS A TRUE ZERO.

MODERATING VARIABLE – has a strong

contingent effect on the IV-DV relationship. That is,
the presence of an MV modifies the original
relationship between the IV and DV.

INTERVENING VARIABLE - appears in more

complex causal relationships. It comes between the IV
and DV and shows the link or mechanism between
them. In a sense, the IVV acts as a DV with respect to
the IV and acts as an IV toward the DV.

EXTRANEOUS VARIABLE - might conceivably

affect a given relationship. Some can be treated as IV
or MV, but most either be assumed or excluded from
the study. In order to identify the true relationship
between the IV and DV, the effect of the EV may have
to be controlled. This is necessary if we are conducting
an experiment where the effect of the confounding
factors has to be controlled. Confounding factors is
another name used for extraneous variables.