BAB II

PEMBAHASAN ISI BUKU

Chapter 1 Limits and Their Propert

The limit of a function is the primary concept that distinguishes calculus from algebra
and analytic geometry. The notion of a limit is fundamental to thestudy of calculus. Thus, it is
important to acquire a good working knowledge of limits before moving on to other topics in
calculus. In this chapter, you should learn the following.

1.1 A Preview of Calculus

is the mathematics of change. For instance, calculus is the mathematics of
velocities, accelerations, tangent lines, slopes, areas, volumes, arc lengths, centroids,
curvatures, and a variety of other concepts that have enabled scientists, engineers, and
economists to model real-life situations.
Although precalculus mathematics also deals with velocities,accelerations,tangent
lines, slopes, and so on, there is a fundamental difference between precalculus
mathematics and calculus. Precalculus mathematics is more static, whereas calculus is
more dynamic. Here are some:

• An object traveling at a constant velocity can be analyzed with precalculus

mathematics. To analyze the velocity of an accelerating object, you need calculus.
• The slope of a line can be analyzed with precalculus mathematics. To analyze the
slope of a curve, you need calculus.
• The curvature of a circle is constant and can be analyzed with precalculus mathematics.
To analyze the variable curvature of a general curve, you need calculus.
• The area of a rectangle can be analyzed with precalculus mathematics. To analyze
the area under a general curve, you need calculus.
Each of these situations involves the same general strategy—the reformulation of
precalculus mathematics through the use of a limit process. So, one way to answer the
 question “What is calculus?” is to say that calculus is a “limit machine” that involves
three stages.
Some students try to learn calculus as if it were simply a collection of new
formulas. This is unfortunate. If you reduce calculus to the memorization of
differentiation and integration formulas, you will miss a great deal of understanding, self-
confidence, and satisfaction. On the following two pages are listed some familiar
precalculus concepts coupled with their calculus counterparts. Throughout the text, your
goal should be to learn how precalculus formulas and techniques are used as building
blocks to produce the more general calculus formulas and techniques. Don’t worry if you
are unfamiliar with some of the “old formulas” listed on the following two pages—you
will be reviewing all of them.
As you proceed through this text, come back to this discussion repeatedly. Try to
keep track of where you are relative to the three stages involved in the study of calculus.
For example, the first three chapters break down as follows.

1.2 Finding Limits Graphically and Numerically

An Introduction to Limits
Suppose you are asked to sketch the graph of the function given by.

f x x3 1 x 1.
x1

x 0.75 0.9 0.99 0.999 1 1.001 1.01 1.1 1.25

fx 2.313 2.710 2.970 2.997 ? 3.003 3.030 3.310 3.813

The graph of is a parabola that has a gap at the point as shown in Figure
1.5. Although cannot equal 1, you can move arbitrarily close to 1, and as a result
moves arbitrarily close to 3. Using limit notation, you can write.
This discussion leads to an informal definition of limit. If becomes arbitrarily
close to a single number as approaches from either side, the limit of as approaches is This
limit is written.
1.3 Evaluating Limits Analytically
Properties of Limits
In Section 1.2, you learned that the limit of as approaches does not depend on the
value of at It may happen, however, that the limit is precisely In such cases, the limit can
be evaluated by direct substitution.
Such well-behaved functions are continuous at You will examine this concept
more closely in Section

1.4 Continuity and One-Sided Limits

Continuity at a Point and on an Open Interval.
In mathematics, the term continuous has much the same meaning as it has in
everyday usage. Informally, to say that a function is continuous at means that
there is no interruption in the graph of at That is, its graph is unbroken at and
there are no holes, jumps, or gaps. Figure 1.25 identifies three values of at which the
graph of is not continuous. At all other points in the interval the graph of is
uninterrupted and continuous.
In Figure 1.25, it appears that continuity at can be destroyed by any one of
the following conditions.
1. The function is not defined at
2. The limit of does not exist at
3. The limit of exists at but it is not equal to
If none of the three conditions above is true, the function is called continuous at
as indicated in the following important definition.

1.5 Infinite Limits

Infinite Limits
Let be the function given by From Figure 1.39 and the table, you can see that
 decreases without bound as approaches 2 from the left, and increases without bound as
approaches 2 from the right. This behavior is denoted as.

x 1.5 1.9 1.99 1.999 2 2.001 2.01 2.1 2.

fx 6 30 300 3000 ? 3000 300 30 6

A limit in which increases or decreases without bound as approaches is called

an infinite limit.

Chapter 2 Differentiation

In this chapter you will study one of the most important processes of calculus–
differentiation. In each section, you will learn new methods and rules for finding derivatives of
functions. Then you will apply these rules to find such things as velocity, acceleration, and
therates of change of two or more related variables. In this chapter, you should learn the

following.

2.1. The Derivative and the Tangent Line Problem

Calculus grew out of four major problems that European mathematicians were working
on during the seventeenth century.
1. The tangent line problem (Section 1.1 and this section)
2. The velocity and acceleration problem (Sections 2.2 and 2.3)
3. The minimum and maximum problem (Section 3.1)
4. The area problem (Sections 1.1 and 4.2)
Each problem involves the notion of a limit, and calculus can be introduced with any
of the four problems. A brief introduction to the tangent line problem is given in Section 1.1.
Although
partial solutions to this problem were given by Pierre de Fermat (1601–1665), René Descartes
(1596–1650), Christian Huygens (1629–1695), and Isaac Barrow (1630 –1677), credit for the
first general solution is usually given to Isaac Newton (1642–1727) and Gottfried Leibniz (1646–
1716). Newton’s work on this problem stemmed from his interest in optics and light refraction.
2.2..2 Basic Differentiation Rules and Rates of Change

In Section 2.1 you used the limit definition to find derivatives. In this and the next two
sections you will be introduced to several “differentiation rules” that allow you to find
derivatives without the direct use of the limit definition

When using the Power Rule, the case for which is best thought of as a
separate differentiation rule.This proves the case for which is a positive integer greater than 1.
You will prove the case for Example 7 in Section 2.3 proves the case for which is a negative

THEOREM 2.2 THE CONSTANT RULE

The derivative of a constant function is 0. That is, if is a real
number, then
(See Figure 2.14.)
d
dx c 0.
c
EXPLORATION
Writing a Conjecture Use the definition of the derivative given in
Section 2.1
to find the derivative of each function. What patterns do you see?
Use your
results to write a conjecture about the derivative of
a. b. c.
d. e. f. f x x4 f x x1 2 f x x1
f x x1 f x x 2 f x x 3
f x x n.

2.3 Basic Differentiation Rules and Rates of Change

THEOREM 2.3 THE POWER RULE

If is a rational number, then the function is differentiable and
For to be differentiable at must be a number such that is
defined on an interval containing 0.
f x 0, n xn1
d
dx xn nx n1.
n f x xn
x
The Power Rule
Before proving the next rule, it is important to review the procedure for expanding a
binomial. The general binomial expansion for a positive integer is

EXAMPLE 4 Finding an Equation of a Tangent Line

Find an equation of the tangent line to the graph of when
Solution To find the point on the graph of evaluate the original function at
Point on graph 2, f 22, 4
To find the slope of the graph when evaluate the derivative, at
x 2, fx 2x,
m f
Slope of graph at
2 4
x 2.
Now, using the point-slope form of the equation of a line, you
can write
Point-slope form
See Figure 2.17.
Substitute for and
y 4x 4.
Simplify.
y 4 4x
■
2
x
y y1 mx x1
y1, m, 1.

2.4. The Chain Rule

 This text has yet to discuss one of the most powerful differentiation rules—the Chain
Rule. This rule deals with composite functions and adds a surprising versatility to the rules
discussed in the two previous sections. For example, compare the functions shown below. Those
on the left can be differentiated without the Chain Rule, and those on the right are best
differentiated with the Chain Rule. Basically, the Chain Rule states that if changes times as fast
as and changes times as fast as then changes times as fast.

2.5. Implicit Differentiation

Up to this point in the text, most functions have been expressed in explicit form. For
example, in the equation the variable is explicitly written as a function of Some functions,
however, are only implied by an equation. For instance, the function is defined implicitly by the
equation Suppose you were asked to find for this equation. You
could begin by writing explicitly as a function of and then differentiating. This strategy
works whenever you can solve for the function explicitly. You cannot, however, use this
procedure when you are unable to solve for as a function of For instance, how would you find for
the equation where it is very difficult to express as a function of explicitly? To do this, you can
use implicit differentiation. To understand how to find implicitly, you must realize that the
differentiation is taking place with respect to This means that when you differentiate terms
involving alone, you can differentiate as usual. However, when you differentiate terms involving
you must apply the Chain Rule, because you are assuming that is defined implicitly as a
differentiable function.

2.6 Related Rates

You have seen how the Chain Rule can be used to find implicitly. Another
important use of the Chain Rule is to find the rates of change of two or more related
variables that are changing with respect to time. For example, when water is drained out of a
conical tank (see Figure 2.33), the volume the radius and the height of the water level are all
functions of time Knowing that these variables are related by the equation you can differentiate
implicitly with respect to to obtain the related-rate equation From this equation you can see that
the rate of change of is related to the rates of change of both .

EXAMPLE 1 Two Rates That Are Related

Suppose and are both differentiable functions of and are related by the equation
Find when given that when
Solution Using the Chain Rule, you can differentiate both sides of the equation with
respect to
Write original equation.
Differentiate with respect to
Chain Rule
When and you have
■
dy
dt 212 4.
x 1 dx dt 2,
dy
dt 2x dx dt
t.
d
dt y dt d x 2 3
y x2 3
t.
y x 2 3. dy dt x 1, dx dt 2 x 1.
xyt
h r.
V

3
r 2 dh dt 2rh dr dt .
t.
dV
dt
3
r 2 dh dt h 2r dr dt
d
dtV dt d 3 r2h
t
V
3 r 2h

Chapter 3 Applications of Differentiation

This chapter discusses several applications of the derivative of a function. These
applications fall into three basic categories—curve sketching, optimization, and approximation
techniques. In this chapter, you should learn the following.

3.1 Extrema on an Interval

In calculus, much effort is devoted to determining the behavior of a function on an
interval Does have a maximum value on Does it have a minimum value? Where is the function
increasing? Where is it decreasing? In this chapter you will learn how derivatives can be used to
answer these questions. You will also see why these questions are important in real-life
applications. A function need not have a minimum or a maximum on an interval. For instance, in
Figure 3.1(a) and (b), you can see that the function has both a
minimum and a maximum on the closed interval but does not have a maximum on the open
interval Moreover, in Figure 3.1(c), you can see that continuity (or the lack of it) can affect the
existence of an extremum on the interval. This suggests the theorem below. (Although the
Extreme Value Theorem is intuitively plausible, a proof of this theorem is not within the scope
of this text.)

3.1 Extrema on an Interval

DEFINITION OF EXTREMA
Let be defined on an interval containing
1. is the minimum of on if for all in
2. is the maximum of on if for all in
The minimum and maximum of a function on an interval are the
extreme
values, or extrema (the singular form of extrema is extremum), of
the
function on the interval. The minimum and maximum of a function
on an
interval are also called the absolute minimum and absolute
maximum, or
the global minimum and global maximum, on the interval.
f c f I f c f x x I.
f c f I f c f x x I.
f I c.

3.2 Rolle’s Theorem and the Mean Value Theorem

The Extreme Value Theorem (Section 3.1) states that a continuous function on a closed
interval must have both a minimum and a maximum on the interval. Both of these values,
however, can occur at the endpoints. Rolle’s Theorem, named after the French mathematician
Michel Rolle (1652–1719), gives conditions that guarantee the existence of an extreme value in
the interior of a closed interval.

THEOREM 3.3 ROLLE’S THEOREM

Let be continuous on the closed interval and differentiable on the
open
interval If
then there is at least one number in such that c a, b fc 0.
fa fb
3.3 Increasing and Decreasing Functions and the First Derivative Test
In this section you will learn how derivatives can be used to relative extrema
as either relative minima or relative maxima. First, it is important to define increasing
and decreasing functions.
A function is increasing if, its graph moves up, and is decreasing if its graph moves
down. For example, the function in Figure 3.15 is decreasing on the interval is constant on the
interval and is increasing on the interval As shown in Theorem 3.5 below, a positive derivative
implies that the function is increasing; a negative derivative implies that the function is
decreasing; and a zero derivative on an entire interval implies that the function is
constant on that interval.

fc fx2 fx1
x
2 x1

THEOREM 3.5 TEST FOR INCREASING AND

DECREASING FUNCTIONS
Let be a function that is continuous on the closed interval and
differen
tiable on the open interval
1. If for all in then is increasing on
2. If for all in then is decreasing on
3. If for all in then is constant on fx 0 x a, b, f a, b
fx < 0 x a, b, f a, b.
fx > 0 x a, b, f a, b.
a, b.
f a, b
3.4 Concavity and the Second Derivative Test
You have already seen that locating the intervals in which a function increases or
decreases helps to describe its graph. In this section, you will see how locating the
intervals in which increases or decreases can be used to determine where the graph.

`The following graphical interpretation of concavity is useful. (See Appendix A

for a proof of these results.)
1. Let be differentiable on an open interval If the graph of is concave upward on
then the graph of lies all of its tangent lines on.
2. Let be differentiable on an open interval If the graph of is concave downward
on then the graph of lies all of its tangent lines on.

THEOREM 3.7 TEST FOR CONCAVITY

Let be a function whose second derivative exists on an open interval
1. If for all in then the graph of is concave upward on
2. If for all in then the graph of is concave downward on f x < 0 x I, f
I.
fx>

3.5 Limits at Infinity

This section discusses the “end behavior” of a function on an interval. Consider the graph
of as shown in Figure 3.33. Graphically, you can see that the values of appear to approach 3 as
increases without bound or decreases without bound. You can come to the same conclusions
numerically, as shown in the table. The table suggests that the value of approaches 3 as increases
without bound Similarly, approaches 3 as decreases without bound These limits at infinity are
denoted.

DEFINITION OF LIMITS AT INFINITY

Let be a real number.
1. The statement means that for each there exists an
such that whenever
2. The statement means that for each there exists an
N < 0 such that whenever fx L < x < N
lim > 0
x→
fx L
M > 0 f x L < x > M.
lim > 0
x→
fx L
L

3.6 A Summary of Curve Sketching

It would be difficult to overstate the importance of using graphs in mathematics.

Descartes’s introduction of analytic geometry contributed significantly to the rapid
advances in calculus that began during the mid-seventeenth century. In the words of
Lagrange, “As long as algebra and geometry traveled separate paths their advance was
slow and their applications limited. But when these two sciences joined company, they
drew from each other fresh vitality and thenceforth marched on at a rapid pace toward
perfection.”
So far, you have studied several concepts that are useful in analyzing the graph of
a function.
• intercepts and intercepts (Section P.1)
• Symmetry (Section P.1)
• Domain and range (Section P.3)
• Continuity (Section 1.4)
• Vertical asymptotes (Section 1.5)
• Differentiability (Section 2.1)
• Relative extrema (Section 3.1)
• Concavity (Section 3.4)
• Points of inflection (Section 3.4)
• Horizontal asymptotes (Section 3.5)
• Infinite limits at infinity (Section 3.5)
When you are sketching the graph of a function, either by hand or with a graphing utility,
remember that normally you cannot show the entire graph. The decision as
to which part of the graph you choose to show is often crucial. For instance, which of
the viewing windows in Figure 3.44 better represents the graph.

Chapter 4 Integration

In this chapter, you will study an important process of calculus that is closely related to
differentiation–integration. You will learn new methods and rules for solving definite and
indefinite integrals, including the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus. Then you will apply these
rules to find such things as the position function for an object and the average value of a
function. In this chapter, you should learn the following.

4.1 Antiderivatives and Indefinite Integration

Suppose you were asked to find a function whose derivative is From your knowledge of
derivatives, you would probably say that The function is an antiderivative of Note that is called
antiderivative of rather than antiderivative of . To see why, observe that and
are all antiderivatives of In fact, for any constant the function given by Fx x 3 C is an
antiderivative of f. f x 3x 2. C, F3 F1x x 3, F2x x3 5, x x 3 97
F an f, the f. Fx x3 because d dxx3 3x2. F f x 3x 2.

4.2 Area

In the preceding section, you studied antidifferentiation. In this section, you will look
further into a problem introduced in Section 1.1—that of finding the area of a region
in the plane. At first glance, these two ideas may seem unrelated, but you will discover
in Section 4.4 that they are closely related by an extremely important theorem called the
Fundamental Theorem of Calculus. This section begins by introducing a concise notation for
sums. This notation is called sigma notation because it uses the uppercase Greek letter sigma,
written.

SIGMA NOTATION
The sum of terms is written as
where is the index of summation, is the ith term of the sum, and
the
upper and lower bounds of summation are and 1. n
a
ii
n
i1
a
i a1 a2 a 3 . . . an
a
n 1, a2, a3, . . . , an

Area

In Euclidean geometry, the simplest type of plane region is a rectangle. Although people
often say that the formula for the area of a rectangle is it is actually more proper to say that this is
the definition of the area of a rectangle. From this definition, you can develop formulas for the
areas of many other plane regions. For example, to determine the area of a triangle, you can form
a rectangle whose area is twice that of the triangle, as shown in Figure 4.5. Once you know how
to find the area of a triangle, you can determine the area of any polygon bysubdividing the
polygon into triangular regions, as shown in Figure.

Parallelogram
Hexagon Polygon
Figure 4.6
Finding the areas of regions other than polygons is more difficult. The ancient
Greeks were able to determine formulas for the areas of some general regions
(principally those bounded by conics) by the exhaustion method. The clearest
description of this method was given by Archimedes. Essentially, the method is a
limiting process in which the area is squeezed between two polygons—one inscribed in the
region and one circumscribed about the region. For instance, in Figure.

4.3 Riemann Sums and Definite Integrals

In the definition of area given in Section 4.2, the partitions have subintervals of equal
width. This was done only for computational convenience. The following example shows that it
is not necessary to have subintervals of equal width.

THEOREM 4.7 PROPERTIES OF DEFINITE INTEGRALS

If and are integrable on and is a constant, then the functions and
are integrable on and
1.
2.
b
a
f x ± gx dx
b
a
f x dx ±
b
a
gx dx.
b
a
kf x dx k
b
a
f x dx
f ± g a, b,
f g a, b k kf
4.4 The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus

You have now been introduced to the two major branches of calculus: differential
calculus (introduced with the tangent line problem) and integral calculus (introduced with the
area problem). At this point, these two problems might seem unrelated—but there is a very close
connection. The connection was discovered independently by Isaac Newton and Gottfried
Leibniz and is stated in a theorem that is appropriately called the Fundamental Theorem of
Calculus.

Informally, the theorem states that differentiation and (definite) integration are inverse
operations, in the same sense that division and multiplication are inverse operations. To see how
Newton and Leibniz might have anticipated this relationship, consider the approximations shown
in Figure 4.26. The slope of the tangent line was defined using the (the slope of the secant line).
Similarly, the area of a region under a curve was defined using the (the area of a rectangle).

4.5 Integration by Substitution

In this section you will study techniques for integrating composite functions. The
discussion is split into two parts—pattern recognition and change of variables. Both techniques
involve a -substitution. With pattern recognition you perform the substitution mentally, and with
change of variables you write the substitution steps. The role of substitution in integration is
comparable to the role of the Chain Rule in differentiation. Recall that for differentiable
functions given by and the Chain Rule states that From the definition of an antiderivative, it
follows that These results are summarized in the following theorem.

THEOREM 4.13 ANTIDIFFERENTIATION OF A

COMPOSITE FUNCTION
Let be a function whose range is an interval and let be a function
that is
continuous on If is differentiable on its domain and is an
antiderivative
of on then
Letting gives and
fu du Fu C.
u gx du gx dx
fgxgx dx Fgx C.
f I,
I. g F
g I, f

4.6 Numerical Integration

Some elementary functions simply do not have antiderivatives that are elementary
functions. For example, there is no elementary function that has any of the following
functions as its derivative. If you need to evaluate a definite integral involving a function whose
antiderivative cannot be found, then while the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus is still true, it
cannot be easily applied. In this case, it is easier to resort to an approximation technique. Two
such techniques are described in this section.

THEOREM 4.17 THE TRAPEZOIDAL RULE

Let be continuous on The Trapezoidal Rule for approximating
is given by
Moreover, as the right-hand side approaches n →, ab f x dx.
b
a
f x dx b a
2n f x0 2 f x1 2 f x2 . . . 2 f xn1 f xn .
ab f x dx
f a, b.

There are two important points that should be made concerning the Trapezoidal Rule (or
the Midpoint Rule). First, the approximation tends to become more accurate as increases. For
instance, in Example 1, if the Trapezoidal Rule yields an approximation of 1.994. Second,
although you could have used the Fundamental Theorem to evaluate the integral in Example 1,
this theorem cannot be used to evaluate an integral as simple as because has no elementary
antiderivative. Yet, the Trapezoidal Rule can be applied easily to estimate this integral.

Chapter 5 onential, and Other Transcendental Functions

So far in this text, you have studied two types of elementary functions—algebraic
functions and trigonometric functions. This chapter concludes the introduction of elementary
functions. As each new type is introduced, you will study its properties, its derivative, and its
antiderivative. In this chapter, you should learn the following.

5.1 The Natural Logarithmic Function: Differentiation

has an important disclaimer—it doesn’t apply when Consequently, you have not yet
found an antiderivative for the function In this section, you will use the Second Fundamental
Theorem of Calculus to define such a function. This antiderivative is a function that you have not
encountered previously in the text. It is neither algebraic nor trigonometric, but falls into a new
class of functions called logarithmic functions. This particular function is the natural
logarithmic function.

DEFINITION OF THE NATURAL LOGARITHMIC

FUNCTION
The natural logarithmic function is defined by
The domain of the natural logarithmic function is the set of all
positive real
numbers.
ln x x > 0.
x
1
1t
5.2 The Natural Logarithmic Function: Integration

As you study the methods shown in Examples 5 and 6, be aware that both methods
involve rewriting a disguised integrand so that it fits one or more of the basic integration
formulas. Throughout the remaining sections of Chapter 5 and in Chapter 8, much time will be
devoted to integration techniques. To master these techniques, you must recognize the “form-
fitting” nature of integration. In this sense, integration is not nearly as straightforward as
differentiation. Differentiation takes the form.

THEOREM 5.5 LOG RULE FOR INTEGRATION

Let be a differentiable function of
1. 2. 1
u
1 du lnu C
x
dx lnx C
u x.

5.3 Inverse Functions

Inverse Functions

Recall from Section P.3 that a function can be represented by a set of ordered pairs.
For instance, the function from to can be written as By interchanging the first and second
coordinates of each ordered pair, you can form the inverse function of This function is denoted
by It is a function from to and can be written as Note that the domain of is equal to the range of
and vice versa, as shown in Figure 5.10. The functions and have the effect of “undoing” each
other. That is, when you form the composition of with or the composition of with you obtain the
identity function.

DEFINITION OF INVERSE FUNCTION

A function is the inverse function of the function if
for each in the domain of
and
for each in the domain of
The function is denoted by (read “ inverse”). g f 1 f
g f x x x f.
f gx x x g
gf

5.4 Exponential Functions: Differentiation and Integration

The Natural Exponential Function

The function is increasing on its entire domain, and therefore it has an inverse function
The domain of is the set of all reals, and the range is the set of positive reals, as shown in Figure
5.19. So, for any real number

is any real
If happens to be rational, then
number.
is a rational
number.
Because the natural logarithmic function is one-to-one, you can conclude that and agree
for rational values of The following definition extends the meaning of to include all real values
of.

DEFINITION OF THE NATURAL EXPONENTIAL

FUNCTION
The inverse function of the natural logarithmic function is called
the natural exponential function and is denoted by
That is,
y ex if and only if x ln y.
f 1x ex.
f x ln x

5.5 Bases Other Than e and Applications

Bases Other than e

The base of the natural exponential function is This “natural” base can be used to
assign a meaning to a general base These functions obey.

DEFINITION OF EXPONENTIAL FUNCTION TO BASE a

If is a positive real number and is any real number, then the
exponential function to the base a is denoted by and is defined by
If then is a constant function. a 1, y 1x 1
ax eln ax.
ax
aa 1x

5.6 Inverse Trigonometric Functions: Differentiation

This section begins with a rather surprising statement: None of the six basic
trigonometric functions has an inverse function. This statement is true because all six
trigonometric functions are periodic and therefore are not one-to-one. In this section
you will examine these six functions to see whether their domains can be redefined in
such a way that they will have inverse functions on the restricted domains. In Example 4 of
Section 5.3, you saw that the sine function is increasing (and therefore is one-to-one) on the
interval (see Figure 5.28). On this interval you can define the inverse of the restricted sine
function as

DEFINITIONS OF INVERSE TRIGONOMETRIC

FUNCTIONS
y 0
2y
2
y arccsc x iff csc y x x 1 ,
y
y arcsec x iff sec y x x 1 0 y , 2
y arccot x iff cot y x < x < 0 < y <

2
<y<
2
y arctan x iff tan y x < x <
y arccos x iff cos y x 1 x 1 0 y

2
y
2
y arcsin x iff sin y x 1 x 1
Function Domain Range

5.7 Inverse Trigonometric Functions: Integration

Integrals Involving Inverse Trigonometric Functions

The derivatives of the six inverse trigonometric functions fall into three pairs. In each
pair, the derivative of one function is the negative of the other. For example.

THEOREM 5.17 INTEGRALS INVOLVING INVERSE

TRIGONOMETRIC
FUNCTIONS
Let be a differentiable function of and let
1. 2.
1a
du

1a
arctan
ua
du C
arcsin u a C
u x, a > 0.

Chapter 6 Differential Equations In this chapter, you will study one of the

most important applications of calculus—differential equations. You will learn

several methods for solving differenttypes of differential equations, such
as homogeneous, first-order linear, andBernoulli. Then you will apply these
methods to solve differential equations in applied problems.

6.1 Slope Fields and Euler’s Method

General and Particular Solutions

In this text, you will learn that physical phenomena can be described by differential
equations. Recall that a differential equation in and is an equation that involves and derivatives
of In Section 6.2, you will see that problems involvingnradioactive decay, population growth,
and Newton’s Law of Cooling can be formulated in terms of differential equations.

General solution of
which contains two arbitrary constants. It can be shown that a differential equation of
order has general solution with arbitrary constants.
EXAMPLE 1 Verifying Solutions
Determine whether the function is a solution of the differential equation
a. y sin x b. y 4ex c. y Cex

a. Because and it follows that So, is a solution.

b. Because and it follows that So, is a solution.
c. Because and it follows that So, is a solution for any value of y Cex C. ■ y y Cex Ce x 0. y y
Ce x, y Cex,

6.2 Differential Equations

In the preceding section, you learned to analyze visually the solutions of differential
equations using slope fields and to approximate solutions numerically using Euler’s Method.
Analytically, you have learned to solve only two types of differential equations—those of the
forms and In this section, you will learn how to solve a more general type of differential
equation. The strategy is to rewrite the equation so that each variable occurs on only one side of
the equation. This strategy is called separation of variables. (You will study this strategy in
detail in Section.

6.3 Separation of Variables

where is a continuous function of alone and is a continuous function of alone. As you saw
in the preceding section, for this type of equation, all terms can be collected with and all terms
with and a solution can be obtained by integration. Such equations are said to be separable, and
the solution procedure is called separation of variables. Below are some examples of
differential equations that are separable.

EXAMPLE 1 Separation of Variables

Find the general solution of Solution To begin, note that is a solution. To find other
solutions, assume that and separate variables as shown. Differential form Separate variables.
Now, integrate to obtain Integrate. Because is also a solution, you can write the general solution.
Chapter 7 Applications of Integration

Integration has a wide variety of applications. For each of the applications presented in
this chapter, you will begin with a known formula, such as the area of a rectangular
region, the volume of a circular disk, or the work done by a constant force. Then you
will learn how the limit of a sum gives rise to new formulas that involve integration.

7.1 Area of a Region Between Two Curves

With a few modifications, you can extend the application of definite integrals from the
area of a region under a curve to the area of a region between two curves. Consider two functions
and that are continuous on the interval If, as in Figure 7.1, the graphs of both and lie above the
axis, and the graph of lies below the graph of you can geometrically interpret the area of the
region between the graphs as the area of the region under the graph of subtracted from the area of
the region under the graph of as shown in Figure.

AREA OF A REGION BETWEEN TWO CURVES

If and are continuous on and for all in then the
area of the region bounded by the graphs of and and the vertical
lines
and is
A
b
a
f x gx

7.2 The Disk Method

You have already learned that area is only one of the many applications of the definite
integral. Another important application is its use in finding the volume of a threedimensional
solid. In this section you will study a particular type of three-dimensional solid—one whose
cross sections are similar. Solids of revolution are used commonly in engineering and
manufacturing. Some examples are axles, funnels, pills, bottles, and pistons, as shown in Figure.

7.3 The Shell Method

To begin, consider a representative rectangle as shown in Figure 7.27, where is the width
of the rectangle, is the height of the rectangle, and is the distance between the axis of revolution
and the center of the rectangle. When this rectangle is revolved about its axis of revolution, it
forms a cylindrical shell (or tube) of thickness To find the volume of this shell, consider two
cylinders. The radius of the larger cylinder corresponds to the outer radius of the shell, and the
radius of the smaller cylinder corresponds to the inner radius of the shell.

EXAMPLE 3 Shell Method Preferable

Find the volume of the solid formed by revolving the region bounded by the graphs of
and
about the axis.
Solution In Example 4 in the preceding section, you saw that the washer method
requires two integrals to determine the volume of this solid. See Figure 7.33(a).
y2

Apply washer 1 dy
method. 2 y dy
Simplify. V
12 02 dy
12 y 1 2 dy

7.4 Arc Length

A rectifiable curve is one that has a finite arc length. You will see that a sufficient
condition for the graph of a function to be rectifiable between is that be continuous on Such a
function is continuously differentiable on and its graph on the interval is a smooth curve.
Consider a function that is continuously differentiable on the interval You can approximate the
graph of by line segments whose endpoints are determined by the partition as shown in Figure
7.37. By letting and you can approximate the length of the graph by This approximation appears
to become better and better as So, the length of the graph is Because exists for each in the Mean
Value Theorem guarantees the existence of in such.

.4 Arc Length and Surfaces of Revolution

x

a=x
0 x1 x2 b = xn
(x
n
,y
n
)
(x0, y0)
(x1, y1)
22Δy = y2 - y1
Δx = x
2 - x1
(x, y) y
x
ab
s = length of
s
curve from
a to b
y = f(x)
y
Figure 7.37
CHRISTIAN HUYGENS
(1629–1695)
The Dutch mathematician
Christian Huygens,
who invented the pendulum
clock, and James
Gregory (1638–1675), a
Scottish mathemati
cian, both made early
contributions to the
problem of finding the
length of a rectifiable
curve.
Bettman

Chapter 8 tegration Techniques, L’Hôpital’s Rule, and Improper Integrals

In previous chapters, you studied several basic techniques for evaluating simple
integrals. In this chapter, you will study other integration techniques, such as integration by parts,
that are used to evaluate more complicated integrals. You will also learn an important rule for
evaluating limits called L’Hôpital’s Rule. This rule can also help you evaluate improper
integrals.

8.1 Basic Integration Rules

tudy several integration techniques that greatly expand the set

of integrals to which the basic integration rules can be applied. These rules are reviewed
on page 522. A major step in solving any integration problem is recognizing which
basic integration rule to use. As shown in Example 1, slight differences in the integrand
can lead to very different solution techniques.
EXAMPLE 1 A Comparison of Three Similar Integrals
Find each integral.

a. b. 4x2
c.
dx x24x 9 dx dx
x2 9
Solution
a. Use the Arctangent Rule and let and
Constant Multiple Rule
Arctangent Rule
Simplify.
b. Here the Arctangent Rule does not apply because the numerator contains a factor
of Consider the Log Rule and let Then and you have
4x
Constant Multiple Rule
dx 2 2x dx
x2 9 x2 9

8.2 Integration by Parts

In this section you will study an important integration technique called integration by
parts. This technique can be applied to a wide variety of functions and is particularly useful for
integrands involving products of algebraic and transcendental functions. For instance, integration
by parts works well with integrals such as.

THEOREM 8.1 INTEGRATION BY PARTS

If and are functions of and have continuous derivatives, then
u dv uv v d
 This formula expresses the original integral in terms of another integral. Depending on
the choices of and it may be easier to evaluate the second integral than the original one. Because
the choices of and are critical in the integration by parts process, the following guidelines are
provided.

8.3 Integrals Involving Powers of Sine and Cosine

In Example 1, of the powers and happened to be positive integers.,However, the same
strategy will work as long as either or is odd and positive. For instance, in the next example the
power of the cosine is 3, but the power of the sine.

WALLIS’S FORMULAS
1. If is odd then
2. If is even then
2
0
cosn x dx 1 2
34
56...nn1
2.
n n 2,
2
0
c

8.4 Trigonometric Substitution

Now that you can evaluate integrals involving powers of trigonometric functions, you can
use trigonometric substitution to evaluate integrals involving the radicals.
TRIGONOMETRIC SUBSTITUTION

1. For integrals involving let

Then where
2. For integrals involving let
Then where
3. For integrals involving let
Then
u2 a2 a tan a tan if if u u> <a, where 0 a, where <2 < 2
u a sec .
a
u
θ
u2 - a2
u2 a2,
2 < < 2.
a
2 u2 a sec ,
u a tan .
a
u
2a θ
+

Chapter 9 Infinite Series

This chapter is divided into two basic parts. The first six sections discuss infinite
sequences and infinite series. The last four sections discuss Taylor and Maclaurin
polynomials and power series.
9.1 Sequences
In mathematics, the word “sequence” is used in much the same way as in ordinary
English. To say that a collection of objects or events is in sequence usually means that
the collection is ordered so that it has an identified first member, second member, third
member, and so on.
Mathematically, a sequence is defined as a function whose domain is the set of
positive integers. Although a sequence is a function, it is common to represent
sequences by subscript notation rather than by the standard function notation. For
instance, in the sequence

DEFINITION OF THE LIMIT OF A SEQUENCE

Let be a real number. The limit of a sequence is written as
if for each there exists such that whenever
If the limit of a sequence exists, then the sequence converges to If
the limit
of a sequence does not exist, then the sequence diverges.
L L.
> 0, M > 0 an L < n > M.
lim
n→
a
n L

9.2 Infinite Series

is an infinite series (or simply a series). The numbers are the terms of the series. For
some series it is convenient to begin the index at (or some other integer). As a typesetting
convention, it is common to represent an infinite series as simply In such cases, the starting value
for the index must be taken from the context of the statement.
DEFINITIONS OF CONVERGENT AND DIVERGENT
SERIES
For the infinite series the nth partial sum is given by
If the sequence of partial sums converges to then the series
converges. The limit is called the sum of the series.

n1
S

n1
a
Sn S, n
S
n a1 a2 . . . an.

9.3 The Integral Test

In this and the following section, you will study several convergence tests that apply
to series with positive terms.

THEOREM 9.10 THE INTEGRAL TEST

If is positive, continuous, and decreasing for and then
and
either both converge or both diverge.

1
f x dx
n1
a

Chapter 10 onics, Parametric Equations, and Polar Coordinates

In this chapter, you will analyze and write equations of conics using their properties.
You will also learn how to write and graph parametric equations and polar equations,
and see how calculus can be used to study these graphs. In addition to the rectangular
equations of conics, you will also study polar equations of conics.

10.1 Conic Sections

Each conic section (or simply conic) can be described as the intersection of a plane
and a double-napped cone. Notice in Figure 10.1 that for the four basic conics, the
intersecting plane does not pass through the vertex of the cone. When the plane passes
through the vertex, the resulting figure is a degenerate conic, as shown in Figure.

THEOREM 10.1 STANDARD EQUATION OF A

PARABOLA
The standard form of the equation of a parabola with
vertex and
directrix is
A line segment that passes through the focus of a parabola and has endpoints on
the parabola is called a focal chord. The specific focal chord perpendicular to the axis
of the parabola is the latus rectum. The next example shows how to determine the
length of the latus rectum and the length of the corresponding intercepted arc.

10.2 Plane Curves and Parametric Equations

Until now, you have been representing a graph by a single equation involving
variables. In this section you will study situations in which variables are used to
represent a curve in the plane.
Consider the path followed by an object that is propelled into the air at an angle
of If the initial velocity of the object is 48 feet per second, the object travels the
parabolic path given by.

DEFINITION OF A PLANE CURVE

If and are continuous functions of on an interval then the equations
and
are called parametric equations and is called the parameter. The
set of
points obtained as varies over the interval is called the graph of the
parametric equations. Taken together, the parametric equations and
the graph
are called a plane curve, denoted by C.
x, y t I
t
x f t y gt

When sketching (by hand) a curve represented by a set of parametric equations,

you can plot points in the plane. Each set of coordinates is determined from
a value chosen for the parameter By plotting the resulting points in order of
increasing values of the curve is traced out in a specific direction. This is called the
orientation of the curve.

10.3 Slope and Tangent Lines

As shown in Figure 10.29. From the discussion at the beginning of Section 10.2, you
know that these equations enable you to locate the position of the projectile at a given
time. You also know that the object is initially projected at an angle of But how
can you find the angle representing the object’s direction at some other time The
following theorem answers this question by giving a formula for the slope of the
tangent line as a function.

THEOREM 10.7 PARAMETRIC FORM OF THE

DERIVATIVE
If a smooth curve is given by the equations and then the
slope of at is
dx
dy dx dy dx dt dt , dt 0
 You have seen how parametric equations can be used to describe the path of a particle
moving in the plane. You will now develop a formula for determining the distance
traveled by the particle along its path.

10.4 Polar Coordinates

So far, you have been representing graphs as collections of points on the rectangular
coordinate system. The corresponding equations for these graphs have been in
either rectangular or parametric form. In this section you will study a coordinate system called
the polar coordinate system. To form the polar coordinate system in the plane, fix a point called
the pole (or origin), and construct from an initial ray called the polar axis, as shown in Figure
10.36. Then each point in the plane can be assigned polar coordinates as follows. Figure 10.37
shows three points on the polar coordinate system. Notice that in this system, it is convenient to
locate points with respect to a grid of concentric circles intersected by radial lines through the
pole.

Coordinate Conversion

To establish the relationship between polar and rectangular coordinates, let the polar
axis coincide with the positive axis and the pole with the origin, as shown in Figure Because lies
on a circle of radius it follows that Moreover, for the definitions of the trigonometric functions
imply that.

THEOREM 10.10 COORDINATE CONVERSION

The polar coordinates of a point are related to the
rectangular coordinates
of the point as follows.
1. 2.
y r sin r 2 x2 y 2
tan y
x
x r cos

10.5 Area of a Polar Region

The development of a formula for the area of a polar region parallels that for the area of a
region on the rectangular coordinate system, but uses sectors of a circle instead of rectangles as
the basic elements of area. In Figure 10.49, note that the area of a circular sector of radius is
given by provided is measured in radians. Consider the function given by where is continuous
and nonnegative on the interval given by The region bounded by the graph of and the radial lines
and is shown in Figure 10.50(a). To find the area of this region, partition the interval into equal
subintervalsThen approximate the area of the region by the sum of the areas of the sectors,
asshown in Figure 10.50(b).Taking the limit as produces which leads to the following theorem.

THEOREM 10.13 AREA IN POLAR

COORDINATES
If is continuous and nonnegative on the interval
then the area of the region bounded by the graph of
between the
radial lines and is given by
0< 2
12

r2 d.
A 1
2

f 2d

r f
f , , 0 < 2,

In a similar way, you can integrate from to to find that the area of the region lying inside
the outer loop is The area of the region lying between the two loops is the differ.

Points of Intersection of Polar Graphs

Because a point may be represented in different ways in polar coordinates, care must
be taken in determining the points of intersection of two polar graphs. For example,
consider the points of intersection.
The corresponding points of intersection are and However, from Figure 10.53 you can
see that there is a point of intersection that did not show up when the two polar equations were
solved simultaneously. (This is one reason why you should sketch a graph when finding the area
of a polar region.) The reason then third point was not found is that it does not occur with the
same coordinates in the two graphs. On the graph of the point occurs with coordinateS