Seismic Reflection and Refraction Methods

A. K. Chaubey
National Institute of Oceanography, Dona Paula, Goa-403 004.
chaubey@nio.org

Introduction and radar systems. Whereas, in seismic refraction

Seismic reflection and refraction is the principal method, principal portion of the wave-path is along the
seismic method by which the petroleum industry explores interface between the two layers and hence
hydrocarbon-trapping structures in sedimentary basins. approximately horizontal. The travel times of the
Its extension to deep crustal studies began in the 1960s, refracted wave paths are then interpreted in terms of the
and since the late 1970s these methods have become depths to subsurface interfaces and the speeds at which
the principal techniques for detailed studies of the deep wave travels through the subsurface within each layer.
crust. These methods are by far the most important For both types of paths the travel time depends upon the
geophysical methods and the predominance of these physical property, called elastic parameters, of the
methods over other geophysical methods is due to layered Earth and the attitudes of the beds. The
various factors such as the higher accuracy, higher objective of the seismic exploration is to deduce
resolution and greater penetration. Further, the information about such beds especially about their
importance of the seismic methods lies in the fact that attitudes from the observed arrival times and from
the data, if properly handled, yield an almost unique and variations in amplitude, frequency and wave form.
unambiguous interpretation. These methods utilize the
principle of elastic waves travelling with different Both the seismic techniques have specific
velocities in different layer formations of the Earth. An advantages and disadvantages when compared to each
energy source produces seismic waves that are directed other and when compared to other geophysical
into the ground. These waves pass through the earth techniques. For these reasons, different industries apply
and are reflected / refracted at every boundary between these techniques to differing degrees. For example, the
rocks of different types. The response to this reflection / oil and gas industries use the seismic reflection
refraction sequences is received by instruments placed technique almost to the exclusion of other geophysical
on or near the surface. Onshore seismic data is recorded techniques. The environmental and engineering
using a simple (normally electro-magnetic) device known communities use seismic techniques less frequently than
as a geophone, whereas hydrophones are used in other geophysical techniques. When seismic methods
marine recording which normally uses a piezo-electric are used in these communities, they tend to emphasize
device to record the incoming energy. Thus, the data set the refraction methods over the reflection methods.
derived from seismic methods consists of a series of
travel-times versus distances. The knowledge of travel Advantages and disadvantages of seismic
times to the various receivers and the velocity of waves methods
in various media enable us to reconstruct the paths of Seismic methods have several distinct advantages
seismic waves. Structural information is derived as well as disadvantages compared to other geophysical
principally from paths that fall into two main categories, methods (Table 1). The seismic methods are more
viz., reflected paths and refracted paths. These paths expensive to undertake than other geophysical methods.
can be obtained using seismic reflection and refraction It can produce remarkable images of the subsurface, but
methods. In seismic reflection method the waves travel this comes at a relatively high economic cost. Thus,
downward initially and are reflected at some point back when selecting the appropriate geophysical survey, one
to the surface, the overall path being essentially vertical. must determine whether increased resolution of the
In this sense, reflection method is a very sophisticated survey is justified in terms of the cost of conducting and
version of the echosounding used in submarines, ships, interpreting observations from the survey.

Table 1. Advantage and disadvantage of seismic methods.

Seismic Methods
Advantage Disadvantage
Can detect both lateral and depth variations in a physically Amount of data collected in a survey can rapidly
relevant parameter: seismic velocity. become overwhelming.
Data is expensive to acquire and the logistics of
Can produce detailed images of structural features present in
data acquisition are more intense than other
the subsurface.
geophysical methods.

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 Data reduction and processing can be time
Can be used to delineate stratigraphic and, in some instances,
consuming, require sophisticated computer
depositional features.
hardware, and demand considerable expertise.
Response to seismic wave propagation is dependent on rock
Equipment for the acquisition of seismic
density and a variety of physical (elastic) constants. Thus, any
observations is, in general, more expensive than
mechanism for changing these constants (porosity changes,
equipment required for the other geophysical
permeability changes, compaction, etc.) can, in principle, be
surveys.
delineated via the seismic methods.
Direct detection of common contaminants present
Direct detection of hydrocarbons, in some instances, is
at levels commonly seen in hazardous waste
possible.
spills is not possible.

Elastic waves through the medium slower than P-waves. In S-waves,

If the stress applied to an elastic medium is particles constituting the medium are displaced at right
released suddenly, the energy imparted into the Earth by angles to the direction of wave propagation. The velocity
the source is transmitted in the form of elastic waves. A of these waves (VS) is given by:
wave is defined as a disturbance that propagates
through, or on the surface of, a medium. Elastic waves VS = √ (µ/ρ)
satisfy this condition and also propagate through the
medium without causing permanent deformation of any S-Waves are used for some forms of seismic
point in the medium. Waves that propagate through the exploration but they do not propagate through fluids.
Earth as elastic waves are referred to as seismic waves. Therefore, it is not recorded (directly) in conventional
There are two broad categories of seismic waves: body marine acquisition. It is evident that VS < VP. S-wave is
waves and surface waves. also known as shear wave, transverse wave, rotational
wave, distortional wave and tangential wave.
Body waves - Body waves are elastic waves that
propagate through the Earth's interior. In reflection and Surface waves
refraction prospecting, body waves are the source of Surface waves are the waves that propagate along
information used to image the Earth's interior. Seismic the Earth's surface. Their amplitude at the surface of the
body waves can be further subdivided into two classes of Earth can be very large and decay with distance more
waves: Longitudinal or P-waves and Transverse or S- slowly compared to body waves. Surface waves
waves. propagate at speeds that are slower than S-waves and
are less efficiently generated by buried sources. Like
Longitudinal or P-waves - P-waves are also called body waves, there are two classes of surface waves,
primary waves, because they propagate through the Love-waves and Rayleigh-waves that are distinguished
medium faster than the other wave types. Most by the type of particle motion they impose on the
exploration seismic surveys use P-waves as their medium. Surface waves are confined to the vicinity of
primary source of information. In P-wave, particles one of the surfaces, which bound the medium. In
constituting the medium are displaced in the same Rayleigh waves, the particles describe ellipses in the
direction as the direction of the wave propagation. Thus vertical plane that contain the direction of propagation. At
P-wave pushes the particles of material ahead of it, the surface, the motion of the particle is retrograde with
causing compression and expansion of the material. P respect to that of the waves. The velocity of Rayleigh
waves are analogous to sound waves propagating waves is about (0.9 x Vs). Love waves are observed
through the air. The velocity of P-waves (VP) is given by: when the velocity in the top of the medium is less than
that of the sub-stratum. The particles oscillate
VP = √ {(λ + 2µ)/ρ} transversely to the direction of the wave and in a plane
parallel to the surface. Love waves have velocities
where, ρ is the density of the medium, µ is the intermediate between the S-wave velocity at the surface
measure of resistance to shearing strain often referred to and that in the deeper layers, and exhibit dispersion. The
as the modulus of rigidity or shear modulus and λ is spectrum of the body waves in the Earth generally
the Lame’s constant. P-waves are also known as extends from about 15 Hz whereas the surface waves
compressional wave, longitudinal wave, push-pull wave, have frequencies lower than 15 Hz. It is worth
pressure wave, dilatational wave, rarefaction wave and mentioning here that for virtually all exploration surveys,
irrotational wave. surface waves are a form of noise that we attempt to
suppress. In all of the remaining discussion about
Transverse or S-waves - S-waves are sometimes seismic waves, we will consider only body waves.
called secondary waves, because they propagate

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Factors affecting the amplitude of seismic
waves Geometry of reflection paths
Many factors affect the amplitude of seismic waves When there is a series of interfaces separating
and some of them are shown in Fig. 1. Many of these do individual formations having different velocities and the
not involve the subsurface of the Earth. In order to make distances between the interfaces are large compared
meaningful interpretation of amplitude variations, the with the seismic wavelengths employed, a separate
effects of irrelevant factors need to be removed. reflection should theoretically be observed from each
interface, although this does not always occur for a
The energy density of the seismic wave decreases number of reasons.
as it travels down in the subsurface. The decrease of
energy density is inversely proportional to the square of The time required for the waves to travel from a
the distance over which the wave has travelled, near surface source to the reflectors and back to
assuming a constant velocity. This phenomenon is called receivers on the surface are used, along with all
as spherical divergence. Because velocity increases with available information to determine the structure of the
depth, ray path curvature causes the energy density to reflecting surface. This process forms the geometrical
fall off even more rapidly. The rate of amplitude change basis for the reduction used with the reflection method.
for multiples and primaries differ because the curvature
depends upon the velocity variations. Reflection from horizontal surface
Let us assume a horizontal reflecting interface at a
depth z below the Earth’s surface. The seismic velocity
above the interface is Vo and that below it is V1 (Fig. 2a).
The path of the reflected wave generated at the shot
point and received by a detector at a distance x (also
known as offset) away from it consists of two segments
which have travelled from the surface to the reflecting
interface and back to the surface. If T is the total time,
the total path length L is related to x and z by the
formula:

L = 2√[z2+(x/2)2] = V0T........................(1)
V02T2 = 4z2+x2
V02T2 / 4z2 - x2 / 4z2 = 1
Fig. 1. Factors which affect amplitude of seismic wave.
Therefore, it is evident from the above equation
Absorption is another factor, which affects that the relation of T to x is hyperbolic for a horizontal
amplitude. The loss of energy in the Earth due to reflector. The equation (1) can also be written as:
absorption is described in various ways viz., i) by a
quantity called ‘Q’ (the amount of energy in a seismic T = (2/V0)√ [z2+(x/2)2 ]
wavelet compared to the amount of energy dissipated in T2 = 4/V02 (Ζ2+x2 /4)
one cycle); ii) by an absorption coefficient, which is an Z2 =T2 V02 /4 – x2 /4
exponential decay factor, and iii) by logarithmic z = [√{(V0T)2 - x2}]/2
decrement, a measure of the change of amplitude
between two successive cycles. The loss of energy by Fig. 2b shows the relation between travel time and
absorption increases with frequency. horizontal distance for a reflected ray. It can be shown
that the curve is actually a symmetrical one, as it holds
The shape of a reflector affects the energy density. for negative and positive value of x. The portion
The curvature of the reflector acts to focus or defocus corresponding to the negative values is not shown in the
the energy. Velocity situations such as a gas cap can figure. The axis of symmetry of hyperbola representing
have similar effects, acting as a lens to distort reflections the relationship is the line x=0.
from underneath them.
Seismic reflection Method After squaring, equation (1) can be written as :
The seismic reflection method is one of the best
geophysical methods because it produces the best T2 = x2/V02 + 4z2/V02
images of the subsurface. These data resolve mappable
features such as faults, folds and lithologic boundaries The plot of T2 against x2 is a straight line, which
measured in the 10's of meters, and image them laterally has a slope of 1/Vo2 and an intercept of 4z2/V02. The Fig.
for 100's of kilometers and to depths of 50 km or more. 2b (inset) shows the linearity between T2 and x2. The
velocity V0 can readily be determined from the slope of

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the line thus obtained. Similarly the equation for travel Earth’s surface will be the first event to arrive up to the
time for the reflection from a bed (Fig. 3b), dipping at an distance xcross, which is shown in Fig. 3a.
angle φ can be derived.

Fig. 3. (a) Time-distance relation for reflected, (b) Ray-path

trajectries and refracted and direct waves. time-distance
relation for dipping bed.

Geometry of refraction paths

Mechanism for transmission of refracted waves
Refraction ray paths are not always as easy to
predict as reflection paths. In a layered Earth, rays
refracted along the top of high speed layers travel down
from the source along slant paths, approach them at the
critical angle, and return to the surface along a critical
angle path rather than along some other path such as
the normal incidence.

Let us consider a hypothetical subsurface

Fig. 2. (a) Reflected wave from single interface. V0 is the consisting of two media, each with uniform elastic
constant velocity of P-wave in a media between source and properties and the upper horizon separated from the
reflecting surface. lower one by a horizontal interface at depth z (Fig. 4).
(b) Travel-time curve for P-wave, reflected from a horizontal Longitudinal velocity of seismic waves in the upper layer
surface at depth Z. Inset graph shows linear relation between is V0 and the lower layer is V1 with V1>V0. A seismic
T2 and X2. wave is generated at point S on the surface and the
energy travels out from it in the hemispherical wave
As the inclination of the down going ray decreases fronts.
(the angle with the vertical increases), the down
travelling ray eventually approaches the boundary at the
critical angle, sin -1(V0/V1). At angles smaller than the
critical, a large proportion of the energy in the wave is
transmitted (refracted) downward into the layer below the
interface. At critical-angle incidence, the refracted wave
travels horizontally along the boundary at a speed of the
underlying medium. At any greater angle of incidence,
there is total reflection, and the wave does not penetrate
into the lower material at all. Reflection continues to take
place at angles greater than the critical angle, but it is Fig. 4 Mechanism for transmission of refracted waves in two-
evident from Fig. 3a that the ray refracted horizontally layered Earth.
along the interface is returned to the surface at the
critical angle, will reach a distant point on the surface A receiving instrument is located at point D at a
before the reflected wave reaches the same point. The distance x from S. If x is small, the first wave to arrive at
direct waves that have taken a horizontal path along the D will be the one that travels horizontally at a speed Vo.

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At greater distance, the wave that took an indirect path, reaching it and leaving it at the critical angle ic, takes a
travelling down to, along and up from V1 layer arrive first path consisting of three legs, AB, BC and CD. To
because the time gained in travel through the higher determine the time in terms of horizontal distance
speed material makes up for the longer path. traveled, the following relations are considered:
sin ic = V0/V1
When the spherical wave fronts from S strike the cos ic = √ (1-V02/V12)
interface where the velocity changes, the energy will be tan ic = sin ic/cos ic
reflected into the lower medium according to Snell’s law. = Vo/√(V12-Vo2)
The processes are demonstrated in Fig. 4 for the time The total time (T) along the refraction path ABCD is
corresponding to the wave front 7. At point A on wave given as :
front 7, the tangent to the sphere in the lower medium T = TAB+TBC+TCD
becomes perpendicular to the boundary. The ray passing The above equation can also be written as :
through this point now begins to travel along the T = [z / (V0 cos ic)] + [(x - 2z tan ic) / V1] + [z / (V0 cos ic)]
boundary with the speed of the lower medium. = (2z / V0 cos ic) - (2z sin ic / V1 cos ic) + (x / V1)

Thus, by definition, the ray SA strikes the interface This can be transformed as :
at the critical angle. To the right of A, the wave fronts T = [2z / (V0 cos ic) (1 - sin2ic)] +[x/V1]
below the boundary travel faster than those above. = [x / V1 ] + [2z cos ic / V0]
= [x / V1] + [2z √(1 - (V0/V1)2) / V0]
The material on the upper side of the interface is Therefore,
subjected to oscillating stress from below which, as the T = [x / V1]+[2z √(V12 - V02) / V0V1]
wave travels, generates new disturbances along the
boundary. These disturbances themselves spread out On a plot of T vs x, the equation of straight line
spherically in the medium with a speed of V0. The wave which has a slope of 1/V1 and intercepts the T axis (x =
originating at point B in the lower medium will travel a 0) at a time (Ti) is given :
distance BC during the time in which the one spreading Ti = 2z √ [(V12 - V02) / V0V1 ]...............................(2)
out in the upper medium will attain a radius of BE. The where Ti is known as the intercept time.
resultant wave front above the interface will follow the
line CE, which makes the angle ic with the boundary. It
can be seen from Fig. 4 that:
sin ic = BE / BC
= V0t/V1t
= V0/V1

The angle which the wave-front makes with the

horizontal is the same as that which the ray
perpendicular to it makes with the vertical, so that the ray
will return to the surface at the critical angle [sin-1(V0/V1)]
with a line perpendicular to the interface.

The simplest and most useful way to represent

refraction data is to plot the first-arrival time T vs the
shot-detector distance x similar to that of reflection data.
In case of the sub-surface consisting of discrete
homogeneous layers, as in Fig. 5a, this type of plot
consists of linear segments.

Time distance relation for refraction paths

Two layer case - Let us determine the time-
distance relations for the case (Fig. 5a) of two media with
respective speeds of V0 and V1, separated by a
horizontal discontinuity at depth z.

The direct wave travels from shot to detector near

the Earth’s surface at a speed of V0, so that T = x/V0.
This is represented on the plot of T versus x as a straight
line, which passes through the origin and has a slope of Fig. 5. (a) Travel-time curve for refracted wave for a layer
1/V0. The wave refracted along the interface at depth z,

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separated from its substratum horizontal interface. Xcrit is the increases with the depth. The slope of each segment is
critical distance and Xcross is the crossover distance. simply the reciprocal of the speed in the layer if the wave
(b) Refracted ray paths for two layers separated by two has travelled horizontally along the same. The intercept
horizontal interfaces. time of each segment depends on the depth of the
(c) Ray paths, time-distance curve and critical distances for interface at the bottom of the corresponding wave path
multilayered horizontal interfaces. Xc1, Xc2 etc. are crossover as well as on the depths of all those interfaces that lie
distances for successively dipping interfaces. above it in the section.

Crossover distance - At a distance xcross (Fig. 5a), Low speed layer

the two linear segments cross. At a distance less than To calculate depths for additional layers using the
this, the direct wave travelling along the top of the V0 refraction technique discussed above, it is essential that
layer reaches the detector first. At greater distances, the deeper layers have successively higher speed. If any
wave refracted by the interface arrives before the direct bed in the sequence has a lower speed than the one
wave. For this reason, xcross is called the crossover above it, it will not be detectable by refraction shooting at
distance. all. This is because the ray entering into such a bed from
the top layer is always deflected in the downward
Depth calculation - The depth (z) to the interface direction, as shown for the interface between V0 and V1
can be calculated from the intercept time by using the layers in Fig. 6a and thus can never travel horizontally
equation (2) or from the crossover distance. This through the layer. Consequently, there will be no
equation can be solved for z to obtain segment of inverse slope V1 on the time-distance curve.
z = (Ti / 2) V0V1 / √ (V12 - V02), The presence of such an undetected low speed layer will
where Ti can be determined graphically (Fig. result in the computation of erroneous depths to all
5a) or numerically from the relation interfaces below it if only observed segments are used in
Ti = T - x / V1. the calculations.

Three layer case - For three formations with velocities

V0, V1 and V2 (V2 >V1>Vo), the treatment is similar but
somewhat complicated. Fig. 5b shows the wave paths.
The ray corresponding to the least travel time makes an
angle i1 = sin-1(Vo/V2) with the vertical in the upper most
layer and the angle i2 = sin-1 (V1/V2) with the vertical in
the second layer and i2 being the critical angle for the
lower interface. The time along each of the two slant
paths AB and EF through the uppermost layer can be
calculated as described above. Similarly, the time along
each of the legs BC and DE crossing the middle layer
can be calculated. The time for the segment of path CD
at the top of the V2 layer is CD/V2. The expression for the
total travel time from A to F can be given by
T = TAB + TBC + TCD +TDE + TEF

The intercept time (Ti) and depth to the horizon (d)

can be determined by solving the above.

Multi-layer case - The time-depth relations derived

for the two layer case can be readily extrapolated to
apply to a large number of layers as long as the speed in
each layer is higher than the one above it. This is
illustrated by Fig. 5c which shows ray-paths and time-
distance plots for six layer case, the lower most
designated for generality as the nth layer. Each segment
on the plot represents first arrival from the top of one of
these sub-surface layers, the horizontal ray-paths Fig. 6. (a) Ray paths and time-distance curve where low
corresponding to the respective segments being speed layer V1 lies below higher speed layer Vo. V3 > V2 > V1.
designated by the letters b to f. Deeper the layer, the (b) The blind zone in refraction shooting. It is not possible to
greater is the shot-detector distance at which arrivals observe a first arrival from the top of V2 layer because arrivals
from the former become the first to be observed. In from either V3 or V1 are earlier to all receiving distances.
other words, the crossover distance for each layer

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Blind zone First Full Fold CDP = [First CDP + (No. of Channel -
A similar kind of error may occur if the thickness of CDP per Shot)]
the layer with a speed intermediate between that of the
layer overlying and the one below is small and/or the Last Full Fold CDP = [Last CDP + (No. of Channel - CDP
velocity contrast between this and the layer that per Shot)]
underlies is inadequate. If only first arrivals can be
observed on the records, the refracted waves from the
intermediate layer will not be discernible because they
will always reach the surface at a later time than from
either a shallower or a deeper bed, depending on the
shot-detector distance. Fig. 6b shows the relation of the

time-distance segments from the respective layers when

such zone, called as a blind zone, presents as an
intermediate layer. Therefore, it is important to take such
zones into account for proper accuracy in shallow
refraction investigations, particularly for engineering
purposes. If a test borehole in the survey area reveals a
layer undetectable by refraction, its effect can be taken
into account in calculating depths to high-speed beds.

Multiple fold profiling

The multiple fold profiling also known as common-
depth-point (CDP) technique is extensively used in Fig. 7. (a) Ray paths for reflections from a single point in six
attenuating several kinds of noise. Basically, signals fold profiling.(b) Shot and receiver combinations giving six-fold
associated with a given reflection point but recorded at a multiplicity. Patterns at bottom show reflecting points for
number of different shot and receiver positions are successive spreads.
composited together after removal of normal move out.
Fig. 7a illustrates the recording arrangement when six The recording of offshore seismic data is
signals are composited. Fig. 7b shows the successive complicated by the fact that all of the recording
shot positions for a set of single-end shooting spreads equipment must be encased in an oil-filled cable or
giving six-fold multiple coverage. Reflection takes place streamer (about 10 cm in diameter) that is towed behind
at a point when the shot is at position 1 and the receiver the vessel. The hydrophones are connected together in
at position 21 and continues when the shot is at position groups and may be placed at every meter or so, in a long
2 and receiver at 17. Such a reflection also occurs with streamer. The front-end of the streamer is connected to
shots and the receivers at four other combinations of the vessel by a complex system of floats and elastic
positions shown in Fig. 7b. At the bottom of Fig. 7b, the stretch-sections, which are designed to eliminate any
dots show reflection points which correspond to all noise reaching the streamer from the vessel. The end of
recorded wave paths. It can be seen that there are six the streamer, farthest from the vessel, is connected by
such paths for each subsurface position. Adding the similar stretch-sections to a tail-buoy. This buoy may
proper signals for coincident subsurface reflection contain its own GPS receiver and radar reflector so that
positions as indicated on the diagram and plotting the its position can be established.
output traces thus obtained on a record section is
referred to as STACKING. Following are some useful Although the oil used within the streamer is
thumb rules to calculate different parameters in multiple designed to give the streamer neutral-buoyancy,
fold profiling: changes in tides and currents can affect the depth of the
streamer. Mechanical depth controllers (known as birds)
Max. Fold Coverage = [No. of Channel] / [2 * (Shot are placed at intervals along the streamer which adjust
Interval) / (Group Interval)] the angle of their "wings" to correct for undesirable
changes in depth. Compasses are also used within the
CDP per Shot = [No. of Channel / Max. Fold Coverage] streamer itself to check the angle of the streamer at
several positions along it's length.
First CDP = [No. of Channel + (Near Offset / Group
Interval)] Ocean Bottom Seismometer
The seismometer (or geophone) is a detector that
Last CDP = [Total Shots * (No. of CDPs per Shot) + (First Full is placed in direct contact with the earth to convert very
Fold CDP - 1)] small motions of the earth into electrical signals, which
are recorded digitally. The Ocean Bottom Seismometers

220
(OBS) are normally designed to record the earth motion OBS is bolted to the anchor and then dropped (gently)
under oceans and lakes from air-gun seismic sources. over the side.
The air gun array is towed behind a ship usually at a
distance of about 50-60 m and about 25 m below sea Prior to deployment, the data logger is
surface. The air gun shooting is carried out either at fixed programmed with the number of sensors to record, the
time interval or at a fixed distance interval at a ship’s sample rate for data acquisition, and the start time. At
speed of about 4-5 knots. The seismic waves, generated the designated time, information from the selected
by air gun at the sea, travel at different paths as sensors is recorded on the data logger's which is usually
mentioned earlier. Each OBS then receives several a high capacity hard disk. This information is recorded
seismic waves for each shots arriving at different times. continuously for all selected sensors until either the hard
Each one of these arrivals is called a ray path. By disk is filled or the OBS is recovered and the data
combining the time of the arrival, and the magnitude and collection stopped.
phase of ray paths at many different locations and from
several OBS, a model of the earth's structure can be The OBS is recovered with an acoustic release.
created. The ship is positioned at the deployment location, and an
electronics unit on the ship transmits a pulse at a specific
The sensors used in the OBS consist of one frequency. The OBS, sitting on the ocean bottom,
vertical seismometer, two horizontal seismometers, and detects this pulse and replies with its own pulse at a
one hydrophone (Fig. 8). The seismometers are gimbal- different frequency. The time from the moment that the
mounted to ensure that the sensors are level to operate ship sent the first pulse to the time the ship receives the
efficiently. The horizontal seismometers are mounted 90 return pulse from the OBS is used to determine the
degrees to the vertical and 90 degrees to each other. distance between the ship and the OBS. Once the OBS's
The hydrophone provides information that is similar to location is confirmed, a coded transmitted pulse is sent
the vertical seismometer, and under certain conditions from the surface to initiate the release. The OBS then is
can have a better signal/noise ratio. The horizontal released from its anchor and enables a double pulse
geophones, mounted in the OBS, record S-wave (shear return (to indicate that it has released). Once the OBS is
wave) information. This method of imaging the earth is reached the sea surface, the instrument is retrieved and
called wide-angle seismic reflection and refraction washed with fresh water. The next deployment requires
because the trajectories of the ray paths are generally at downloading the data onto another computer, replacing
wide-angle from the vertical. The OBS typically provide the batteries, testing the system, and programming in
information about the structure of the Earth down to new parameters.
about 30-40 kilometers.

Seismic refraction work carried out at sea is faster

and cheaper than a similar work carried out on land,
because a non-explosion source can be towed behind
the ship and fired repetitively while the ship is moving.
On land, holes have to be drilled and explosives lowered
into them. Land refraction work consists, therefore, of
few shots and many seismometers, which require many
people and large amount of time to install and move
around. Marine work uses fewer OBS and many more Fig. 8. Ocean Bottom Seisomometer.
shots.
Suggested Reading
The OBS normally consists of an aluminum sphere
which contains sensors, electronics, enough alkaline Cordier J.P. (1985). Velocities in Reflection Seismology.
batteries to last few days on the ocean bottom, and an D.Reidel Publishing Company, Holland, 197 pp.
acoustic release. The two sphere halves are put together
with an O-ring and a metal clamp to hold the halves Dobrin, M.B. (1984). Introduction to geophysical prospecting.
together. A slight vacuum is placed on the sphere to McGraw-Hill Book Co., Tokyo, 630 pp.
better ensure a seal. The sphere by itself float, therefore
an anchor is needed to sink the instrument to the bottom. Fowler C.M.R. (2001). The Solid Earth-An Introduction to
The anchor can be a flat metal plate or cemented slab. Global Geophysics. Cambridge university press, London,
The instrument is designed in such a way that it can be 472 pp.
deployed and recovered easily. All that is needed (for
deployment and recovery) is enough deck space to hold Hill, M.M. (1963). The Sea. Vol. 3, Interscience Publishers, New
the instruments and their anchors and a boom capable of York, 963 pp.
lifting an OBS off the deck and lower it into the sea. The

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