International Journal of Research in Medical Sciences

Balamurugan V et al. Int J Res Med Sci. 2019 May;7(5):1963-1967

www.msjonline.org pISSN 2320-6071 | eISSN 2320-6012

DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.18203/2320-6012.ijrms20191710
Case Report

Secondary hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis: a rare case report

Venkataraman Balamurugan*, Bharathi Vidhya Jayanthi

Department of Pathology, Madras Medical College, Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India

Received: 26 February 2019

Revised: 23 March 2019
Accepted: 04 April 2019

*Correspondence:
Dr. Balamurgan Venkataraman,
E-mail: drbala1212@gmail.com

Copyright: © the author(s), publisher and licensee Medip Academy. This is an open-access article distributed under
the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial License, which permits unrestricted non-commercial
use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

ABSTRACT

Haemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis (HLH) is a clinicopathologic syndrome, characterised by hyperinflammation

due to inherited or acquired defects in the immune function, leading to unchecked proliferation of histiocytes and
lymphocytes resulting in multiorgan dysfunction. HLH can be primary (familial) occurring in young children caused
by underlying genetic defects in natural killer cells/cytotoxic T cells or secondary HLH occurring in older children or
adults following infections, rheumatological disorders or malignancies. HLH is a medical emergency, having varied
clinical presentations and lacks a pathognomonic clinical or laboratory abnormality. Clinical presentations include
unexplained fever, hepatomegaly, splenomegaly, skin rash, cytopenias, liver dysfunction, coagulation abnormality
and neurological manifestations. It carries a poor prognosis. Early diagnosis based on HLH 2004 criteria and initiation
of treatment is crucial in the management strategy, which is likely to improve the outcome of this life-threatening
disease. The treatment strategies include immunosuppressive drugs, immunomodulatory therapy and autologous
hematopoietic stem cell transplant in selected cases. Here with authors report a case of young adult, presenting with
fever, thrombocytopenia, splenomegaly, and multi organ dysfunction, diagnosed as a case of secondary HLH based
on the HLH 2004 guidelines.

Keywords: Cytopenia, Haemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis, HLH, Splenomegaly, Unexplained fever

INTRODUCTION HLH or familial HLH is caused by underlying genetic

mutations in the genes encoding HLH or primary immune
Haemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis is an aggressive deficiencies.5 Secondary or acquired HLH, occurs in
and life-threatening syndrome characterized by excessive individuals without identifiable HLH gene mutations or
immune activation. Farquhar J W et al, and Claireux AE genetic predisposition triggered by auto immune diseases,
et al, first described in siblings affected by this disease in infections or malignancies.5
the year 1952.1 This disease was originally described as
‘familial hemophagocytic reticulosis’. The other CASE REPORT
terminologies include Autosomal recessive familial HLH,
familial erythrophagocytosis HLH, viral associated A 26-year-old male, with no known co-morbidities
hemophagocytic syndrome, Infection associated admitted with history of fever, for 5 days duration.
hemophagocytosis.2-5 The term hemophagocytosis refers History of abdominal pain was present. No history of
to the engulfing (literally meaning ‘eating’) of blood cells cough with expectoration, joint pain, bleeding
and its precursors by activated macrophages and is seen manifestation or altered sensorium. No history of chronic
in bone marrow, spleen, liver, lymph node.6 Primary drug intake. On examination, the patient was obese,

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febrile and icteric. No generalized significant Patient had a rapid downhill course in clinical and
lymphadenopathy. The patient was evaluated for fever, laboratory parameters, over a period of four days,
splenomegaly with thrombocytopenia. progressing to multi organ dysfunction. The laboratory
workup is summarized in (Table 1, 2 and 3).
Table 1: Clinical pathology investigations.

Parameter Value Units

WBC count 2500 per cumm
RBC count 3.35 x 106/cumm
Haemoglobin 7.9 g/dl
Packed cell volume 24.2 %
Mean cell volume 86.2 fl
Mean cell haemoglobin 30.5 pg
Mean cell haemoglobin 35.4 g/dl
concentration
Platelet count 8000 per cumm
Immature platelet fraction 1.4 %
Erythrocyte sedimentation 120 mm/ hour
rate
Prothrombin time 32 seconds
Activated partial 93.9 seconds
thromboplastin time Figure 1:100x (Leishman stain) peripheral smear
INR 2.40 shows severe thrombocytopenia.
Fibrinogen 73.7 mg/dl
Peripheral smear study (Figure 1) showed RBC-
The patient was evaluated for fever, splenomegaly with microcytic hypochromic admixed with normocytic
thrombocytopenia. normochromic RBCs. No inclusions, no circulating
normoblasts seen, no hemo parasites seen. WBC - mildly
Table 2: Clinical biochemistry investigations. reduced in count with normal morphology and following
distribution neutrophils 41%, band forms 2%,
Parameter Value Units lymphocytes 52 %, eosinophils 5%. Platelets-markedly
Random plasma glucose 149 mg/dl reduced in number, manual count of 7000 cells/cumm.
Urea 98 mg/dl Occasional giant platelets seen. Impression: dimorphic
Creatinine 4.2 mg/dl anaemia, mild leukopenia, severe thrombocytopenia and
Total bilirubin 13.2 mg/dl smear negative for malarial parasite was given.
Direct bilirubin 8.7 mg/dl
In combination of clinical parameters of fever,
Aspartate transaminase 2985 IU/L
splenomegaly, coagulopathy , liver and renal dysfunction,
Alanine transaminase 1294 IU/L supported by the laboratory parameters of elevated serum
Alkaline phosphatase 119 IU/L ferritin levels, low fibrinogen levels , markedly elevated
Total protein 5.8 g/dl serum transaminases , deranged renal function, a working
Albumin 3.2 g/dl diagnosis of suspected haemo phagocytic lympho
C-reactive protein 235.6 mg/L histiocytosis with disseminated intravascular coagulation,
Ferritin >2000 mcg/L acute liver failure, acute renal failure and rhabdomyolysis
Lactate dehydrogenase 6010 U/L was offered.
Creatine phosphokinase 15010 U/L
At that time, bone marrow aspiration, bone marrow
Table 3: Clinical microbiology investigations. biopsy, core needle biopsies of liver and kidney were
performed.
Test performed Results
Widal (Salmonella typhi) Titres insignificant Bone marrow aspiration (Figure 2, 3, 4 and 5) revealed a
Dengue - serology ELISA (NS1 partially diluted marrow, with reduction in erythroid
Negative precursors, myeloid precursors and occasional
antigen, IgM antibody)
megakaryocytes. Also seen in clusters and singly
Hepatitis B and Hepatitis C -
Negative dispersed histiocytes with abundant vacuolated
serology ELISA
cytoplasm, exhibiting intracytoplasmic erythroid,
HIV I and II antibodies - Tridot Non-reactive
myeloid precursors and platelets, indicating evidence of
Blood culture (after 48 hours) No growth hemo phagocytosis.
Urine culture (after 48 hours) No growth

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Figure 2: 4x (Leishman stain) bone marrow aspirate

shows partially diluted marrow with histiocytes in
clusters (). Figure 5: 100x (Leishman stain) bone marrow
aspirate shows histiocyte engulfing erythroid
precursors.

Based on the histiocyte society treatment protocol HLH

2004 guidelines, the following criteria for the diagnosis
of haempohagocytic lymphohistiocytosis were fulfilled
(minimum of five parameters is adequate for diagnosis)
fever, splenomegaly, haemoglobin-7.9g/dl, platelet count-
8000cells/cumm, fibrinogen-73.7mg/dl, ferritin-
>2000mcg/L, bone marrow aspirate showing
hemophagocytosis.

However, shortly after the confirmatory diagnosis of

secondary haemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis was
arrived and before appropriate management could be
initiated, the patient succumbed to the illness, at the end
of 4th day following admission.

The bone marrow trephine biopsy (Figure 6 and 7)

showed hypocellular marrow, with reduced trilineage
Figure 3: 100x (Leishman stain) bone marrow hematopoiesis with an increase in histiocytes as
aspirate shows increase in histiocytes. confirmed by positive staining by immunohistochemistry
marker for histiocytes, namely CD 68 (Figure 8).

Figure 4: Figure 4: 100x (Leishman stain) bone Figure 6: 10 x (H and E) shows a hypocellular
marrow aspirate shows histiocytes engulfing erythroid marrow.
() and myeloid precursors ().

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XLP 2.5 Certain congenital immunodeficiency syndromes

like Griscelli syndrome. Chediak Higashi syndrome, X
linked lympho proliferative disease, and Hermansky
pudlak syndrome are associated with increased risk for
primary HLH. Secondary or acquired HLH usually
denotes a patient without a familial gene mutation and is
particularly triggered by some viral illness, auto immune
disease, and lymphoma.

The clinical features are often non-specific, and it mimics

common infections, pyrexia of unknown origin, hepatitis
or encephalitis. It includes fever, splenomegaly, bi-
cytopenia, neurological symptoms like seizures, mental
status changes and multi organ dysfunction.12 HLH can
Figure 7: 40x (H and E) shows scattered large cells affect other organ systems that include acute respiratory
with abundant eosinophilic cytoplasm, ovoid nuclei, distress syndrome (ARDS) requiring ventilatory support,
suggestive of histiocytes. severe hypotension, SIADH, skin manifestations like
rashes, purpura, petechiae, edema, bleeding
manifestations or underlying immunodeficiency
syndrome specific findings. Associated features include
viral infections like Ebstein barr virus (EBV),
cytomegalovirus (CMV), parvo virus, human immuno
deficiency virus (HIV) or rarely with bacterial, parasitic
or fungal infections. Associations with lymphoid
neoplasms including B cell, T-cell and NK cell
neoplasms are also reported. Laboratory abnormalities
include cytopenia involving 2 cell lines like anaemia and
thrombocytopenia in majority of the patients.13 A very
high serum ferritin level >2000mcg/L is considered
highly sensitive and specific for the diagnosis of HLH.14
All patients with HLH have hepatitis, manifested by
abnormal liver function tests, characterized by elevated
Figure 8: 40 x (IHC) CD 68 shows positive staining for liver enzymes, lactate dehydrogenase, bilirubin, increased
histiocytes in bone marrow. triglycerides and abnormal coagulation parameters
(disseminated intravascular coagulation). Cerebrospinal
DISCUSSION fluid may show pleocytosis, hyperproteinemia and or
hemophagocytosis. MRI of brain may show hypodense or
Haemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis is a rare disease of necrotic areas. Bone marrow evaluation is must for all
immune dysregulation, characterized by patients with HLH. HHemophagocytosis is characteristic
hypertyrosinemia, hemophagocytosis, hyperferritinemia, of HLH, it is not diagnostic or pathognomonic. Bone
hypo fibrinogenemia, variable cytopenias, multiorgan marrow cellularity can be high, low or normal.15
dysfunction that may lead to death.7 Specialized tests include immunological assay of soluble
IL-2 receptor alpha (sCD25), flowcytometric evaluation
HLH is more common in pediatric patients, with infants of NK cell function/degranulation, cell surface expression
less than 3 months of age. It has equal sex predilection; of perforin and granzyme B proteins. Genetic testing for
however, it affects patients of all ages. A slight male HLH gene mutation is indicated for all patients who meet
predisposition is seen in adults.2 the criteria for HLH and in relatives of patients with a
known genetic syndrome. Diagnosis is based on
The etiopathogenesis involves defects in natural killer diagnostic criteria of HLH 2004 trial.16 It includes five of
cells/cytotoxic T-cells along with excessive activation of the following eight findings
histiocytes.8-10 It leads to excessive cytokine production
by macrophages, NK cells, and cytotoxic T-cells • Fever >38.5°C,
resulting in tissue damage. The cytokines elevated in • Splenomegaly,
blood of patients with HLH are interferon gamma (IFN), • Peripheral blood cytopenia -with at least 2 of the
tumour necrosis factor alpha (TNF), interleukins (IL) following: hemoglobin <9g/dl, platelets
such as IL 6, IL 10 and IL 12 and the soluble interleukin <10000/cumm, absolute neutrophil count
2 receptor (sCD25).11 HLH is classified as primary or <1000/cumm,
familial HLH and secondary or acquired HLH. Primary • Hypertriglyceridemia (>265mg/dl) and/or
HLH is caused by gene mutations mapping to loci such as hypofibrinogenemia (<150mg/dl),
FHL 1, FHL 2, FHL 3, FHL 4, FHL 5, GS 2, XLP 1, and

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 Balamurugan V et al. Int J Res Med Sci. 2019 May;7(5):1963-1967

• Hemophagocytes in bone marrow, spleen, lymph 4. Janka GE, Schneider EM. Modern management of
node or liver, children with haemophagocytic
• Low or absent NK cell activity, lymphohistiocytosis. Brit J Haematol.
• Ferritin >500 ng / ml, 2004;124(1):4-14.
• Elevated soluble CD25, (or) 5. Larroche C. Hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis
• HLH associated gene mutation. in adults: diagnosis and treatment. Joint Bone Spine.
2012;79(4):356-61.
Since HLH is associated with high mortality in the 6. Madkaikar M, Shabrish S, Desai M. Current updates
absence of appropriate treatment, the diagnostic criteria on classification, diagnosis and treatment of
need not be strictly adhered to, while initiating therapy in hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis (HLH). Indian
critical case scenarios. Differential diagnosis includes J Pediatr. 2016;83(5):434-3.
macrophage activation syndrome (MAS), systemic 7. Fisman DN. Hemophagocytic syndromes and
infections/sepsis, liver failure, multiorgan dysfunction infection. Emerg Infect Dis. 2000;6(6):601.
syndrome, encephalitis, Kawasaki disease, transfusion 8. Schmid JP, Côte M, Ménager MM, Burgess A,
associated graft versus host disease. Treatment include Nehme N, Ménasché G, et al. Inherited defects in
immunosuppressive drugs like dexamethasone, immune lymphocyte cytotoxic activity. Immunol Reviews.
modulators like podophyllotoxin derivatives, 2010;235(1):10-23.
combination of both as induction and continuation 9. Risma K, Jordan MB. Hemophagocytic
phases, oral cyclosporine, intravenous anti thymocyte lymphohistiocytosis: updates and evolving concepts.
globin (ATG), intrathecal methotrexate for CNS Current Opinion Pediatr. 2012;24(1):9-15.
involvement and autologous hematopoietic stem cell 10. Egeler M, Shapiro R, Loechelt B, Filipovich A.
transplant in resistant disease, recurrent disease, familial Characteristic immune abnormalities in
HLH patients, CNS disease and in patients with gene hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis. J Pediat
defects. Hematol Oncol. 1996;18(4):340-5.
11. Tang Y, Xu X, Song H, Yang S, Shi S, Wei J et al.
CONCLUSION Early diagnostic and prognostic significance of a
specific Th1/Th2 cytokine pattern in children with
haemophagocytic syndrome. British J Haematol.
Haemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis is a disease
2008;143(1):84-91.
characterized by systemic hyperinflammatory response,
12. Bergsten E, Horne A, Aricó M, Astigarraga I,
which shows rapid clinical deterioration and may
Egeler RM, Filipovich AH, et al. Confirmed
potentially prove fatal. Evidence of hemophagocytosis in
efficacy of etoposide and dexamethasone in HLH
bone marrow, spleen, liver or lymph node by
treatment: long-term results of the cooperative
histopathological examination is of vital importance to
HLH-2004 study. Blood. 2017;130(25):2728-38.
physicians, evaluating patients with unexplained fever,
13. Niece JA, Rogers ZR, Ahmad N, Langevin AM,
multi organ dysfunction and coagulation abnormalities.
McClain KL. Hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis
Hence high index of suspicion with early diagnosis is the
in Texas: observations on ethnicity and race. Pediatr
key, to start appropriate intervention and promote
Blood Canc. 2010;54(3):424-8.
survival of patients with this uncommon disease.
14. Lehmberg K, McClain KL, Janka GE, Allen CE.
Funding: No funding sources Determination of an appropriate cut‐off value for
Conflict of interest: None declared ferritin in the diagnosis of hemophagocytic
Ethical approval: Not required lymphohistiocytosis. Pediat Blood Canc.
2014;61(11):2101-3.
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International Journal of Research in Medical Sciences | May 2019 | Vol 7 | Issue 5 Page 1967