KNOWLEDGE ARTICLE

MC, GC, TL 31/01/2018 V1.0

Angular Distortion in Structures:

Point vs. Linear Monitoring - considerations
To understand tilt & angular distortion appears to be quite simple. However, since late 1950s’
many reference professionals and academics have been trying to derive relationships between tilt
& angular distortion and the risk of damage to buildings.

Regarding instrumentation, more often than not it looks like there are several options to
monitor tilt & angular distortion. A good understanding of the behaviour of the structure is
needed, together with careful planning and design for instrumentation and monitoring.

This article presents the basic concepts to help decide how to monitor tilt taking into
consideration the most common issues encountered and the type of data sought.


In regard to tilt & angular distortion, this articles covers the following points:

• Definitions and (typical) values for tilt and angular distortion

• Accuracy: MEMS & Electrolytic, ATS
• Point tilt meter vs. linear tilt beam
• Calculation
• Pictures
• Summary
• References

NOTE: There is still ongoing discussion about tilt & angular distortion in relation to
building and structural damage.
KNOWLEDGE ARTICLE
MC, GC, TL 31/01/2018 V1.0

DEFINITIONS AND (TYPICAL) VALUES FOR TILT AND ANGULAR DISTORTION

Item Definition

Tilt Tilting, ω, normally describes the rigid body rotation of the

whole superstructure or of a well defined part of it. Normally

ω it is not possible to ascertain the tilt unless details of the

superstructure and its behaviour are known. Even then it can
be difficult when the structure itself flexes. Burland & Wroth
(1975), Settlement of Buildings and Associated Damage.

Angular Distortion or Relative Rotation Angular distortion, β, is the ratio of the differential settlement
δ and the distance l between two points. Skempton &

β=δ/l MacDonald (1956), The Allowable Settlements of Buildings.

Relative rotation, β, is the rotation of the straight line joining
two reference points relative to the tilt. Burland & Wroth
(1975), Settlement of Buildings and Associated Damage.

Typical Values for Angular Distortion β=δ/l

β=δ/l β=δ/l β=δ/l β=δ/l β=δ/l β=δ/l

Dimensionless mm/m Percentage % arc sine 360° arcsecond arcminute

1/100 10.0mm / 1m 1.00% 0.573° 2062.8arcsecond 34.4arcminute

1/150 6.6mm / 1m 0.66% 0.382° 1375.2arcsecond 22.9arcminute

1/200 5.0mm / 1m 0.50% 0.286° 1029.6arcsecond 17.2arcminute

1/300 3.3mm / 1m 0.33% 0.191° 687.6arcsecond 11.5arcminute

1/500 2.0mm / 1m 0.20% 0.115° 414.0arcsecond 6.9arcminute

1/1000 1.0mm / 1m 0.10% 0.057° 205.2arcsecond 3.4arcminute

NOTE: It is crucial to understand beforehand the range of tilt & angular distortion that will
possibly cause unacceptable damage to the structure.

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KNOWLEDGE ARTICLE
MC, GC, TL 31/01/2018 V1.0

DEFINITIONS AND (TYPICAL) VALUES FOR TILT AND ANGULAR DISTORTION

Building showing tilt ω, Ciudad de México, June 2017. Tilting around 1/250 or bigger is
noticeable to the naked eye.

NOTE: It is not always easy to understand the difference between tilt and angular
distortion at first glance onsite.

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KNOWLEDGE ARTICLE
MC, GC, TL 31/01/2018 V1.0

DEFINITIONS AND (TYPICAL) VALUES FOR TILT AND ANGULAR DISTORTION

β=δ/l

Maximum angular distortion β over a certain distance l, Ciudad de México, June 2017.

NOTE: Structural angular distortion may come with rigid body tilt or with differential
settlement.

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KNOWLEDGE ARTICLE
MC, GC, TL 31/01/2018 V1.0

ACCURACY: MEMS & ELECTROLYTIC, ATS

Item Considerations Remarks

MEMS Tilt Meter Uniaxial or biaxial options: The digital RS-485 output signal
provides high accuracy with the
MEMS: Micro-Electro- range ±5°, ±10°, ±15°.
advantage of being able to create a
Mechanical Systems, polysilicon
Accuracy: ±0.02mm/m (range ±5°), digital BUS system where all sensors
springs suspend the MEMS
±0.035mm/m (range ±10°), ±0.065mm/ can be linked together, reducing cable
structure above the substrate
m (range ±15°), or ±0.0125%FS quantities.
such that the body of the
sensor -”proof mass”- can move Excellent thermal stability; unit fitted with
in xy. a thermistor.
Designed to be installed in Output: +/- Volt; 4-20mA; RS-485/BUS
either vertical or horizontal
position to measure tilt.

Electrolytic Tilt Meter Uniaxial or biaxial options: The major advantage of the new
electrolytic tilt meter systems is their
Electrolytic: Sensor’s liquid range ±5°, ±10°, ±15°.
long term stability.
includes an electrolyte that
Accuracy: ±0.035mm/m (range ±5°),
conducts electrons between a
±0.09mm/m (range ±10°), ±0.09mm/m
common connection and left
(range ±15°), or ±0.025%FS
and right electrodes.
Vibration resistant.
Designed to be installed in
either vertical or horizontal Unit fitted with a thermistor.
position to measure tilt.
Output: RS-485/BUS

Automatic Total Stations 3D measurements. To achieve higher monitoring

frequencies and accuracies, it is highly
Survey equipment like Accuracy: ±1mm, or lower than.
recommendable for ATS systems to be
monitoring total stations is
Reading frequency: around 20 minutes complemented with MEMS or
often used to monitor
per full set of prisms –control and electrolytic tilt meters.
movements from mini prisms
on structures. reference-. ATS systems imply higher purchasing,
installation and maintenance costs.

NOTE: Accuracy needed, type of readings output and long-term stability are factors to
consider when choosing tilt measuring equipment.

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KNOWLEDGE ARTICLE
MC, GC, TL 31/01/2018 V1.0

ACCURACY: MEMS & ELECTROLYTIC, ATS

Type of sensor / Affected by temperature Affected by vibration

equipment and weather-related
changes

MEMS tilt meter LOW HIGH

Electrolytic tilt meter HIGH LOW

Automatic Total HIGH HIGH

Stations

NOTE: Structural tilt monitoring equipment and its distribution onsite must be chosen
bearing in mind jobsite conditions and the decision-making data needed.

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KNOWLEDGE ARTICLE
MC, GC, TL 31/01/2018 V1.0

POINT TILT METER vs. LINEAR TILT BEAM

Point tilt meters are used to monitor tilt on structures at individual locations. Linear tilt beams have a
defined gauge (beam) length so that changes in tilt can be simply converted to millimetres of movement.

Using a point tilt meter or a linear tilt beam (uniaxial/biaxial) is a function of:

f: fabric of the structure

f: structural continuity
f: stiffness of the structure
f: expected deformation wavelength
General criteria is detailed in the table below, as specified in the references cited at the end of this

f: fabric of the f: structural f: stiffness of f: expected Point tilt meter Linear tilt beam
structure continuity the structure deformation (length on
wavelength request)

Masonry
- - short - X
Brick
- X
Cast-iron bolted
lining tunnels - X
Mass concrete
X -
Reinforced
concrete X -
Structural steel or
similar + + long X -

With the means available at the jobsite and right after installation is finished, it is highly recommendable
to accurately survey xyz point tilt meters as well as the starting and end points of a tilt beams’ chain. This
will be really useful to calculate and understand deformations.

NOTE: Anchoring point tilt meters and linear tilt beams in joints and/or mortar should be
avoided by all means.

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KNOWLEDGE ARTICLE
MC, GC, TL 31/01/2018 V1.0

CALCULATION

Item Considerations Remarks

Measurand In the structural and geotechnical Measurements in degrees are used in

industry, usual tilt ranges are ±5°, ±10°, different calculations knowing the
The physical quantity unit
±15° Full Scale FS; other ranges are length of the linear tilt beams or
measured in tilt is degrees
available upon request. assuming a certain wavelength for the
(360°).
deformation when using tilt meters,
degrees 360° can be easily converted
into mm/m.

Sign convention It is common practice to install tilt Not understanding the directions of
sensors so A+ points towards the movement may lead to tremendous
Sign convention must be
expected direction of maximum errors in the interpretation of
agreed before installation of
movement, both for the uniaxial and the deformation as well as in the
any type of tilt meters.
biaxial options. implementation of any remedial
measures.

NOTE: Sine of the angle is common practice in the structural and geotechnical industry to
calculate movement; tangent of the angle may be used too for angles ranging 0° ↔ ±15°.

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KNOWLEDGE ARTICLE
MC, GC, TL 31/01/2018 V1.0

PICTURES

Point tilt meters monitoring a reinforced concrete structure –dam-.

Prism

ATS

Point tilt meter

Prism

Point tilt meters and prisms -ATS– monitoring a building neighboring excavation works.

NOTE: It is crucial to foresee convenient onsite conditions before installing tilt meters.

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KNOWLEDGE ARTICLE
MC, GC, TL 31/01/2018 V1.0

PICTURES

Linear tilt beams

Linear tilt beams monitoring vertical –higher- and horizontal –lower- movement in a brick wall.

NOTE: Clean and tidy installations favour reliable readings.

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KNOWLEDGE ARTICLE
MC, GC, TL 31/01/2018 V1.0

PICTURES

Chained linear tilt beams

Chained linear tilt beams monitoring horizontal movement in a cast-iron bolted lining tunnel.

NOTE: Using tilt beam chains requires accurate surveying of both end points.

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KNOWLEDGE ARTICLE
MC, GC, TL 31/01/2018 V1.0

SUMMARY

A good understanding of the behaviour of the structure is

TYPE OF STRUCTURE Rigid body / structure
needed.

Options to monitor tilt & angular Careful planning and design for instrumentation design
distortion and monitoring.

Rotation ω ↔ ratio of differential settlement δ and dis-

CONCEPT Tilting ω ↔ Angular distortion β
tance l between two points

MESURAND Basic engineering unit Degrees (360°)

Anticipated range of tilt & angular distortion affecting the

VALUES (TYPICAL) Expected values
structure.

Readings possibly affected by onsite MEMS tilt meter ↔ Electrolytic tilt meter.
TYPE OF TILT SENSOR
conditions Weather related changes and vibration.
Point tilt meter @ individual location.
TYPE OF INSTALLATION Fabric and structure
Linear tilt meter @ beam length.

A+ ↔ A- Main foreseen direction of movement.

CALCULATION
Range 0° ↔ ±15° sin α –common practice in the industry-.

NOTE: Positive installations need planning and good care onsite.

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KNOWLEDGE ARTICLE
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REFERENCES

Boone, S. J. (2001). Assessing construction and settlement-induced building damage: a return to

fundamental principles. Proceedings, Underground Construction, Institution of Mining and Metallurgy,
London, pages 559—570.

Burland, J. B., Broms, B. B. and De Mello, V. F. B. (1978). Behaviour of foundations and structures.
Building Research Establishment, London.

Burland, J. B. and Wroth, C. P. (1974). Settlement of Buildings and Associated Damage. British
Geotechnical Society’s Conference on the Settlement of Structures, Cambridge, April 1974.

Frank, R. (2011). Geotechnical aspects of building design (EN 1997). Eurocode 2, Background and
Applications, Brussels.

Mair, R. J., Taylor, R.N. and Burland, J. B. (1996). Prediction of ground movements and assessment of risk
of building damage due to bored tunnelling. Geotechnical Aspects of Underground Construction in Soft
Ground, Mair & Taylor (eds.), Rotterdam.

Skempton A W and MacDonald D H (1956). The allowable Settlements of Buildings. Structural and
Building Division Meeting, Structural Paper No. 50, London.

NOTE: Since late 1950s’ many professionals and academics have been trying to derive
direct relationships between tilt & angular distortion and the risk of damage to buildings.

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