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Psychoanalysis: Freud's Revolutionary

Approach to Human Personality
Kristen M. Beystehner
Northwestern University

This paper focuses on Freud's revolutionary theory of psychoanalysis and

whether psychoanalysis should be considered a "great" idea in
personality. The fundamental principles of the theory are developed and
explained. In addition, the views of experts are reviewed, and many of
the criticisms and strengths of various aspects of Freud's theory are
examined and explained. Upon consideration, the author considers
psychoanalysis to be a valuable theory despite its weaknesses because it
is comprehensive, serendipitous, innovative, and has withstood the test of
time. Consequently, the author contends that psychoanalysis is indeed a
"great" idea in personality.

As a therapy, psychoanalysis is based on the concept that individuals are unaware of

the many factors that cause their behavior and emotions. These unconscious factors
have the potential to produce unhappiness, which in turn is expressed through a
score of distinguishable symptoms, including disturbing personality traits, difficulty
in relating to others, or disturbances in self-esteem or general disposition (American
Psychoanalytic Association, 1998).

Psychoanalytic treatment is highly individualized and seeks to show how the

unconscious factors affect behavior patterns, relationships, and overall mental
health. Treatment traces the unconscious factors to their origins, shows how they
have evolved and developed over the course of many years, and subsequently helps
individuals to overcome the challenges they face in life (National Psychological
Association for Psychoanalysis, 1998).

In addition to being a therapy, psychoanalysis is a method of understanding mental

functioning and the stages of growth and development. Psychoanalysis is a general
theory of individual human behavior and experience, and it has both contributed to
and been enriched by many other disciplines. Psychoanalysis seeks to explain the
complex relationship between the body and the mind and furthers the
understanding of the role of emotions in medical illness and health. In addition,
psychoanalysis is the basis of many other approaches to therapy. Many insights
revealed by psychoanalytic treatment have formed the basis for other treatment
programs in child psychiatry, family therapy, and general psychiatric practice
(Farrell, 1981, p. 202).
The value and validity of psychoanalysis as a theory and treatment have been
questioned since its inception in the early 1900s. Critics dispute many aspects of
psychoanalysis including whether or not it is indeed a science; the value of the data
upon which Freud, the founder of psychoanalysis, based his theories; and the
method and effectiveness of psychoanalytic treatment. There has been much
criticism as well as praise regarding psychoanalysis over the years, but a hard look
at both the positive and negative feedback of critics of psychoanalysis shows, in my
opinion, that psychoanalysis is indeed a "great idea" in personality that should not
be overlooked.

The Origins of Psychoanalysis

Sigmund Freud was the first psychoanalyst and a true pioneer in the recognition of
the importance of unconscious mental activity. His theories on the inner workings
of the human mind, which seemed so revolutionary at the turn of the century, are
now widely accepted by most schools of psychological thought. In 1896, Freud
coined the term "psychoanalysis," and for the next forty years of his life, he worked
on thoroughly developing its main principles, objectives, techniques, and
methodology.

Freud's many writings detail many of his thoughts on mental life, including the
structural theory of the mind, dream interpretation, the technique of
psychoanalysis, and assorted other topics. Eventually psychoanalysis began to
thrive, and by 1925, it was established around the world as a flourishing movement.
Although for many years Freud had been considered a radical by many in his
profession, he was soon accepted and well-known worldwide as a leading expert in
psychoanalysis (Gay, 1989, p. xii). In 1939, Freud succumbed to cancer after a
lifetime dedicated to psychological thought and the development of his many
theories (Gay, 1989, p. xx).

Although Freud's life had ended, he left behind a legacy unmatched by any other, a
legacy that continues very much to this day. Whereas new ideas have enriched the
field of psychoanalysis and techniques have adapted and expanded over the years,
psychoanalysts today, like Freud, believe that psychoanalysis is the most effective
method of obtaining knowledge of the mind. Through psychoanalysis, patients free
themselves from terrible mental anguish and achieve greater understanding of
themselves and others.

Principles of Freud's Theory of Psychoanalysis

In An Outline of Psychoanalysis, Freud (1949) explains the principal tenets on which
psychoanalytic theory is based. He begins with an explanation of the three forces of
the psychical apparatus--the id, the ego, and the superego. The id has the quality of
being unconscious and contains everything that is inherited, everything that is
present at birth, and the instincts (Freud, 1949, p. 14). The ego has the quality of
being conscious and is responsible for controlling the demands of the id and of the
instincts, becoming aware of stimuli, and serving as a link between the id and the
external world. In addition, the ego responds to stimulation by either adaptation or
flight, regulates activity, and strives to achieve pleasure and avoid unpleasure
(Freud, 1949, p. 14-15). Finally, the superego, whose demands are managed by the id,
is responsible for the limitation of satisfactions and represents the influence of
others, such as parents, teachers, and role models, as well as the impact of racial,
societal, and cultural traditions (Freud, 1949, p. 15).

Freud states that the instincts are the ultimate cause of all behavior. The two basic
instincts are Eros (love) and the destructive or death instinct. The purpose of Eros is
to establish and preserve unity through relationships. On the other hand, the
purpose of the death instinct is to undo connections and unity via destruction
(Freud, 1949, p. 18). The two instincts can either operate against each other through
repulsion or combine with each other through attraction (Freud, 1949, p. 19).

Freud (1949) contends that sexual life begins with manifestations that present
themselves soon after birth (p. 23). The four main phases in sexual development are
the oral phase, the sadistic-anal phase, the phallic phase, and the genital phase, and
each phase is characterized by specific occurrences. During the oral phase, the
individual places emphasis on providing satisfaction for the needs of the mouth,
which emerges as the first erotogenic zone (Freud, 1949, p. 24). During the sadistic-
anal phase, satisfaction is sought through aggression and in the excretory function.
During the phallic phase, the young boy enters the Oedipus phase where he fears his
father and castration while simultaneously fantasizing about sexual relations with
his mother (Freud, 1949, p. 25). The young girl, in contrast, enters the Electra phase,
where she experiences penis envy, which often culminates in her turning away
from sexual life altogether. Following the phallic phase is a period of latency, in
which sexual development comes to a halt (Freud, 1949, p. 23). Finally, in the genital
phase, the sexual function is completely organized and the coordination of sexual
urge towards pleasure is completed. Errors occurring in the development of the
sexual function result in homosexuality and sexual perversions, according to Freud
(1949, p. 27).

Freud (1949) defines the qualities of the psychical process as being either conscious,
preconscious, or unconscious (p. 31). Ideas considered to be conscious are those of
which we are aware, yet they remain conscious only briefly. Preconscious ideas are
defined as those that are capable of becoming conscious. In contrast, unconscious
ideas are defined as those that are not easily accessible but can be inferred,
recognized, and explained through analysis (Freud, 1949, p. 32).

Freud spent many years hypothesizing about the role of dreams and their
interpretation. He defines the states of sleep to be a period of uproar and chaos
during which the unconscious thoughts of the id attempt to force their way into
consciousness (Freud, 1949, p. 38). In order to interpret a dream, which develops
from either the id or the ego, certain assumptions must be made, including the
acknowledgment that what is recalled from a dream is only a facade behind which
the meaning must be inferred. Dreams are undoubtedly caused by conflict and are
characterized by their power to bring up memories that the dreamer has forgotten,
their strong use of symbolism, and their ability to reproduce repressed impressions
of the dreamer's childhood (Freud, 1949, p. 40). In addition, dreams, which are
fulfillments of wishes, according to Freud (1949), are capable of bringing up
impressions that cannot have originated from the dreamer's life (Freud, 1949, p. 45).

The basic objective of psychoanalysis is to remove neuroses and thereby cure

patients by returning the damaged ego to its normal state (Freud, 1949, p. 51).
During analysis, a process that often takes many years, patients tell analysts both
what they feel is important and what they consider to be unimportant. An aspect of
analysis that has both positive and negative repercussions is transference, which
occurs when patients view their analysts as parents, role models, or other figures
from their past. Transference causes patients to become concerned with pleasing
their analysts and, as a result, patients lose their rational aim of getting well (Freud,
1949, p. 52).

The method of psychoanalysis involves several significant steps. First, analysts

gather material with which to work from patients' free associations, results of
transference, dream interpretation, and the patients' slips and parapraxes (Freud,
1949, p. 56). Second, analysts begin to form hypotheses about what happened to the
patients in the past and what is currently happening to them in their daily life. It is
important that analysts relay the conclusions at which they arrive based on their
observations only after the patients have reached the same conclusions on their
own accord. Should analysts reveal their conclusions to patients too soon, resistance
due to repression occurs. Overcoming this resistance requires additional time and
effort by both the analysts and the patients. Once patients accept the conclusions,
they are cured (Freud, 1949, p. 57).

In the final chapters of An Outline of Psychoanalysis, Freud (1949) insists that it is

neither practical nor fair to scientifically define what is normal and abnormal, and
despite his theory's accuracy, "reality will always remain unknowable" (p. 83). He
claims that although his theory is correct to the best of his knowledge, "it is unlikely
that such generalizations can be universally correct" (Freud, 1949, p. 96).

Evaluating the Criticisms of Psychoanalysis

In his "Précis of The Foundations of Psychoanalysis: A Philosophical Critique,"
Grünbaum (1986) asserts that "while psychoanalysis may thus be said to be
scientifically alive, it is currently hardly well" (p. 228). The criticisms of Freud's
theory can be grouped into three general categories. First, critics contend that
Freud's theory is lacking in empirical evidence and relies too heavily on therapeutic
achievements, whereas others assert that even Freud's clinical data are flawed,
inaccurate, and selective at best. Second, the actual method or techniques involved
in psychoanalysis, such as Freud's ideas on the interpretation of dreams and the
role of free association, have been criticized. Finally, some critics assert that
psychoanalysis is simply not a science and many of the principles upon which it is
based are inaccurate.

Criticisms of Freud's Evidence

Grünbaum (1986) believes that the reasoning on which Freud based his entire
psychoanalytic theory was "fundamentally flawed, even if the validity of his clinical
evidence were not in question" but that "the clinical data are themselves suspect;
more often than not, they may be the patient's responses to the suggestions and
expectations of the analyst" (p. 220). Grünbaum (1986) concludes that in order for
psychoanalytic hypotheses to be validated in the future, data must be obtained from
extraclinical studies rather than from data obtained in a clinical setting (p. 228). In
other words, Grünbaum and other critics assert that psychoanalysis lacks in
empirical data (Colby, 1960, p. 54).
Other critics disagree with Grünbaum and insist that although extraclinical studies
must and should be performed, clinical data are a reliable and necessary source of
evidence because the theory of psychoanalysis would be impossible to test
otherwise (Edelson, 1986, p. 232). Shevrin (1986) insists that "Freud's admirable
heuristic hypotheses did not come out of the thin air or simply out of his
imagination" (p.258) as other critics might have the reader believe. Instead, Shevrin
(1986) continues, "extraclinical methods must be drawn upon in addition to the
clinical method because the clinical method is the only way we can be in touch with
certain phenomena" (p. 259). Only with quantification, many critics assert, can
supposedly scientific theories even begin to be evaluated based on their empirical
merits.

Additional critics contend that Freud's clinical data are flawed or invalid. Greenberg
(1986) believes that Freud's case studies do not place enough stress on revealing the
outcome of the treatment and that Freud's aim was more to illustrate his theoretical
points (p. 240). In addition, Freud fully presented only twelve cases, but he
mentioned over one hundred minor cases. Greenberg asserts that many of the
presented cases would not even be considered acceptable examples of
psychoanalysis and, in short, that virtually all of the case studies had basic
shortcomings (p. 240). Finally, Greenberg finds it "both striking and curious" (p. 240)
that Freud chose to illustrate the usefulness of psychoanalysis through the display of
unsuccessful cases. "We were forced to conclude," maintains Greenberg, "that Freud
never presented any data, in statistical or case study form, that demonstrated that
his treatment was of benefit to a significant number of the patients he himself saw"
(p. 241). Many other powerful criticisms about Freud's inaccurate and subsequently
flawed evidence have been published. These critics contend that Freud's evidence is
flawed due to the lack of an experiment, the lack of a control group, and the lack of
observations that went unrecorded (Colby, 1960, p. 54). In addition, critics find fault
with the demographically restricted sample of individuals on which Freud based the
majority of his data and theory (Holt, 1986, p. 242).

Criticisms of Freud's Technique

"Free association" is a method employed in psychoanalysis where the patients speak

about any subject matter whatsoever and the analyst draws conclusions based on
what is said. According to Storr (1986), "Grünbaum forcefully argues that free
association is neither free nor validating evidence for psychoanalytic theory" (p.
260). "For my own part, however," Grünbaum (1986) concludes, "I find it
unwarranted to use free association to validate causal inferences" (p. 224).
Grünbaum (1986) contends that free association is not a valid method of accessing
the patients' repressed memories because there is no way of ensuring that the
analyst is capable of distinguishing between the patients' actual memories and
imagined memories constructed due to the influence of the analyst's leading
questions (p. 226).

Spence (1986) is critical of Grünbaum's argument, although he acknowledges that

we simply do not know the amount of contamination, the spread of

infection within the session, and the extent to which suggested responses
are balanced by unexpected confirmations which support the theory and
take the analyst by surprise. (p. 259)
Spence contends that free associations are not necessarily contaminated and also
makes note of the fact that psychoanalysts "are particularly sensitized (in the course
of their training) to the dangers of suggestion, and schooled in a tradition which
places an emphasis on minimal comment and redundant examples" (p. 259). Spence
concludes that the answer to the important question concerning the validity of free
association will only be realized through close inspection of the transcripts of
meetings between the patient and analyst.

In addition to his criticism of free association, Grünbaum (1986) finds fault with
Freud's theory of dreams. In spite of Freud's view that this theory represented his
greatest insight and success, it has very much failed in the eyes of most of today's
critics.

Finally, many people feel that a major flaw of psychoanalysis is that, according to
Farrell (1981), "it appears to encourage analytic and psychodynamic practitioners to
overlook the place and great importance of ordinary common sense" (p. 216).
Because psychoanalysis deals chiefly with unconscious motives and repressed
emotions, common sense no longer seems to be applicable. Farrell (1981) and other
critics believe that it is increasingly important for analysts to be aware of common
sense and the role that it can, should, and does play in psychoanalysis (p. 216).

Criticisms of the Principles of Psychoanalysis

Storr (1981) insists, "Only a few fundamentalist psychoanalysts of an old-fashioned

kind think that Freud was a scientist or that psychoanalysis was or could be a
scientific enterprise," and that, "...to understand persons cannot be a scientific
enterprise" (p. 260). Although many psychoanalysts themselves would undoubtedly
consider psychoanalysis to be a science, many critics would disagree.

Popper, by far one of psychoanalysis' most well-known critics and a strong critic of
Grünbaum, insists that psychoanalysis cannot be considered a science because it is
not falsifiable. He claims that psychoanalysis' "so-called predictions are not
predictions of overt behavior but of hidden psychological states. This is why they
are so untestable" (Popper, 1986, p. 254). Popper (1986) claims that only when
individuals are not neurotic is it possible to empirically determine if prospective
patients are currently neurotic (p. 254). Popper (1986) asserts that psychoanalysis
has often maintained that every individual is neurotic to some degree due to the fact
that everyone has suffered and repressed a trauma at one point or another in his or
her life (p. 255). However, this concept of ubiquitous repression is impossible to test
because there is no overt behavioral method of doing so (p. 254).

Other critics claim that psychoanalysis cannot be considered a science due to its lack
of predictions. Psychoanalysts, critics maintain, state that certain childhood
experiences, such as abuse or molestation, produce certain outcomes or states of
neurosis. To take this idea one step further, one should be able to predict that if
children experience abuse, for instance, they will become characterized by certain
personality traits. In addition, this concept would theoretically work in reverse. For
instance, if individuals are observed in a particular neurotic state, one should be
able to predict that they had this or that childhood experience. However, neither of
these predictions can be made with any accuracy (Colby, 1960, p. 55).
Additional critics insist that psychoanalysis is not a science because of the lack of
interpretive rules or regulations. Colby (1960) contends that critics of
psychoanalysis have difficulties with the idea that "there are no clear,
intersubjectively shared lines of reasoning between theories and observations" (p.
54). For instance, one psychoanalyst will observe one phenomenon and interpret it
one way, whereas another psychoanalyst will observe the same phenomenon and
interpret it in a completely different way that is contradictory to the first
psychoanalyst's interpretation (Colby, 1960, p. 54). Colby (1960) concludes that if
analysts themselves cannot concur that a certain observation is an example of a
certain theory, then the regulations that govern psychoanalytic interpretation are
undependable (p. 55).

Eysenck (1986) maintains:

I have always taken it for granted that the obvious failure of Freudian
therapy to significantly improve on spontaneous remission or placebo
treatment is the clearest proof we have of the inadequacy of Freudian
theory, closely followed by the success of alternative methods of
treatment, such as behavior therapy. (p. 236)

Whereas critics, such as Popper (1986), insist that Freud's theories cannot be
falsified and therefore are not scientific, Eysenck claims that because Freud's
theories can be falsified, they are scientific. Grünbaum (1986) concurs with Eysenck
that Freud's theory is falsifiable and therefore scientific, but he goes one step
further and claims that Freud's theory of psychoanalysis has been proven wrong
and is simply bad science.

Evaluating the Strengths of Psychoanalysis

In order to evaluate the strengths of Freud's theory of psychoanalysis, one must
consider a few of the qualities that make a theory of personality or behavior "great."
Among the many qualities that people consider to be important are that the theory
addresses its problem, can be applied in practical ways, fits with other theories, and
withstands the test of time. In addition, a good theory, according to many
philosophers of science, is falsifiable, able to be generalized, leads to new theories
and ideas, and is recognized by others in the field. Clearly psychoanalysis meets
many of these criteria.

As noted previously, Freud coined the term "psychoanalysis" in 1856. Even today, as
we are rapidly approaching the twenty-first century, psychoanalysis remains as a
valid option for patients suffering from mental illnesses. The acceptance and
popularity of psychoanalysis is apparent through the existence of numerous
institutes, organizations, and conferences established around the world with
psychoanalysis as their focus. The theory of psychoanalysis was innovative and
revolutionary, and clearly has withstood the test of time.

Perhaps even more noteworthy than the longevity of psychoanalysis is the fact that
it has served as a catalyst to many professionals in the field of psychology and
prompted them to see connections that they otherwise would have missed.
Psychoanalysis enlightened health professionals about many aspects of the human
mind and its inner workings, phenomena that had previously been inexplicable. As
a direct result of psychoanalysis, approaches to psychological treatment now
considered routine or commonplace were developed worldwide (Farrell, 1981, p.
202).

By far one of the greatest strengths of psychoanalysis is that it is a very

comprehensive theory. Psychoanalysis, originally intended as a theory to explain
therapeutic or psychological concepts, explains the nature of human development
and all aspects of mental functioning. However, many experts contend that
psychoanalysis can also be used to describe or explain a vast array of other concepts
outside of the realm of the psychological field. For example, religion, Shakespeare's
character "Hamlet," the nature of companies and their leaders, or an artist's
paintings can all be explained by the principles of psychoanalysis. This
comprehensiveness suggests that the theory of psychoanalysis is, at least to some
extent, pointing in the general direction of the truth (Farrell, 1981, p. 195).

Conclusion
I concur with the many critics who insist upon the invalidity of Freud's evidence
due to the lack of empirical data and the demographically restricted sample of
individuals on which Freud based the majority of his ideas. Like Farrell (1981), I
agree that sometimes it appears as if common sense does not have a place in
psychoanalytic theory and, as a result, I believe irrelevant and false assumptions are
made all too frequently. In addition, parts of Freudian theory are too generalized
and fail to leave adequate room for exceptions to the general rule. Finally, I find it
hard to accept that all mental problems stem from issues concerning aspects of sex,
such as unresolved Oedipal and Electra complexes. I believe that this is a gross
exaggeration and overgeneralization.

Despite the weaknesses of psychoanalysis, I believe that the many strengths of the
theory are extremely significant. Therefore, I maintain that psychoanalysis is a
theory that should not be disregarded. Because psychoanalysis was developed a
century ago and is still considered to be a credible and effective method of treating
mental illnesses, I contend that at least significant parts of the theory are accurate.
Second, I believe that psychoanalysis is a scientific theory due to the fact that it is
falsifiable and has, in fact, been proven false because other methods of treatment
have been proven effective. Third, I believe that psychoanalysis is comprehensive,
can be applied in practical ways, and contains valid arguments. Finally, I believe
that psychoanalysis is a substantial theory of personality because it is directly
responsible for the development of additional psychological theories and
hypotheses that otherwise may have been missed.

Psychoanalysis is widely disputed, but perhaps it is necessary to return to the

founder of psychoanalysis himself. Freud (1949) wrote in his Outline of
Psychoanalysis

the teachings of psychoanalysis are based on an incalculable number of

observations and experiences, and only someone who has repeated those
observations on himself and on others is in a position to arrive at a
judgment of his own upon it. (p. 11)
Although I am hardly an expert on psychoanalysis, I believe that to dismiss the
theory completely would be a tremendous oversight because without it many other
valuable psychological techniques and theories most likely would have remained
undiscovered.

Peer Commentary

Analyzing Psychoanalysis
Sapna Cheryan
Northwestern University

Beystehner's article, "Psychoanalysis: Freud's Revolutionary Approach to Human

Personality," examines Freud and his field of psychoanalysis in order to determine if
the recognition it has received since its inception at the turn of the century has been
deserved. In this article, Beystehner reviews various aspects of psychoanalysis,
history of Freud, main ideas, and criticisms of psychoanalysis. The article concludes
by acknowledging flaws in psychoanalysis, but asserts the value that Freud and his
theories have added to the field of psychology.

Sigmund Freud was the psychologist responsible for forming and forwarding the
first ideas in psychoanalysis. His theories were highly controversial and remain so
to this day. The foundation of psychoanalysis is rooted in the idea that humans have
unconscious longings that must be analyzed in order to understand behavior. Such
unconscious desires are usually sexual and aggressive tendencies. Psychoanalysis is
a method to uncover the source and elements of these impulses. Various methods,
including free association, dream interpretation, and analysis of slips in
conversation are used to identify latent longings.

Beystehner classifies critics into three categories. The first group is critical of Freud
because of his method of data collection or his lack of data. A second group of critics
dislikes techniques that psychoanalysts use to assist their patients. Free association,
according to Grünbaum (1986), is "not a valid method of accessing the patients'
repressed actual memories because there is no way of ensuring that the analyst is
capable of distinguishing between the patients' actual memories and imagined
memories constructed due to the influence of the analyst's leading questions" (p.
226). Finally, Beystehner refers to critics who condemn psychoanalysis as not being
scientific. Because it is impossible to test, lacks predictions, and has no "interpretive
rules," it contradicts many of the fundamental tenets of science.

Beystehner does an excellent job of reviewing the history of psychoanalysis and

summarizing main ideas. Although she identifies some important critics, many
others are left out. Freud has a significant number feminist critics because many of
his theories viewed women's sexuality in a negative light. In addition, Beystehner
discusses Freud's view that homosexuality is an "error occurring in the
development of the sexual function." Such an idea has been criticized with
relatively recent emerging research on homosexuality. Therefore, critiques of Freud
stretch farther than examined in this article. Nonetheless, Beystehner's conclusion
about psychoanalysis is valuable.
First, the aspects that make a theory "great" are underscored. Beystehner shows
how Freud's theories satisfy such aspects, thereby making it one of the greatest
theories about human behavior. Flaws are acknowledged, yet "psychoanalysis is a
theory that should not be disregarded." It has helped develop and refine many new
fields of psychology.

Peer Commentary

Great Ideas, But Great Science?

Nathan Jones
Northwestern University

The paper on psychoanalysis by Beystehner presents an argument that attempts to

establish Freud's revolutionary theory of psychotherapy as a "great" idea in the
study of personality. Despite the great criticism of him by several scientists, the
author believes Freud should not be overlooked. She believes that Freud's theory, by
withstanding the tests of time and by influencing so many other ideas in the field of
personality, cannot be dismissed. In addition, she believes that psychoanalysis is a
scientific method. The arguments are presented in a neat, linear manner that can be
followed easily. First, the author gives origins and histories of psychotherapy, and
then goes on to explain the theories of Freud. She finally documents important
critical and positive viewpoints on the father of psychoanalysis.

The paper is strong in its clear presentation, with a final conclusion that is
supported by the evidence brought forth in the author's argument. However, many
criticisms of Freud are left unresolved. The author does state in her conclusion that
Freud's arguments have their weaknesses, but she believes that an idea can still be
great if it is flawed. The problem is that the strengths of his work are unclear and
are directly refuted by Freud's critics. Perhaps the greatest question left unresolved
is the falsifiablity of Freud. Can we interpret his theories as a true science, or are
they merely speculations at the human mind? The author believes that
psychoanalysis is a scientific method because it is falsifiable, but no concrete proof
of that is presented. The author shows that Freud is important because he
influenced so much thought in the 20th century, and because he addressed issues
previously kept in the dark. However, I believe the author falls short of establishing
psychoanalysis as a science. The criticisms are overwhelming, and the author rarely
takes the time to refute these points.

The criticisms collected regarding psychoanalysis are placed into three categories by
the author, criticisms of Freud's evidence, techniques, and principles. Freud and his
theories are criticized on all levels. Attacks range from his intentions to his
empirical evidence. At one point it is stated: "Greenburg believes that Freud's case
studies do not place enough stress on revealing the outcome of the treatment and
that Freud's aim was to illustrate his theoretical points." And then almost
immediately following: "Critics contend that Freud's evidence is flawed due to the
lack of an experiment, the lack of a control group, and the lack of observations that
went unrecorded (Colby, 1960, p. 54)." Things that are synonymous with modern
scientific theory and method are omitted from Freud's theory. These multiple gaping
holes in Freud's work are presented in quick procession, and are followed by no
discussion. Instead, the reader is left thinking only of all of Freud's flaws. A
mountain of these facts is built up, but it is never knocked down.

Instead of defending Freud against the points of the previous section, the portion of
the paper evaluating the strengths of Freud concentrates on the influence Freud has
had both inside and outside of psychology. The author states that "a good theory,
according to many philosophers of science, is falsifiable, able to be generalized,
leads to new theories and ideas, and is recognized by others in the field. Clearly
psychoanalysis meets many of these criteria." Yet the formerly stated criticisms of
psychoanalysis as a science seem too great to ignore; the author offers no resolution
to these points. More importantly, the author fails to prove the falsifiability of the
theories. The only proof given is that psychoanalysis is falsifiable "because other
methods of treatment have been proven effective." This is a vague statement that,
even if true, in no way provides a strong foundation to such an important and
pivotal argument. Creating falsifiability is vital in establishing psychoanalysis as a
scientific theory. Without a reasonable claim at this, it is difficult to discuss a theory
as a science. Instead of clearly meeting the criteria of a good, scientific theory,
psychoanalysis falls short. Because of this, evaluating psychoanalysis as a scientific
method is unreasonable. This is significant in evaluating Freud's theories as "great."
The only strengths successfully argued are that his psychoanalysis still lingers today
and that it has led to new theories and ideas.

I do not believe that the ideas of Freud should be dismissed completely. Freud's
influence has been great on many. He has permeated into society and is now
commonplace in the public's evaluation of personality. The author of this article
explains how Freud's work acted as a catalyst, opening the eyes of several scientists
to new theories that otherwise would have been missed. Freud's theories can
effectively be applied to the human personality and to the development of the
human mind and sexuality. They can even be applied to works outside of the realm
of psychology. Yet, in this article, the author does not effectively establish
psychoanalysis as a science. The criticisms of Freud (his technique, method, and
principles), and the author's failure to prove falsifiability of psychoanalysis make it
impossible to accept his theories as a science. Freud's revolutionary thinking and his
effect on those who followed clearly establish that his theories have had a "great"
impact in the field of personality. However, the author does not provide significant
evidence to establish Freud's work as a scientific method.

Peer Commentary

Psychoanalysis: A Not-So-Great Idea?

Anna S. Lin
Northwestern University

This paper discusses Freud's theory of psychoanalysis, including an evaluation of

whether or not the theory qualifies as a "great" idea of personality. The author notes
several strong arguments that critics of the theory have made, but also suggests that
the theory is comprehensive enough to remain in consideration. For example,
although Beystehner makes the assertion that Freud's data were not scientific, she
also points out that the theory is not only still in use after an entire century, but it
has influenced many more theories as well.

The author describes the theory of psychoanalysis fairly well. Although slightly
brief, the outline of psychoanalysis given is understandable if the reader has some
knowledge of the topic. Some concepts, such as the latent stage and the Electra
complex, could be further elaborated. Similarly, Freudian slips, or "parapraxes," are
not explained at all. Beystehner also states that there are both positive and negative
aspects of transference, but does not provide adequate descriptions of these.

It seems that the criticisms Beystehner makes against psychoanalysis are much
more powerful than the defending arguments. For instance, the claims that Freud's
data were either "flawed or invalid" indicate that Freud's theory is not scientifically
based, a rather large, influential argument against the theory. The comments against
Freud's technique of free association fuel the debate on whether his work was done
on empirical grounds. Beystehner provides ample support for this criticism, and the
reader begins to question whether or not the theory is really based on adequate
evidence. It is somewhat contradictory that a theory with such a dubious foundation
could remain in existence for so long, let alone serve as the basis for other theories.
Beystehner asserts that psychoanalysis is, in fact, a falsifiable theory, and so it is
appropriately categorized as a scientific theory. However, her paper lacks the
support necessary to convince the reader of this idea. The fact that other types of
treatment have been shown to be effective does not satisfy the reader as acceptable
evidence that the theory is scientific. The concepts behind Freud's psychoanalysis
are nearly impossible to test empirically; how does one go about proving the
existence of an id? It is no wonder that Freud's data were "flawed." Psychoanalysis
can only be based on observations and interpretations, which are not always
standardized, and thus predictions are not always accurate. Beystehner has done
well in bringing these problems to light.

Nevertheless, psychoanalysis is a very comprehensive theory that can be used to

explain many aspects of human psychology. The author evaluates this point as well
as other strengths of the theory, but the reasoning in support of the theory is not
quite up to par with the arguments against it. The main item that confirms the
theory's strength deals with the "longevity of psychoanalysis." The reader is left to
wonder how, with all the criticism against it, the theory has remained intact for so
long. Although psychoanalysis is extremely comprehensive, contains some valid
arguments, and has been utilized in both clinical and research psychology,
empirical support in favor of the theory seems to be lacking.

Beystehner also seems to draw several conclusions without offering clarifying

examples. She states that "irrelevant and false assumptions are made all too
frequently" in the field of psychoanalysis, and specific examples could be included.
Also, she claims that psychoanalysis "can be applied in practical ways," which is a
rather vague description of the theory's usefulness.

In her conclusion, Beystehner uses a quote from Freud, in which Freud implies that
he has based psychoanalysis on his observations of both himself and others.
However, Rand and Torok (1997) have noted that Freud did not completely
understand himself, which would contribute to his flawed data results (p. 221). Once
again, the validity of psychoanalysis comes into question. Perhaps the case for the
theory needs some reconsideration. Undoubtedly, the author has made some very
clear points, and should be commended on her accomplishment of compiling such a
comprehensive evaluation of psychoanalysis. On the other hand, the justifications
for agreeing with the theory fall short of the critique against it, and so the reader
can conclude that psychoanalysis may not be as great of a theory as previously
thought.

Peer Commentary

Freud Alone
Ethan R. Plaut
Northwestern University

Beystehner's essay on psychoanalysis is a good introduction to Freudian theory, and

also addresses the issue of whether it holds water as a science, but stops there,
which is somewhat misleading. There are even a few simple factual statements that
I find questionable, including the statement that the superego's demands are
managed by the id. Nothing can really be "managed" by the id, nor the superego, for
that matter. These two elements counterbalance each other, but only the ego is
capable of "management." The term "Electra phase" is also attributed to Freud,
which is a term with which he personally did not agree. In a paper such as this one
that addresses Freudian theory, rather than psychoanalysis as a whole, it would be
more appropriate to simply note the theoretical gaps in the theory for females.
Freud's famous quote "What do women want?" would be appropriate to note. He
conceded that he was unable to make his theory a balanced one for both sexes, so
why not simply address that in the paper?

Neglecting much of the literature is a much more serious offense. Only Freud's
writings are addressed as far as psychoanalytic theory goes, and all of the
innovations within Freud's framework are ignored. Psychoanalysis has come a long
way since Freud's day, including changes that account for the aforementioned
inability of Freud's theory to address the issues specific to women. Many criticisms
of Freud are briefly noted in the essay, but the only one that is properly addressed is
the question of whether psychoanalysis has a solid scientific basis in theory and
practice--that is, whether it should be considered a "pure science." This question
may be an issue, but I think it is essentially a secondary one. Many modern analysts
would simply concede this point, and go on their merry post-Freudian way. Far
more important issues regarding sexuality, etc., are simply glossed over and left to
rot as loose ends, unaddressed in the paper and, therefore, in the reader's head.
There has been a lot of criticism of psychoanalysis, and it has held up very well
under fire. To address only the question of scientific status, which is one of the few
criticisms that has been conceded by analysts, but is (arguably) a relatively
unimportant criticism, is a horrible mistake in a paper that aims to survey the
literature on psychoanalysis. The paper is relatively good on the points that it
addresses, but for an overview of psychoanalysis, it fails to emphasize the right
points.

Peer Commentary
 Freud's Psychoanalytic Theory Raises Concerns in
Light of Modern Culture
Purva H. Rawal
Northwestern University

Sigmund Freud is arguably the most well known psychologist of the 20th century. As
the founder of psychoanalysis, he has greatly impacted the development of
psychotherapy and treatment methods through the course of the century. His
influence on the field remains strong and his theory continues to generate
controversy. Psychoanalysis remains embroiled in this controversy as many
detractors claim that the theory has its flaws. Its redeeming factor is the legacy it
leaves behind, as it has furthered the therapeutic field in unimaginable ways.
Contrastingly, opponents of the theory point to the lack of empirical evidence and
the heavy reliance on free association techniques as proof of obvious inadequacies.
Psychoanalysis is undoubtedly a "great" idea in psychology as the author clearly
notes; however, the theory's shortcomings are far from few in the light of modern
demands.

One of the greatest inadequacies in Freud's theory that the author does not
investigate further is the inability of the theory to explain behaviors in our modern
culture. In many senses, Freud's theory was only applicable in his own era. The
prevalence of same-sex parents raising children in homosexual homes or the even
more common phenomenon of single-parent households raise questions that
psychoanalysis fails to answer. The psychoanalytic theory is horribly inadequate in
its investigation of female emotional and sexual development. Freud concentrated
on male development, as he was part of a male dominated era; however the lack of
foresight is clear as half the population's development has been insufficiently
accounted for under the guidelines of the theory. Difficulties arise when one
attempts to explain female development and behavior based on psychoanalytic
theory because it is so incomplete in this arena. The demographic scope of
investigation of psychoanalysis is apparent when measured against modern
standards.

The role and interpretation of dreams was one of the cornerstones of Freud's theory.
He used dreams and their subsequent interpretations to bring subconscious conflict
to the forefront. The author succinctly describes the role of dreams in
psychoanalysis; however, more recent evidence refuting Freud's claims is rather
interesting. The proliferation of psychotherapy in the modern day has brought
controversial and unsettling issues under close scrutiny. The ability of therapists to
strongly influence patients' memories has been supported in numerous studies.
Loftus (1993a, 1993b, 1995) has also shown in many studies that memories are often
reconstructed and that the therapist aids in the construction process through such
avenues as dream interpretation and hypnosis. The question of whether dreams are
a reliable source of information has been refuted by most in the field; yet, patients
continue to reconstruct memories with the aid of therapists. The modern scientific
phenomenon has it roots in Freud's original psychoanalytic theory.

Clear mention is made of the fundamental technique of free-association in Freud's

clinical cases. The reliance on free-association and on dream interpretation point to
a greater problem: the lack of empirical evidence. The lack of empirical evidence is
a point to which the strongest opponents of psychoanalysis look in criticism of the
theory. Perhaps the reason many modern psychologists are unable to reconcile the
psychoanalytic theory with modern treatment techniques is due to this apparent
lack of empirical evidence. Modern science looks to empirical evidence for
confirmation of any theory's validity. Freud was clearly unable to provide the
empirical evidence of modern standards; thus, only if we look at the psychoanalytic
theory from the ideas it has spurred rather than at its literal meaning can
psychoanalysis be considered a "great" idea in personality.

Psychoanalysis displays its greatest strength as one views the progress that has been
made in the treatment of the mentally ill. Proponents of psychoanalysis have
contributed to its widespread influence as it has encouraged other fields of research
and investigation. Psychoanalysis fostered interest in human emotional and
psychological development traced back to a young age. The human can be seen from
a much more holistic viewpoint as one looks at the psychoanalytic theory, which
combines the inner workings of the mind and attempts to explain them in the
context of a dynamic social environment.

The author provides an accurate assessment of Freud's psychoanalytic theory as she

points out its two major inadequacies, the demographic restrictions of the subject
population and the lack of empirical evidence, while also salvaging the theory by
concentrating on the legacy it left behind. Although the specifics of the
psychoanalytic theory cannot be supported via empirical evidence and many
aspects of the theory cannot explain modern phenomena, Freud still made a
considerable and lasting contribution to psychology. The controversy surrounding
his theory to this very day is testimony of its greatest strength: its ability to foster
and encourage further investigation and the presentation of new theories. Freud
brought psychology to a new precipice as he delved into the workings of the inner
mind.

Author Response

Evaluating the Criticisms: Psychoanalysis and its

Legacy
Kristen M. Beystehner
Northwestern University

It seems to me that there are several common criticisms of my paper,

"Psychoanalysis: Freud's Revolutionary Approach to Human Personality." First,
several commentators are of the opinion that I failed to fully establish falsifiability
of Freud's psychoanalytic theory. Second, several commentators believe that I did
not adequately describe the most important criticisms of Freudian theory. Third,
several commentators feel that I failed to fully resolve or refute the criticisms of
psychoanalysis that I detailed in my paper. In this response, I will attempt to reply
to these and all of the other valuable criticisms made by the authors of the peer
commentaries on my article.

In her commentary, "Analyzing Psychoanalysis," Cheryan cites two weaknesses of

my paper to be the omission of feminist critics of psychoanalysis and the omission
of recent research concerning homosexuality. As Cheryan writes, "Critiques of Freud
stretch farther than examined in this article." I am in agreement with this point.
Clearly Freud and psychoanalysis have been criticized and attacked from nearly
every angle. In choosing to classify the criticisms of Freud into the three categories
of criticisms of Freud's evidence, Freud's technique, and the basic principles of
psychoanalysis, I was attempting merely to highlight some of the criticisms that
appeared to be significant and mentioned by many authors. Perhaps with a bit more
research, I would have found more criticisms of the type Cheryan mentions, but
because of the vast number of criticisms against Freud and his work, it was
necessary that I select several areas of criticism on which to focus my article.

Like Cheryan, Rawal points out in her article that I failed to investigate
psychoanalysis' inability to explain certain behaviors in our modern world. She too
cites the examples of homosexuality and the overall inadequacy of the theory's
positions on the sexual and emotional development of females. I have to agree with
Rawal and Cheryan that one of the greatest oversights of Freud was his failure to
develop his theory well enough for females. This was due, as Rawal notes in her
commentary, to the time period in which Freud worked, an era that was definitely
male-dominated.

In his commentary, "Freud Alone," Plaut mentions a statement in my paper with

which he finds fault. In my paper, I stated that the superego's demands are managed
by the id. Plaut goes on to explain how "nothing can really be 'managed' by the id,
nor the superego." Upon review of my sources, I have to conclude that I
misinterpreted some information. In short, this statement in my paper is, in fact,
false. To correct this error, I wish to emphasize the fact that the demands of both the
superego and the id are managed by the ego.

Plaut also cites my use of the term "Electra complex," a term with which Freud did
not personally agree. Once again, Plaut is correct here. The term was first used by
Jung, and Freud did, in fact, argue against its introduction in one of his papers. I
must admit that I did realize that Freud did not coin the term "Electra complex," but
I included it in my paper for two reasons. First, the term is used by many critics and
appears to be generally accepted, and second, I felt that the term made
differentiating between the developmental experiences of males and females easier
for the reader to comprehend.

Plaut states in his article that "only Freud's writings are addressed as far as
psychoanalytic theory goes, and all of the innovations within Freud's framework are
ignored." He is correct here, and I agree with him that psychoanalysis has come a
long way since Freud. However, the purpose of my particular paper was not to
provide a current update of those innovations. Instead, I attempted to provide an
overview of Freud's theory, not the theories of his successors. Finally, I evaluated
whether or not I believe Freud's specific theory of psychoanalysis, not the practice
of psychoanalysis in general, is indeed a valuable theory of human personality.

Plaut also asserts that I failed to emphasize the right points. He believes that,
although the question of whether or not psychoanalysis has a solid, scientific
foundation may be an important issue, "it is essentially a secondary one." I disagree.
Many of the foremost critics of psychoanalysis find fault with the theory because
they believe that it is not scientific. Consequently, I believe that the arguments for
and against this argument are indeed extremely important, far more important
than Plaut acknowledges.

Finally, Plaut asserts that many modern analysts would simply concede that
psychoanalysis is a science and "go on their merry post-Freudian way." However, I
find this hard to accept because I have found criticisms stating the exact opposite of
Plaut's remark. As I stated in my paper, Storr (1981) insists, "Only a few
fundamentalist psychoanalysts of an old-fashioned kind think that Freud was a
scientist or that psychoanalysis was or could be a scientific enterprise" (p. 260).
There is quite a difference between "many modern analysts," as Plaut asserts and
"only a few fundamentalist psychoanalysts," according to Storr. This and the
importance of the issue of whether psychoanalysis is indeed a science are definite
sources of disagreement between Plaut's beliefs and my own.

In "Psychoanalysis: A Not-So-Great Idea?" Lin first cites my omission of Freudian

slips as a significant error. Although I did allude to Freudian slips, or "parapraxes"
in the section of my paper detailing the method of psychoanalytic treatment, Lin is
correct in stating that I failed adequately to explain their nature. In regards to this
and other brief descriptions of various topics in my paper of which Lin would like to
see more explanation, I was merely trying to be succinct. I highlighted the basics of
Freud's theory, and I maintain that the primary aspects of his psychoanalytic theory
are explained quite adequately.

Lin also cites my use of one of Freud's quotations in my conclusion and the fact that
recent research has shown that, according to Lin, "Freud did not completely
understand himself, which would contribute to his flawed data results." In regards
to this point, I must admit that I am not familiar with the research Lin cites, and I
can only offer my intent for including this quotation, which was merely to illustrate
Freud's opinion that only individuals schooled in the details of psychoanalytic
theory are in a position whereby they can offer their views of psychoanalysis.

Perhaps more important though is the criticism of both Lin and Jones that I failed to
establish psychoanalysis as a falsifiable theory. However, I believe that falsifiability
is a somewhat straightforward issue. In my opinion, because methods of treatment
other than psychoanalysis have been used successfully in the treatment of mental
illness, psychoanalysis has indeed been falsified. Among the alternative methods
that have been proven effective are behavior and cognitive therapy, not to mention
spontaneous remission or placebo treatment (Eysenck, 1986, p. 236).

Lin also considers the conclusion of my paper to be vague and in need of more
examples. In attempting to be brief, I may have inadvertently neglected a few of the
details that Lin mentions. First, in regards to my statement that "irrelevant and false
assumptions are made all too frequently" in the field of psychoanalysis, I was
referring primarily to the types of generalizations whereby psychoanalysts, for
instance, define the causes of all sorts of mental issues to be due to unresolved
Oedipal and Electra complexes. This type of generalization is, in my opinion,
exaggerated and lacking in common sense. Second, in regards to my statement that
psychoanalysis "can be applied in practical ways," I was referring to its use as a
method of treatment of various mental illnesses, its attempt at explaining the inner
workings of the human mind in the context of the world and the environment, and
its ability to serve as a catalyst for further investigation of other psychological
theories. I apologize for this apparent lack of clarity.
Lin and Jones both believe that the strengths of psychoanalysis that I detailed do
not stack up to the many criticisms of the theory. However, I disagree. The fact that
psychoanalysis has withstood the test of time so well indicates without a doubt that
at least parts of the theory are accurate. In addition, Freud's influence on the field of
psychology remains strong even today. The legacy that Freud left behind is
tremendous, and his theories have furthered the field of psychology in an infinite
number of ways. Although my paper detailed many criticisms of Freud's theory, I
believe that these only serve to further illustrate one of psychoanalysis' greatest
strengths: its controversiality. As a direct result of Freud's theory, additional
psychological theories and hypotheses have been developed that otherwise may
have been missed. This, in my opinion, is by far the greatest achievement of Freud's
psychoanalytic theory and overshadows any and all of its many criticisms.

In his commentary "Great Ideas, But Great Science?" Jones asserts the primary
weaknesses of my article to be many of the same criticisms made by Lin, as I have
noted previously. These include the arguments that the criticisms of psychoanalysis
are left unresolved, that the strengths of psychoanalysis are vague and do not stack
up well against its many criticisms, and that the falsifiability of the theory is not
well-established.

In addition, Jones finds fault with my categorization of the criticisms of Freud and
his theory. He emphasizes that, "Freud and his theories are criticized on all levels.
Attacks range from his intentions to his empirical evidence." I strongly agree with
Jones on this issue. Jones seems to be bothered by the conflicting criticisms and my
lack of discussion regarding each one. However, I believe much of the criticism that
I detailed is somewhat self-explanatory, and in response to Jones' assertion that the
"reader is left thinking only of Freud's flaws," I believe that the strengths of Freud's
theory, including its legacy, serendipitous quality, and controversiality, are indeed
strong enough to overpower the many arguments against it.

Jones, like Lin, maintains that the falisifiability of psychoanalysis is not well-
established though he insists this is in part due to the somewhat vague statement in
my conclusion that "other methods have been proven effective." As I mentioned
previously, behavioral and cognitive therapy have both been successful in the
treatment of mental illnesses. Therefore, I would like to reiterate that
psychoanalysis has definitely been falsified as was noted by Eysenck (1986) and
many other critics. As a result, contrary to the opinion of Jones, psychoanalysis does
meet this aspect of the definition of a scientific theory and should therefore, in my
opinion, be considered scientific.

All of the criticisms from each of the peer commentators are valuable and
interesting. However, I believe that no critic can deny the fact that psychoanalysis is
indeed a "great" idea of human personality. Clearly, psychoanalysis is an important
tool in practice. It provides great insight into the inner workings of the human mind,
provides a deeper understanding as to the fundamental problems that cause mental
illness, and its controversiality has resulted in the investigation and development of
many other psychological theories. In my opinion, these tremendous achievements
of Freud and his theory far outweigh the many criticisms. It is my desire, along with
many other supporters of psychoanalysis, that the theory of psychoanalysis be fully
appreciated for its relevance and profound effects on modern-day psychology as
well as its use in the clinical environment, despite the many criticisms against it.
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